Republic of the Philippines

Laguna State Polytechnic University

Province of Laguna

COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

GRADUATE STUDIES AND APPLIED RESEARCH

ILO: 2 The learner

(GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT)

Submitted by:

DIANA LEN C. BLEZA

Jenelyn P. Urriza
Lea P. Monteron

MAED-ENGLISH

Submitted to:

DR. MARILYN P. PIELAGO

Professor

(PSYCHOLOGICAL AND SOCIOLOGICAL FOUNDATION

OF EDUCATION)
 GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Stages of growth and development

● Prenatal – before birth
● Infancy – 0 to 1 year old
● Childhood – 1 to 12 years old
● Adolescence – 13 to 19 years old
● Adulthood – 20 to 65 years old
● Old Age – 65+ years old
Growth and Development
 Hurlock (1959) – Growth is change in size, in proportion, disappearance of old
features and acquisition of new ones.
 Crow and crow (1962) – Growth refers to structural and physiological changes.
 Hurlock (1959) – Development means a progressive series of changes that occur in an
orderly predictable pattern as a result of maturation and experience.
 J.E. Anderson (1950) – Development is concerned with growth as well as those
changes in behavior which results from environmental situations.
Growth vs. Development
 Growth does not continue throughout life. It stops when maturity has been attained.
 Development is a wider and comprehensive term and refers to overall changes in the
individual. It continues throughout life and is progressive.
Basic principles of growth and Development
● Cephalocaudal Principle
● Proximodistal Principle
● Orthogenetic Principle
Cephalocaudal principle states that development proceeds from top to bottom.
According to this principle, a child will gain physical control of their head first. After this,
physical control will move downward to the arms and lastly to the legs.
Proximodistal principle also describes the direction of development. According to this
principle, the development proceeds from the center of the body towards the outer parts
of the body.
Orthogenetic principle is the continuity of child’s development. Heinz Werner
developed a theory of uncovering the correct (ortho) processes and principles of
development (genetic) from birth till late adulthood.
Individual Differences
Factors influencing differences among learners
 Age
 Sex
 Motivation and Attitude
 Personality
 Learning styles and Strategies
 Intelligence and Aptitude
 Age - The results of research suggest that there is a critical period for learning
acquisition. It states that human beings are optimally suited to learn certain types of
behaviour (including foreign/second language abilities) during a certain age span, and
that after this period has passed, learning such behaviour is difficult or impossible.
● Sex - Although it is fair to argue that males and females are equal human beings, they
demonstrate different features – not just physically; which in most cases is rather
obvious, but also mentally.
● Motivation and Attitude - Without any motivation or positive attitude, there can
hardly be a successful process of learning. According to Ellis (1985:118), “motivation
and attitudes are important factors, which help to determine the level of proficiency
achieved by different learners.
● Personality of the learner is another controversial matter being considered a factor
influencing learning acquisition. A widely-held belief claims that extroverted learners
learn more rapidly and are more successful than introverted learners.
● Learning styles and strategies - In the process of learning, certain ways must be
used, so that the result the learner wishes for is achieved. Learning style is a “general
approach to language learning” (Oxford, 1994). The ways the learner applies while
studying are called learning techniques. If used in combination to develop a plan, they
are called learning strategies.
● Intelligence and aptitude - ’Intelligence’, refers to the “general ability that governs
how well we master a whole range of skills, linguistic and nonlinguistic. While
‘aptitude’ refers to the natural ability or capacity for learning.
Aspects of personality
The five aspects of personality:
 Extraversion
 Agreeableness
 Conscientiousness
 Neuroticism
 Openness
 Extraversion (also spelled as extroversion) extraverts tend to be more physically and
verbally active whereas the introverts are independent, reserved, steady and like being
alone.
 Agreeableness is linked to altruism, nurturance, caring and emotional support versus
hostility, indifference, self-centeredness and jealousy. Agreeable people are altruistic,
gentle, kind, sympathetic and warm.
 The conscientious, focused person is concentrating on only a couple of goals and
strives hard to perceive them. Conscientiousness has been linked to educational
achievement and particularly to the will to achieve. (Howard & Howard, 1998). The
more conscientious a person is the more competent, dutiful, orderly, responsible and
thorough he is.
 Neuroticism - The persons with a tendency towards neuroticism are more worried,
temperamental and prone to sadness. (Howard & Howard, 1998). ). The name
neuroticism doesn’t refer to any psychiatric defect. A more proper term could be
negative affectivity or nervousness. (McCrae & John, 1992).
 Openness - People with a high openness have broader interests, are liberal and like
novelty. This factor relates to intellect, openness to new ideas, cultural interests,
educational aptitude and creativity (Howard & Howard, 1998). The openness to
experience can be connected to activities like writing, science and art (Wallach &
Wing, 1969).

