Section 6.

Final Control Element

Process Control and

Instrumentation
Process Control and Instrumentation Final Control Element

Section 6
Final Control Element

6.1 Introduction

In any process control loop, the final control element is the mechanism that changes the value
of the manipulated variable in response to the output signal from the control unit.

The final control element comprises the actuator, with its associated linkage and positioner,
and the final control element proper – valve, pump, transformer, motor, variable speed drive,
etc. Routinely, research studies within the process industry indicate that the final control
element is responsible for 60 to 70% of poor-functioning control systems. The problems lie
not just with the valve itself but also with the valve actuators, I/P converters and positioners.
However, probably the majority of problems can be attributed to oversized valves and
undersized actuators.

The basic purpose of a control valve is to control the flow of a medium in a pipe — either
turning it on or off or varying it continuously. However, a control valve designed primarily to
throttle energy is not necessarily designed for shut-off purposes and these two requirements
often have to be balanced or realised in separate systems.

6.2 Basic theory

A control valve can be simply represented as a restriction in a pipeline that creates a pressure
drop, or head loss, that bears a relationship to the flow rate. Because flow entering the
restriction is equal to the flow exiting the restriction, a reduction in cross sectional flow area
at the restriction must yield an increase in fluid velocity. The velocity increase is accompanied
by a proportional decrease in pressure that results from an energy trade-off where potential
energy is converted to kinetic energy. The point of minimum cross sectional flow area,
maximum velocity and minimum pressure is called the vena contracta.
V1 V2 V1
Fluid flow through a valve orifice is illustrated P1 P2 P3
in Figure 6.1. Assume that a fluid of density ρ
flowing in the pipe of area A1 has a mean
velocity v1 at a line pressure P1. It then flows
through the restriction of area A2 where the
mean velocity increases to v2 and the pressure
falls to P2.

Vena Contracta
Figure 6.1. Velocity and pressure distribution Unrecoverable pressure loss
Pressure
of a fluid flowing through a restriction (e.g. a
valve orifice). ∆P
Velocity

Distance

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Process Control and Instrumentation Final Control Element

This physical phenomenon is based on two well-known equations, the equation of continuity
and Bernoulli’s equation, which give rise to the simplified form:

∆P
Q = k Cd
ρ
where:
Q = flow rate;
k = constant;
Cd = discharge coefficient;
∆P = differential pressure (P1 - P2); and
ρ = density of fluid.

The discharge coefficient Cd is a function of the diameter ratio, the Reynolds number Re, the
design of the restriction, and the friction due to pipe roughness. In valve technology, this
equation has been modified as follows:
∆P
Q = Cv
SG
where:
Q = flow rate;
Cv = valve flow coefficient;
∆P = differential pressure (P1 - P2); and
SG = specific gravity of fluid (water at 60°F =1.0).

The valve flow coefficient, Cv, is an index used to measure the capacity of a control valve.
Cv is determined experimentally, using water as the test fluid, for each style and size of valve
with the valve either fully open or at a given valve opening — usually stated as a percentage
of maximum travel. Numerically, Cv is defined as ”the number of US gallons per minutes of
water at 60°F which will pass through a given flow restriction, with a pressure drop of 1 psi
across the valve.”

Cv is thus an index that allows the liquid capacities of different valves to be compared under a
standard set of conditions. Table 6.1 compares the flow coefficient of a number of different
types of valve at different sizes.

Table 6.1. Comparison of the flow coefficient, Cv, of a number of different types of valve at
different sizes.

Cv (typical at 100% open)

Valve type Valve Size
50 mm 100 mm 200 mm
Globe – cage guided 70 240 850
Globe – stem guided 45 180 N/A
Full ball N/A 500 2200
V-notch ball 175 600 1820
Butterfly – standard 90 520 2820
Butterfly – High performance 90 490 2170

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Process Control and Instrumentation Final Control Element

The metric equivalent of Cv is KV, defined as “the number of cubic metres per hour of water
at 15°C that would pass through a valve with a 100 kPa pressure drop across it”. In
general, despite its imperial background, Cv remains the almost universal standard.

KV is approx 0.87 of Cv .