References:
● https://study.com/academy/get-started.html?product=CLASSROOM_TEACHER#5
● https://study.com/academy/lesson/principles-of-growth-and-
development.html#:~:text=There%20are%20three%20principles%20of,children
%20will%20develop%20certain%20characteristics.
● https://www.psychologydiscussion.net/educational-psychology/principles-of-human-
growth-and-development/1813
● https://www.pulib.sk/web/kniznica/elpub/dokument/Eddy2/subor/1.pdf
● https://www.slideshare.net/arunaapkarunakaran/growth-and-development-26444171
● https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-0-387-79061-9_494
The 4 Stages of Cognitive Development
Background and Key Concepts of Piaget's Theory
Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that children move through four
different stages of mental development. His theory focuses not only on understanding how
children acquire knowledge, but also on understanding the nature of intelligence.1 Piaget's
stages are:
Sensorimotor stage: birth to 2 years
Preoperational stage: ages 2 to 7
Concrete operational stage: ages 7 to 11
Formal operational stage: ages 12 and up
The Stages
Through his observations of his children, Piaget developed a stage theory of intellectual
development that included four distinct stages:
THE SENSORIMOTOR STAGE
Ages: Birth to 2 Years
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
 The infant knows the world through their movements and sensations.
 Children learn about the world through basic actions such as sucking, grasping,
looking, and listening.
 Infants learn that things continue to exist even though they cannot be seen (object
permanence)
 They are separate beings from the people and objects around them.
 They realize that their actions can cause things to happen in the world around them.
During this earliest stage of cognitive development, infants and toddlers acquire knowledge
through sensory experiences and manipulating objects. A child's entire experience at the
earliest period of this stage occurs through basic reflexes, senses, and motor responses.
The cognitive development that occurs during this period takes place over a relatively short
period of time and involves a great deal of growth. Children not only learn how to perform
physical actions such as crawling and walking; they also learn a great deal about language
from the people with whom they interact.
THE PREOPERATIONAL STAGE
Ages: 2 to 7 Years
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
 Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to represent
objects.
 Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from the
perspective of others.
 While they are getting better with language and thinking, they still tend to think about
things in very concrete terms.
Children become much more skilled at pretend play during this stage of development, yet
continue to think very concretely about the world around them. 
At this stage, kids learn through pretend play but still struggle with logic and taking the point
of view of other people. They also often struggle with understanding the idea of constancy.
For example, a researcher might take a lump of clay, divide it into two equal pieces, and then
give a child the choice between two pieces of clay to play with. One piece of clay is rolled
into a compact ball while the other is smashed into a flat pancake shape. Since the flat
shape looks larger, the preoperational child will likely choose that piece even though the two
pieces are exactly the same size.
THE CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE
Ages: 7 to 11 Years
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
 During this stage, children begin to think logically about concrete events.
 They begin to understand the concept of conservation; that the amount of liquid in a
short, wide cup is equal to that in a tall, skinny glass, for example.
 Their thinking becomes more logical and organized, but still very concrete.
 Children begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from specific information to a
general principle.
 While children are still very concrete and literal in their thinking at this point in
development, they become much more adept at using logic. The egocentrism of the
previous stage begins to disappear as kids become better at thinking about how other
people might view a situation.
During this stage, children also become less egocentric and begin to think about how other
people might think and feel. Kids in the concrete operational stage also begin to understand
that their thoughts are unique to them and that not everyone else necessarily shares their
thoughts, feelings, and opinions.
THE FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE
Ages: 12 and Up
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
 At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think abstractly and reason
about hypothetical problems.
 Abstract thought emerges.
 Teens begin to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social, and political
issues that require theoretical and abstract reasoning.
 Begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle to specific
information.
The final stage of Piaget's theory involves an increase in logic, the ability to use deductive
reasoning, and an understanding of abstract ideas. At this point, people become capable of
seeing multiple potential solutions to problems and think more scientifically about the world
around them.