6.3 Choked flow

The valve equation show previously implies that for a given valve, simply increasing the
pressure differential across the valve can continually increase the flow. In reality this
relationship only holds true for a limited range. This is illustrated in Figure 6.2 that shows a
typical plot of actual flow versus √∆P through a flow restriction. This indicates that flow is
only proportional to √∆P within the sub-critical flow region.

Sub-critical Critical

Figure 6.2. Actual flow versus √∆P

Choked flow
Flow

Cv

∆P
If the differential pressure is further
increased, a point is reached where no further flow increase occurs —despite increasing the
differential pressure. This is termed choked flow (also known as the critical flow) and is the
maximum flow rate possible through that valve. Decreasing the downstream pressure will not
result in an increased flow rate — although the valve can handle the higher pressure drop with
no detrimental effects.

In gases, choked flow occurs when the velocity reaches the speed of sound (Mach 1). For
liquids the speed of sound is extremely high and, practically speaking incompressible fluids
do not choke. In practice, however, as the differential pressure is increased and the velocity
increases, the pressure at the vena contracta decreases. If the vena contracta pressure falls to
below the vapour pressure of the liquid, partial vaporisation occurs and the sonic velocity of
the resultant liquid/vapour mixture falls dramatically. At this point choked flow occurs.

The practical consideration of choked flow is that when calculating the Cv required for a
particular application, only the choked pressure drop can be used in the formulae and not the
actual pressure drop. This results in a larger Cv requirement than would otherwise be the case.
If choked flow is not taken into account it is possible to select a valve that is too small.

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Process Control and Instrumentation Final Control Element

6.4 Pressure recovery

The ability of the control valve to reconvert kinetic energy downstream of the restriction back
into pressure is a characteristic known as pressure recovery.

The amount of pressure recovery varies from valve to valve. Considering two valves with
equal flow, a streamlined valve will dissipate less energy through the restriction and will,
therefore, have more energy downstream for recovery to a higher pressure. Conversely, in a
less streamlined valve larger amounts of energy are dissipated through the restriction and,
therefore, less energy will be available downstream for recovery to a higher pressure. (Figure
6.3).
P1
High recovery
Pressure

P3
Figure 6.3. Streamlined valves
dissipate less energy and Low recovery
therefore have a higher pressure
PVC
recovery than less streamlined
valves.

Distance

Alternatively, streamlined valves produce relatively higher velocities through their restriction
than do less streamlined, restrictive valves. Velocity, being inversely proportional to pressure,
suggests lower pressure at the vena contracta with high recovery streamlined valves (Figure
6.4).

P1

Figure 6.4. Streamlined valves Low recovery

Pressure

P3
have higher velocities at the vena
contracta with subsequent lower
pressures.
PVC

High recovery

Distance

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Process Control and Instrumentation Final Control Element

6.5 Flashing and cavitation

Flashing and cavitation are two related physical phenomena and are the most common causes
of control valve failure. Flashing and cavitation cause structural damage to the valve and
adjacent piping and, in order to reduce or compensate for these undesirable effects it is
important to understand the changes that occur to the medium as it passes through the valve.

Flashing and cavitation only occurs within liquids and takes place whenever the internal
pressure of the liquid falls below the vapour pressure. This is illustrated in Figure 6.5 that
shows a pressure gradient curve through a valve where Pv represents the vapour pressure of
the flowing fluid. As the liquid passes through the restriction, there is a decrease in pressure.
When the pressure at the vena contracta reaches the vapour pressure of the fluid, vapour
bubbles begin to form. In effect, the liquid is said to be boiling. In water at 100°C this occurs
at normal atmospheric pressure of 101kPa. However, at 20 °C the pressure would need to be
reduced to 2.38 kPa before vaporisation occurs.

P1

Figure 6.5. Flashing occurs

Pressure

when the downstream

P3
pressure is at or below the
fluid vapour pressure. Pv Vapour
PVC pressure

Distance

Flashing
If, as shown in Figure 6.5, the outlet pressure (P3) of the valve is at or below the vapour (Pv)
the vapour bubbles remain intact and proceed further downstream. This is known as flashing.
The vaporisation of liquid causes a large increase in volume and therefore higher overall fluid
velocity.