It is important to note that Piaget did not view children's intellectual development as a
quantitative process; that is, kids do not just add more information and knowledge to their
existing knowledge as they get older. Instead, Piaget suggested that there is
a qualitative change in how children think as they gradually process through these four
stages. A child at age 7 doesn't just have more information about the world than he did at age
2; there is a fundamental change in how he thinks about the world.

Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development

Kohlberg's theory proposes that there are three levels of moral development, with each level
split into two stages. Kohlberg suggested that people move through these stages in a fixed
order, and that moral understanding is linked to cognitive development. The three levels of
moral reasoning include preconventional, conventional, and postconventional.
STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
LEVEL 1 - PRECONVENTIONAL MORALITY
Preconventional morality is the first stage of moral development, and lasts until
approximately age 9. At the preconventional level children don’t have a personal code of
morality, and instead moral decisions are shaped by the standards of adults and the
consequences of following or breaking their rules.
For example, if an action leads to punishment is must be bad, and if it leads to a reward is
must be good.
Authority is outside the individual and children often make moral decisions based on the
physical consequences of actions.
• Stage 1. Obedience and Punishment Orientation. The child/individual is good in order to
avoid being punished. If a person is punished, they must have done wrong.
• Stage 2. Individualism and Exchange. At this stage, children recognize that there is not
just one right view that is handed down by the authorities. Different individuals have
different viewpoints.
LEVEL 2 - CONVENTIONAL MORALITY
Conventional morality is the second level of moral development, and is characterized by an
acceptance of social rules concerning right and wrong. At the conventional level (most
adolescents and adults), we begin to internalize the moral standards of valued adult role
models.
Authority is internalized but not questioned, and reasoning is based on the norms of the group
to which the person belongs.
A social system that stresses the responsibilities of relationships as well as social order is
seen as desirable and must, therefore, influence our view of what is right and wrong.
• Stage 3. Good Interpersonal Relationships. The child/individual is good in order to be
seen as being a good person by others. Therefore, answers relate to the approval of others.
• Stage 4. Maintaining the Social Order. The child/individual becomes aware of the wider
rules of society, so judgments concern obeying the rules in order to uphold the law and to
avoid guilt.
LEVEL 3 - POSTCONVENTIONAL MORALITY
Postconventional morality is the third stage of moral development, and is characterized by an
individuals’ understanding of universal ethical principles. These are abstract and ill-defined,
but might include: the preservation of life at all costs, and the importance of human dignity.
Individual judgment is based on self-chosen principles, and moral reasoning is based on
individual rights and justice. According to Kohlberg this level of moral reasoning is as far as
most people get.
Only 10-15% are capable of the kind of abstract thinking necessary for stage 5 or 6 (post-
conventional morality). That is to say, most people take their moral views from those around
them and only a minority think through ethical principles for themselves.
• Stage 5. Social Contract and Individual Rights. The child/individual becomes aware that
while rules/laws might exist for the good of the greatest number, there are times when they
will work against the interest of particular individuals. 
The issues are not always clear-cut. For example, in Heinz’s dilemma, the protection of life is
more important than breaking the law against stealing.
• Stage 6. Universal Principles. People at this stage have developed their own set of moral
guidelines which may or may not fit the law. The principles apply to everyone.
E.g., human rights, justice, and equality. The person will be prepared to act to defend these
principles even if it means going against the rest of society in the process and having to pay
the consequences of disapproval and or imprisonment. Kohlberg doubted few people reached
this stage.
Significance of Developmental Theories to Education
 Recognition of the crucial role of children’s self-initiated, active involvement in
learning activities
 A deemphasis on practices aimed at making children adultlike in their thinking
 Focus on the process of children’s thinking, not just its products
 Acceptance of individual differences in developmental progress
 The importance of a consistent and regular satisfaction of needs during the early stage
of development
 Providing experiences to children during pre-school age that will encourage
independence and reward initiative , within their capabilities
 The need to help adolescents cope with their struggles to know and established a clear
sense of identity
 Develop a sense of mastery and industry for providing opportunities to children of
formal school age to acquire the basic skills and competencies
 A child is not inborn with skills, emotional controls, or attitudes

DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY
 A group of ideas, assumptions, generalizations that interpret and illuminate the
thousands of observations made about human growth
  It provides a framework for understanding how and why people change as they grow
older.
SIGMUND FREUD’S PSYCHOANALYTIC/PSYCHOSEXUAL THEORY OF
DEVELOPMENT
Sigmund Freud was an Austrian neurologist who is perhaps most known as the founder of
psychoanalysis. Freud developed a set of therapeutic techniques centered on talk therapy that
involved the use of strategies such as transference, free association, and dream interpretation.
Psychoanalysis became a dominating school of thought during the early years of psychology
and remains quite influential today. In addition to his influence on psychology, Freud's ideas
have permeated popular culture and concepts such as Freudian slips, the unconscious, wish
fulfillment, and the ego are even commonly used in everyday language.
In founding psychoanalysis, Freud developed therapeutic techniques such as the use of free
association and discovered transference, establishing its central role in the analytic process.
Freud's redefinition of sexuality to include its infantile forms led him to formulate
the Oedipus complex as the central tenet of psychoanalytical theory. His analysis
of dreams as wish-fulfillments provided him with models for the clinical analysis of symptom
formation and the underlying mechanisms of repression. On this basis, Freud elaborated his
theory of the unconscious and went on to develop a model of psychic structure comprising id,
ego and super-ego. Freud postulated the existence of libido, sexualized energy with which
mental processes and structures are invested and which generates erotic attachments, and
a death drive, the source of compulsive repetition, hate, aggression, and neurotic guilt. In his
later works, Freud developed a wide-ranging interpretation and critique of religion and
culture.
Psychoanalytic (or psychosexual) theory deals primarily with personality and postulates that
human “behavior is motivated by inner, unconscious forces, memories, and conflicts” that
often stem from early life experiences.
According to this theory, there are three basic structures of the personality: the id (which
consists of the irrational libidinal drives that motivate the person to seek pleasure and sexual
gratification), the ego (the rational part of the mind), and the superego (essentially the
conscience which counterbalances the impulses of the id).
According to Freud psychoanalytic theory, the id is the primitive and instinctual part of the
mind that contains sexual and aggressive drives and hidden memories, the super-
ego operates as a moral conscience, and the ego is the realistic part that mediates between the
desires of the id and the super-ego.
PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
 Freud proposed that personality development in childhood takes place during
five psychosexual stages, which are the oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital stages.
During each stage sexual energy (libido) is expressed in different ways and through
different parts of the body.
  Freud believed that every child goes through a sequence of developmental stages and
that the child’s experiences during these stages determine adult personality
characteristics.
Freud also believed that the adult personality is formed by the end of the 5th year of life. Each
stage has an erogenous zone association with stimulation and pleasure.
Fixation – He used this to describe what occurs when a person does not progress normally
from stage to stage but remains ovely involved with a particular stage.

STAGES OF PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT

Psychosexual Erogenous Fixation Conflicts Developmental
Stage Zone/Behavio Outcome
r