Liquid droplets suspended in a high velocity vapour flow stream impinging on metallic
surfaces can cause physical damage to carbon steel and cast iron. The damage is smooth and
polished, similar to erosion.

The majority of flashing damage occurs at the point of highest velocity — at or near the seat
line of the valve plug or seat ring. The process is two-stepped: a corrosion film forms at the
surface that is subsequently 'swept' away by the high velocity liquid flow. This cycle is then
repeated.

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Process Control and Instrumentation Final Control Element

Cavitation
If, further downstream, the outlet pressure (P3) of the valve recovers to a point above the
vapour pressure of the fluid the vapour bubbles will collapse (Figure 6.6). This two-stage
phenomenon, vapour bubble formation and their subsequent collapse, is known as cavitation.

P1

Figure 6.6. Cavitation is

Pressure
P3
caused by the pressure
dropping to the vapour
pressure of the fluid and Pv Vapour
rising to a higher pressure PVC pressure
further downstream.

Distance
Implosion of the vapour
bubbles releases a substantial amount of energy over a small area producing noise and
physical damage. If the bubbles collapse on or near solid surfaces, material is chipped away
(Figure 6.7). The amount of damage in a short period of time can be extensive and eventually
prevents the control valve from performing its intended function.

Figure 6.7. Cavitation damage occurs when the

bubbles collapse on or near solid surfaces
within the valve or piping and material is
chipped away.

The noise associated with cavitation is a high pitched hissing sound — usually accompanied
by vibration — similar to that of gravel passing through the valve.

Because cavitation damage occurs where the bubbles collapse, the effects will be evident
downstream of the restriction and will show up as very dull, rough, and pitted — sponge-like
in appearance. Corrosion, often mistaken as cavitation, takes on a similar appearance with its
affected area being more generalised or widespread.

The noise levels produced are rarely a problem to the surrounding environment but can be
used as a good indication of the severity of the cavitation.

Should cavitation be allowed to continue, the next manifestation will be a loss of seat
tightness as the damage starts to affect the seating surfaces.

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Process Control and Instrumentation Final Control Element

Further use will cause the normal controlling position to progressively reduce as the valve has
to move towards the closed position to compensate for the wear taking place.

As devastating as cavitation damage is, it is fortunate that its occurrence is associated with
few process fluids. Hydrocarbon mixtures such as gasoline, do not have a fixed vapour
pressure and will 'boil' over a relatively wide temperature range. Gasoline boils from 40°C to
200°C. It is felt that this results in an apparent buffeting effect, protecting the body wall and
other vital valve components.

On the other hand, high surface tension associated with water enhances the damage potential
due to the high related implosion stresses. In addition to collapse in the vicinity of surfaces,
the potential for damage is high when flowing fluid:
• has well defined vapour pressure;
• has high surface tension ; and
• is not a mixture.
In Chapter 1 we looked at the definition of ‘process gain’: the percentage change in the PV as
a result of a given percentage change in the PD.

Another consideration is not by how much the PV changes but how it changes. A step change
of the output will not necessarily result in the same step change in the final control element.
This may be as a result of a number of factors that are usually described under the terms
deadband and hysterisis.

6.6 Valve characterisation

One of the more important parameters of a valve is the relationship between the flow rate and
the position of the controlling element. In a globe valve this might be the relationship between
flow and plug lift position that, in turn, is determined by the plug shape. This relationship is
called the flow characteristic, and defines the relationship between plug position and flow
conditions at that point. Flow is usually plotted as a percentage of maximum flow and the lift
as a percentage of maximum lift.

There are two major forms of flow characteristic: the inherent characteristic and the installed
characteristic.

Inherent characteristics
The inherent flow characteristic is the relationship between flow and plug stroke with a
constant pressure drop across the valve. These characteristic curves, provided by the
manufacturer, will be different from the installed characteristic where, in practice, the
differential pressure across the valve varies throughout the valve position due to system
characteristics. If tests are performed on the installed valve, variations of 10% or more, from
the inherent characteristic, are likely to be experienced

In practice valves are generally supplied with three or four characteristic curves: linear, equal
percentage, quick opening and modified equal percentage (Figure 6.8).

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Process Control and Instrumentation Final Control Element

100
Quick
opening
80
Percentage flow

Linear

60

Figure 6.8. Inherent flow

40 Modified
characteristics.
equal
percentage
20
Equal
percentage

20 40 60 80 100
Percentage stroke

Linear inherent flow characteristic

The first and most common is the linear inherent flow characteristic, which is simply a
straight line relationship between flow and stroke at constant pressure drop.

Equal percentage inherent flow characteristic

In the equal percentage inherent flow characteristic, equal increments of rated travel will give
equal percentage changes of existing flow. Thus, for example, for every 10 % change in
stroke the flow might double, i.e. a change 100 %. Figure 6.8 shows the general shape of the
equal percentage curve. Other types of the equal percentage flow characteristic are available.

It should be noted that at a low stroke of less than 50 %, the flow is low relative to the total
available flow. This would provide good throttling capability due to small loop or gain of
flow relative to stroke and would be a particular advantage when the control valve is
oversized.

Quick opening inherent flow characteristic

The quick opening characteristic produces rapid increases in flow with small stroke
increments. A typical form of the curve is shown in Figure 6.8 which shows that very close
to maximum available flow is achieved at approximately 30 to 40 % of stroke. This form of
characteristic is most often applied in block valves or simple on-off control, where throttling
is not the primary concern.

Characteristic profiling
The inherent flow characteristic depends primarily upon the trim geometry and in globe
valves is usually characterised by contouring the plugs such that the curve defines a change
of flow area as the plug position is altered. This variance of flow area, with stroke, affects the
inherent characteristic. As an example, the easiest way of achieving a quick opening flow
characteristic is to provide a simple disc shaped plug (Figure 6.9). This provides the fastest
change in flow area as a function of stroke.

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Process Control and Instrumentation Final Control Element

Stem

Valve plug
Seat ring
Flow area

Port
diameter

Figure 6.9. Quick opening flow characteristic uses a simple disc shaped plug
(courtesy Fisher Rosemount).

Figure 6.10 shows the plug outlines used to obtain linear and equal percentage flow
characteristics. In this manner, it is possible to change the inherent flow characteristic by
changing the plug.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 6.10 Plug outlines used to obtain (a) equal percentage (b) linear and (c)
quick-opening flow characteristics.

In cage-guided trim, flow characterisation is determined by the shape of windows in the

cylindrical cage (Figure 6.11.)

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 6.11. For cage-guided trim, flow characterisation is determined by the shape
of windows in the cylindrical cage (a) equal percentage (b) linear and (c) quick-
opening flow characteristics.

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Process Control and Instrumentation Final Control Element

Installed characteristic
The inherent flow characteristics supplied by the manufacturer are determined at a constant
pressure drop. However, centrifugal pumps, for example, supply fluid at various flow rates
and pressure drops. Typically, the relationship of pump flow rate to discharge pressure is of
the form shown in Figure 6.12. Here, at increased flow rates there are significant decreases
in pump discharge pressure that would decrease valve upstream pressure. This would provide
an even smaller pressure drop for the valve that would produce an even larger deviation from
the inherent flow characteristic curves.

100
Pump head
Figure 6.12. Relationship of 80
pump flow rate to discharge
pressure. Valve pressure
Pressure

60 drop

40

20 Dynamic loss due

to friction

20 40 60 80 100
Flow rate

This can be easily understood by defining a term called pressure drop ratio:

∆Pvalve
∆PR =
∆Psystem
This ratio helps define how much deviation we would expect from the inherent flow
characteristic. A pressure drop ratio equal to 1,0 indicates that the entire system pressure drop
is being absorbed by the control valve, therefore, indicative of the inherent characteristic.
Pressure drop ratios digressing from 1.0 merely indicate that the control valve is now
absorbing less system pressure drop which in cases may lead to improper control. Typically, a
pressure drop ratio greater than 0,1 and less than 0,35 is a good choice for the equal
percentage inherent flow characteristic. Pressure drop ratios ranging 0.35 to 1.0 are a good
choice for linear. Figures 6.13 and 6.14 show this family of curves, in which it can be noted
that these pressure drop ratios are chosen because the slope of the curve in the installed state
demonstrates satisfactory gain leading to good stable control.