Oral Stage Mouth Child weaned Overindulgence- As adult, will be

(birth-2 years (centered on from botte or Child is fed at any dependent,
old) feeding) breast too early time the child gullible, ready
or too late wants to swallow
Thumb
anything,
sucking, Bites
excessive
everything in
eating, drinking,
sight
kissing, and
smoking
behaviors
Anal Stage (2- Anus (centered Child is severely Frustration- As adult, overly
3 years old) on toilet toilet trained or parents demand neat, always on
training) undertrained exacting control time, stingy,
stubborn, never
 Anus is a of bowel habits. disobeys orders
source of
Overindulgence-
pleasure
parents allow
child freedom, or
is lenient in
bowel
Phallic Stage Genital area Child fails to Jealousy develops Boy will grow
(3-5 years identify with the up seeking a
Phallus, or Problems with
old) same-sex parent woman like his
penis is most parent-
mother;
important body Oedipus/Elektra identification
part Girl will grow
up wanting to
have male child
Latency Stage A period of No psychosexual Reduction of Establishing
(6 years – suspended fixation during sexuality in the Gender identity
Puberty) sexual activity; this stage child
Reality
energies shift
Principle and
to physical and
learning of
intellectual
skills
activities
Most of the time
is spent in
interacting with
peer and role
models from the
same sex
Genital Stage Whole body Mating, dating Sexual Instincts Sublimate
(Puberty and social and Sexual sexual energy
onwards) interaction Conflicts into emotional
reappear commitments to
sports,
cheerleading,
music, band,
academics,
politics, church,
or other
endeavors.
ERIKSON’S STAGES OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
Erik Erikson is best known for his famous theory of psychosocial development and the
concept of the identity crisis. His theories marked an important shift in thinking on
personality; instead of focusing simply on early childhood events, his psychosocial theory
looks at how social influences contribute to our personalities throughout our entire lifespans.
"Hope is both the earliest and the most indispensable virtue inherent in the state of being
alive. If life is to be sustained hope must remain, even where confidence is wounded, trust
impaired."—Erik Erikson, The Erik Erikson Reader, 2000
Erikson's Notoriety
Erikson's stage theory of psychosocial development generated interest and research on human
development through the lifespan. An ego psychologist who studied with Anna Freud,
Erikson expanded psychoanalytic theory by exploring development throughout life, including
events of childhood, adulthood, and old age.
Erik Erikson was born on June 15, 1902, in Frankfurt, Germany. His young Jewish mother,
Karla Abrahamsen, raised Erik by herself for a time before marrying a physician, Dr.
Theodore Homberger. The fact that Homberger was not his biological father was concealed
from Erikson for many years. When he finally did learn the truth, Erikson was left with a
feeling of confusion about who he really was.
"The common story was that his mother and father had separated before his birth, but the
closely guarded fact was that he was his mother's child from an extramarital union. He never
saw his birth father or his mother's first husband." — Erikson's obituary, The New York
Times, May 13, 1994
This early experience helped spark his interest in the formation of identity. He would later
explain that as a child he often felt confused about who he was and how he fit into his
community.
While this may seem like merely an interesting anecdote about his heritage, the mystery over
Erikson's biological parentage served as one of the key forces behind his later interest in
identity formation.
His interest in identity was further developed based on his own experiences in school. At his
Jewish temple school, he was teased for being a tall, blue-eyed, blonde, Nordic-looking boy
who stood out among the rest of the kids.
At grammar school, he was rejected because of his Jewish background. These early
experiences helped fuel his interest in identity formation and continued to influence his work
throughout his life.
 Erikson's stages of psychosocial development, as articulated by Erik Erikson, in collaboration
with Joan Erikson (Thomas, 1997), is a comprehensive psychoanalytic theory that identifies a
series of eight stages, in which a healthy developing individual should pass through from
infancy to late adulthood. All stages are present at birth but only begin to unfold according to
both a natural scheme and one's ecological and cultural upbringing. In each stage, the person
confronts, and hopefully masters, new challenges. Each stage builds upon the successful
completion of earlier stages. The challenges of stages not successfully completed may be
expected to reappear as problems in the future.
However, mastery of a stage is not required to advance to the next stage. The outcome of one
stage is not permanent and can be modified by later experiences. Erikson's stage theory
characterizes an individual advancing through the eight life stages as a function of
negotiating his or her biological forces and sociocultural forces. Each stage is characterized
by a psychosocial crisis of these two conflicting forces (Figure 8.1). If an individual does
indeed successfully reconcile these forces (favoring the first mentioned attribute in the crisis),
he or she emerges from the stage with the corresponding virtue (Figure 8.1). For example, if
an infant enters into the toddler stage (autonomy vs. shame and doubt) with more trust than
mistrust, he or she carries the virtue of hope into the remaining life stages (Crain, 2011).
Figure 8.1 Psychosocial Identity Development Stages, Virtues, and Crisis 