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Process Control and Instrumentation Final Control Element

100

80

04
Percentage flow

0,
=

10
R

0,
∆P

25
=
0,
R

50
∆P
60

0,
R
∆P

00
R

1,
∆P

=
Figure 6.13. Installed linear flow

R
40

∆P
characteristic. ∆P valve
∆PR =
∆P system

20

20 40 60 80 100
Percentage stroke
100
∆P valve
∆PR =
∆P system
80
Percentage flow

04
60
0,

10
=

0,

50 25
R
∆P

0,
R

=
∆P

40
R
∆P

0,

00
=

1,

Figure 6.14. Installed equal

R

=
∆P

R
∆P

percentage flow characteristic. 20

20 40 60 80 100
Percentage stroke

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Process Control and Instrumentation Final Control Element

Cavitation control
One of the most cost-effective solutions used to reduce the pressure drop across a valve is to
create a back pressure on the valve — thus allowing the pressure drop across the valve to be
reduced. By installing a choke, in the form of an orifice plate (Figure 6.15), this will often
move the cavitation from the valve to the choke itself. Although this may cause damage to
the pipework immediately downstream of the choke, this damage is likely to be less costly
than damage to the valve.
UNI
r s

D a 2
mm

Figure 6.15. Orifice plate fitted between adjacent flanges.

Where the flow discharges to an open tank or channel, the choke may be place on the outlet
where there is no downstream pipework to get damaged.

Because the choke is a fixed restriction, it will only be effective at creating a back pressure at
the maximum flow for which it was designed. At lower flow rates, where a higher percentage
of the total pressure drop will be taken across the valve, the recovery factor of the valve will
be better at reducing the chances of cavitation and since the amount of damage that occurs
with cavitation is energy related, the severity of the wear will be lower at lower flow rates.

If the operating point of a globe valve using a choke still falls within the cavitation control
region, use can be made of a special cavitation control seat retainer inside a globe valve. The
cavitation control retainer features a large number of orifices in the wall of the retainer that
are exposed or covered up by the movement of a flat bottomed plug (Figure 6.16). With flow
from the outside of the retainer towards the centre, these orifices form fluid jets that meet in
the middle of the retainer and, since the pressure drop takes place across the orifices, this is
where the bubbles form. The pressure recovers where all the streams come together — away
from most of the components of the valve. The bottom of the plug and the bore of the seat
ring are still vulnerable to damage and these components are hard-faced with stellite to reduce
wear.

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Process Control and Instrumentation Final Control Element

Figure 6.16. Cavitation control seat retainer.

Provided there is sufficient back pressure to collapse the bubbles inside the retainer the valve
body will be protected. If the pressure drop and the flow rate are sufficiently high then neither
of these methods will be effective and rapid wear will result. In these cases it is better to use a
method that eliminates cavitation. To do this it is necessary to dissipate the high potential
energy present in the liquid upstream of the valve directly into heat — without passing
through the intermediate phase of high velocity and low pressure. By maintaining the internal
pressure above the vapour pressure at all points in the valve, the bubbles do not form.

The most effective mechanism for converting pressure energy into heat is wall friction. By
increasing the area over which the flow must pass, the greater the amount of energy that is
converted into heat. The second mechanism is to force the liquid to change direction as many
times as possible.

These mechanisms are incorporated into, for example, the Mitech disk stack design of globe
valve trim (Figure 6.17.).

Figure 6.17. Disk stack design of globe valve

trim (courtesy Mitech).

Typical applications for this type of valve

would be boiler feedwater pump leak-off
applications where the pressure must be
dropped from in the order of 8000 kPa to
atmospheric pressure.

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Process Control and Instrumentation Final Control Element

6.7 Deadband and hysterisis

Deadband is defined as the range through which an input can be varied without initiating an
observable response. In a mechanical system deadband may be, for example, as a result of
mechanical play within a gear-train (Figure 6.18). As the input is increased from point A
there will be no change in output until the `slack' is taken up and point B is reached — the
extent of the deadband.