Stage:
Significant
Approximate Virtues Psychosocial Crisis Existential Question Examples
Relationship
Age
Trust
Infancy Can I trust the Feeding;
Hope vs. Mother
0-2 Years world? Abandonment
Mistrust
Autonomy
Early Childhood Toilet Training;
Will vs. Parents Is it okay to be me?
2-4 Years Clothing Themselves
Shame and Doubt
Preschool Age Is it okay for me to Exploring; Using
Purpose Initiative vs. Guilt Family
4-5 Years do, move, and act? Tools or Making Art

Industry
School Age Neighbors Can I make it in the
Competence vs. world of people and School; Sports
5-12 Years School things?
Inferiority
Identity
Adolescence Peers Who am I?
Fidelity vs. Social Relationships
13-19 Years Role Model Who can I be?
Role Confusion
Early Adulthood Love Intimacy Friends Can I love? Romantic
20-39 Years vs. Relationships
Partners
Isolation
Generativity
Adulthood Household Can I make my life
Care vs. Work; Parenthood
40-64 Years Workmates count?
Stagnation
Ego Integrity
Maturity Mankind Is it okay to have
Wisdom vs. Reflection on Life
65-Death My kind been me?
Despair
        Figure 8.1. The figure above was adapted from the website Introduction to Erikson's 8
Stages (n.d.), and Macnow’s (2014) book MCAT Behavioral Science Review (p. 220).
Stages of Psychosocial Identity Development
Hope: Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy, 0-2 years)
Existential Question: Can I Trust the World?
The first stage of Erik Erikson's theory centers around the infant's basic needs being met by
the parents and this interaction leading to trust or mistrust. Trust as defined by Erikson is an
essential trustfulness of others as well as a fundamental sense of one's own trustworthiness
(Sharkey, 1997). The infant depends on the parents, especially the mother, for sustenance and
comfort. The child's relative understanding of world and society come from the parents and
their interaction with the child. A child's first trust is always with the parent or caregiver;
whomever that might be; however, even the caregiver is secondary whereas the parents are
primary in the eyes of the child. If the parents expose the child to warmth, regularity, and
dependable affection, the infant's view of the world will be one of trust. Should the parents
fail to provide a secure environment and to meet the child's basic needs; a sense of mistrust
will result (Bee & Boyd, 2009). Development of mistrust can lead to feelings of frustration,
suspicion, withdrawal, and a lack of confidence (Sharkey, 1997).
According to Erik Erikson, the major developmental task in infancy is to learn whether or not
other people, especially primary caregivers, regularly satisfy basic needs. If caregivers are
consistent sources of food, comfort, and affection, an infant learns trust-that others are
dependable and reliable. If they are neglectful, or perhaps even abusive, the infant instead
learns mistrust-that the world is an undependable, unpredictable, and possibly a dangerous
place. While negative, having some experience with mistrust allows the infant to gain an
understanding of what constitutes dangerous situations later in life; yet being at the stage of
infant or toddler, it is a good idea not to put them in situations of mistrust: the child's number
one needs are to feel safe, comforted, and well cared for (Bee & Boyd, 2009).
Will: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Early Childhood, 2-4 years)
Existential Question: Is It Okay to Be Me?
As the child gains control over eliminative functions and motor abilities, they begin to
explore their surroundings. The parents still provide a strong base of security from which the
child can venture out to assert their will. The parents' patience and encouragement helps
foster autonomy in the child. Children at this age like to explore the world around them and
they are constantly learning about their environment. Caution must be taken at this age while
children may explore things that are dangerous to their health and safety.
At this age children develop their first interests. For example, a child who enjoys music may
like to play with the radio. Children who enjoy the outdoors may be interested in animals and
plants. Highly restrictive parents, however, are more likely to instill in the child a sense of
doubt, and reluctance to attempt new challenges. As they gain increased muscular
coordination and mobility, toddlers become capable of satisfying some of their own needs.
They begin to feed themselves, wash and dress themselves, and use the bathroom.
If caregivers encourage self-sufficient behavior, toddlers develop a sense of autonomy-a
sense of being able to handle many problems on their own. But if caregivers demand too
much too soon, refuse to let children perform tasks of which they are capable, or ridicule
early attempts at self-sufficiency, children may instead develop shame and doubt about their
ability to handle problems.
Purpose: Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool, 4-5 years)
Existential Question: Is it Okay for Me to Do, Move, and Act?
Initiative adds to autonomy the quality of undertaking, planning and attacking a task for the