D C
Output

Deadband Figure 6.18. Deadband as a result of

mechanical play within a gear train.

A B

Input

In a linear system the output will now increase proportionally whilst the input increases.
However, when the input (points C to D) is reversed the output will again not change until the
slack or deadband is taken up.

Imagine now, a gear-train system in which there is no play but in which there is an element of
elasticity within the gears. As shown in Figure 6.19, the system is no longer linear and the
output does not increase proportionally with the input. This non-linearity is because of
energy absorption that appears as heat. This is called the hysteretic error. When the
hysteretic error is summed with deadband (Figure 6.20) it is called hysteresis.

Figure 6.19. An illustration of hysteretic error.

Output

Hysteretic
error

Input

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Process Control and Instrumentation Final Control Element

Figure 6.20. Hysteresis — a combination of

deadband and hysteretic error.
Output

Hysteresis

Input

Hysteretic error normally manifests itself in a mechanical system that is subject to a cyclic
mechanical force or in a magnetic system that is subject to a cyclic magnetising force. In
most pure electronic systems, the hysteretic error can be effectively ignored and thus the
deadband and hysteresis are one and the same.

It should also be noted that in most mechanical-based systems, especially valves, the
hysteretic error is referred to as hysterisis and reference is therefore made to: ‘deadband and
hysteresis’.

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Process Control and Instrumentation Final Control Element

6.8 Testing for deadband/hysteresis

Some of the following information has been gleaned from notes produced by Michael Brown
from Michael Brown Control Engineering CC using the Protuner Loop Tuning software.

In order to determine the amount of hysterisis plus deadband in a control valve, it is necessary
to perform a series of step changes to the input and to observe the changes in the stem
position. The method illustrated here is carried out using a Protuner.

The results are shown in Figure 6.21 and are the result of two steps up, three down and one
up. The first step up overcomes the effects of any hysterisis or deadband to obtain a starting
point for the testing.

Equal input
step changes

Figure 6.21.
Determining the
effects of
hysterisis/deadba
nd as a result of
Valve stem an input change
of two steps up,
position indication % offset in valve three down and
position
one up (courtesy
Michael Brown
Control
Engineering).

The generally acceptable limits are:

¾ Spring and diaphragm 3%
¾ Spring and diaphragm with positioner 1%
¾ Piston with positioner 1%
¾ Variable speed drive 1%

6.9 Stick-slip

‘Stick-slip’ response in a control valve is the result of a difference in the static and sliding
friction in the valve assembly. First, in order to move the valve, the applied force is increased
to a level where the static friction is overcome. This is the ‘stick’ phase. Once the static
frictional forces are overcome, the sliding frictional forces are much smaller than the static
frictional forces and the valve ‘pop’ to a new position. This is the ‘slip’ phase. Stick-slip in
the final control element can result in a continuous limit cycle that can destabilize the process.
The effects of stick-slip, without hysterisis and deadband, are shown in Figure 6.22.

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Process Control and Instrumentation Final Control Element

Ramping
input

Figure 6.22. The

effects of stick-slip –
without hysterisis
and deadband
(courtesy Michael
Brown Control
Engineering).
Slip

Stick

It should be noted that stick-slip is a completely different phenomenon to hysterisis and

deadband.

6.10 Non-linearity

In an ideal control loop there should be a linear relationship between the PD and the PV – in
other words, the process gain should be constant.

Testing for non-linearity is fairly easily accomplished by applying a series of equal-interval

steps to the PD as shown in Figure 6.33. Here, the PV is shown as a series of steps that
gradually become smaller as the PD increases and shows a marked non-linearity that is typical
of an oversized valve.

50.0

Figure 6.33. As
37.5
the PD increases
PV in regular step,
the PV increases
in a series of
25.0 steps that
gradually become
smaller –
showing a
12.5 marked non-
PD
linearity that is
typical of an
0.0 oversized valve.

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Process Control and Instrumentation Final Control Element

Or is it? The assumption here, of course, is that the PV is a linear measurement. In the vast
majority of cases this would undoubtedly be true – but it needn’t necessarily be so.

6.11 Testing a complete assembly

It should be appreciated that in testing a complete final control element, it is not only seal and
packing friction within the valve itself that contributes to deadband and hysterisis. Other
factors include:
¾ Inadequate air supply
¾ Loose or worn linkages in actuator connector
¾ Defective or improper calibration of I/P converter
¾ Loose or worn linkages in positioner
¾ Defective or improper calibration of positioner
¾ Undersized actuator

In order to test a complete pneumatically operated final control assembly, an accurate valve
stem position transmission should be connected to the valve. In addition, pressure transducers
should be connected to the airlines, via quick-disconnect pneumatic fittings, at points 3, 4 and
5 as shown in Figure 6.34. All six measuring points should then be connected to a six channel
analyser/recorder.

140 kPa 2 140 kPa 4

20 -100 kPa
1 3
Positioner

PD I/P 5 Mechanical
converter linkage
4 – 20 mA 20 -100 kPa

Valve stem
4 position
4 - 20 mA transmitter

Figure 6.34. Testing connections for a complete pneumatically operated final control
assembly.

Two series off test should be carried out. The first test should involve several steps in both
directions, with a minimum of two steps up, three down and one up again. The valve should
then be slowly ramped up and down to test for stick-slip.

In evaluating the valve installed dynamic operation, you should look for the following points:

1. Examine the change in the supply pressure during changes in the valve position. If it drops
during position changes, the supply line size should be increased.

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Process Control and Instrumentation Final Control Element

2. Determine both the repeatability and linearity of the I/P converter by recording both its
input and output.
3. Compare the PD signal (input to the I/P converter) with the valve stem position to
determine linearity, repeatability, and the response time constant.
4. Determine if the valve is stroking correctly..

In normal modulating control applications the valve should never be operated either fully
open or at flows of less than 20% of maximum. The evaluations should, therefore, be carried
out within these two limits.

One of the effects of an undersized actuator is shown in Figure 6.35. If the actuator is unable
to cope adequately with the static friction (stiction) then, on reversal, the valve is effectively
stuck. As a result, the valve positioner starts to force excess air pressure into the actuator.
Once it moves and the static friction is overcome, overshoot occurs. This characteristic is
likely to result in continuous cycling.

Equal input
step changes

Valve stem Figure 6.35.

position indication Overshoot indicates Negative hysterisis –
negative hysterisis one of the effects of
an undersized
actuator (courtesy
Michael Brown
Control
Engineering).

6.12 On-line diagnostics

The tests outlined above have been used for many years to perform analyses on final control
elements as a part of routine maintenance. Now, however, using modern Fieldbus
communication systems, together with intelligent Smart positioners, a wide variety of
information can be monitored on a continuous basis to provide a real-time continuous process
and instrument diagnostic system.

At the simpler level both the total valve stem travel (travel accumulation) and the number of
stem travel reversals (cycles) can be monitored in order to determine ‘usage’. Further,
should a problem show up, users can define how the instrument reacts to the problem. For
example if the pressure sensor fails, should the instrument be shut down? Users can also
select which problems will cause the instrument to shut down. Such indicators maybe

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 Process Control and Instrumentation Final Control Element

reported as alerts to give an instant indication of any problem with the instrument valve or
process.
Advanced diagnostics also include signature analysis that allows users to determine the
valve/actuator friction, Bench Set, spring rate, and seat load.

Signature analysis
In the "Valve Signature" plot (Figure 6.36) the Actuator Pressure (Input) is plotted on the y-
axis while the Travel (Output) is plotted along the x-axis. Examination of this plot shows
spikes (change of slope) at each end of the curve, which verifies that a solid stop had been
reached at both ends of travel.

160 Figure 6.36. Plotting

Top stop the "Valve
140
Actuator pressure (kPa)

Slope
Signature" plot with
120 2 x Friction the Actuator
100 Pressure plotted on
Closed

in g
80 ing C lo s the y-axis and the
Open
60 Travel plotted along
40 the x-axis. The
20
separation between
the opening (red)
0 Bottom stop
and closing (blue)
lines is the result of
the friction band
10 0 10 20 30
Travel (mm) (Courtesy Fisher
Control Valves).

Next, the opening (red) and closing (blue) lines should be parallel and linear throughout the
full stroke. The separation of these lines is the result of the friction band – the higher the
friction the wider the separation. Because friction opposes motion, in both directions, the
separation between these lines is actually double the friction (friction opposing the up stroke
plus friction opposing the down stroke).

The primary source of friction on a good valve is the valve packing. Packing materials that
have a high coefficient of friction, such as graphite, will produce a greater amount of friction
and thus a wider bandwidth then the low coefficient materials, such as PTFE. Regardless of
the packing material, the separation (friction band) should remain constant throughout the full
travel.

The slope indicates that the actuator contains an opposing spring. If there were no spring, the
opening and closing lines would be nearly flat (horizontal) and thus the actuator spring and
the effective area of the actuator diaphragm, govern the slope’s angle.

Examining this data allows a full analysis to be performed. For example, by looking at
individual pairings of adjacent upstroke/downstroke data points between 10-90% of the travel
range, it is possible to derive the Minimum, Maximum, and Average Friction values.
The Minimum Friction value should never be less then 25% of the expected friction value
(20% if PTFE packing) whilst the Maximum Value should never exceed 100% of the
expected value.

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 Process Control and Instrumentation Final Control Element

Fairly obviously there should not be a large difference between the Minimum and Maximum
values which is the result of calculating the difference in actuator pressure between the
upstroke and down stroke, times the effective area of the actuator, divided by two.

Figure 6.37 shows that the packing friction is approximately twice that of the previous
example. Typically this might be due to errantly over-tightening the packing – resulting in the
excessive friction. Because the total amount of available actuator force is limited via the
installed spring, the diaphragm area, and the air supply, any additional force required to travel
the valve through any excess friction must come from some area within this limitation. The
only force available is that which was reserved for seat loading and thus, any increase in
friction will diminish seat load.

160 Figure 6.37. The

Top stop
140 packing friction is
Actuator pressure (kPa)

120 Slope approximately twice that

2 x Friction
100 of the previous example.
Closed

80 g Typically this might be

in
ing Clos due to errantly over-
60 Op e n
40
tightening the packing –
resulting in the excessive
20
friction (Courtesy Fisher
0 Bottom stop
Control Valves).

10 0 10 20 30
Travel (mm)

6.13 Electronic torque monitoring

Generally, we have confined ourselves to

diagnostics within a pneumatic system.
However, as indicated in Chapter 5, modern Galled
electrical actuators can monitor both torque and seat
position – allowing data relating to these
parameters to be used to compare the footprint
Torque demand

torque characteristic of a valve during

installation to subsequent torque profiles. Stem requires
lubrication
Packing
As shown in Figure 6.38, the valve position too tight
(travel) is plotted on the x-axis whilst the torque
demand is plotted on the y- axis. The plot
illustrates the opening torque characteristics of
Footprint
a typical wedge gate valve. torque profile

Figure 6.38. Opening torque characteristics

of a typical wedge gate valve in which the
Closed Valve Position Open
valve position (travel) is plotted on the x-axis
and the torque demand is plotted on the y- axis.

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Process Control and Instrumentation Final Control Element

The significant torque requirements for opening or closing a wedge gate valve occur during
the final travel going closed and the initial travel going open. During the remaining portion,
the torque demand is essentially due to packing and thread friction.

As the valve seats, the hydrostatic force on the closure element (the disk), increases the
seating friction, and finally the wedging effect of the disk into seat causes a rapid increase in
torque until seating is affected.

Similarly, when under seating the valve, the disk has to be unwedged and the hydrostatic
force of the differential pressure across the valve has to be overcome as the valve is opened.
Once the valve is cracked open and the differential pressure has dissipated, then the torque
demand drops off significantly. Should, for example, the valve stem packing be over
tightened, then an immediate increase in torque profile would be recorded. Should lubrication
on the thread to deteriorate over time then there would be an incremental increase in overall
torque. Alternatively, should the valve seat become galled or deteriorate, then there would be
an increase in the unseating torque required.

© Mick Crabtree 2007 Page 6.23