sake of just being active and on the move. The child is learning to master the world around
them, learning basic skills and principles of physics. Things fall down, not up. Round things
roll. They learn how to zip and tie, count and speak with ease. At this stage, the child wants
to begin and complete their own actions for a purpose. Guilt is a confusing new emotion.
They may feel guilty over things that logically should not cause guilt. They may feel guilt
when this initiative does not produce desired results.
The development of courage and independence are what set preschoolers, ages three to six
years of age, apart from other age groups. Young children in this category face the challenge
of initiative versus guilt. As described in Bee and Boyd (2009), the child during this stage
faces the complexities of planning and developing a sense of judgment. During this stage, the
child learns to take initiative and prepare for leadership and goal achievement roles.
Activities sought out by a child in this stage may include risk-taking behaviors, such as
crossing a street alone or riding a bike without a helmet; both these examples involve self-
limits.
Within instances requiring initiative, the child may also develop negative behaviors. These
behaviors are a result of the child developing a sense of frustration for not being able to
achieve a goal as planned and may engage in behaviors that seem aggressive, ruthless, and
overly assertive to parents. Aggressive behaviors, such as throwing objects, hitting, or
yelling, are examples of observable behaviors during this stage.
Preschoolers are increasingly able to accomplish tasks on their own, and can start new things.
With this growing independence comes many choices about activities to be pursued.
Sometimes children take on projects they can readily accomplish, but at other times they
undertake projects that are beyond their capabilities or that interfere with other people's plans
and activities. If parents and preschool teachers encourage and support children's efforts,
while also helping them make realistic and appropriate choices, children develop initiative-
independence in planning and undertaking activities. But if, instead, adults discourage the
pursuit of independent activities or dismiss them as silly and bothersome, children develop
guilt about their needs and desires (Rao, 2012).
Competence: Industry vs. Inferiority (School Age, 5-12 Years)
Existential Question: Can I Make it in the World of People and Things?
The aim to bring a productive situation to completion gradually supersedes the whims and
wishes of play. The fundamentals of technology are developed. The failure to master trust,
autonomy, and industrious skills may cause the child to doubt his or her future, leading to
shame, guilt, and the experience of defeat and inferiority (Erik Erikson’s Stages of Social-
Emotional Development, n.d.). The child must deal with demands to learn new skills or risk a
sense of inferiority, failure, and incompetence.
Children at this age are becoming more aware of themselves as “individuals.” They work
hard at “being responsible, being good and doing it right.” They are now more reasonable to
share and cooperate. Allen and Marotz (2003) also list some perceptual cognitive
developmental traits specific for this age group. Children grasp the concepts of space and
time in more logical, practical ways. They gain a better understanding of cause and effect,
and of calendar time. At this stage, children are eager to learn and accomplish more complex
skills: reading, writing, telling time. They also get to form moral values, recognize cultural
and individual differences and are able to manage most of their personal needs and grooming
with minimal assistance (Allen & Marotz, 2003). At this stage, children might express their
independence by talking back and being disobedient and rebellious.
Erikson viewed the elementary school years as critical for the development of self-
confidence. Ideally, elementary school provides many opportunities to achieve the
recognition of teachers, parents and peers by producing things-drawing pictures, solving
addition problems, writing sentences, and so on. If children are encouraged to make and do
things and are then praised for their accomplishments, they begin to demonstrate industry by
being diligent, persevering at tasks until completed, and putting work before pleasure. If
children are instead ridiculed or punished for their efforts or if they find they are incapable of
meeting their teachers' and parents' expectations, they develop feelings of inferiority about
their capabilities (Crain, 2011).
At this age, children start recognizing their special talents and continue to discover interests
as their education improves. They may begin to choose to do more activities to pursue that
interest, such as joining a sport if they know they have athletic ability, or joining the band if
they are good at music. If not allowed to discover their own talents in their own time, they
will develop a sense of lack of motivation, low self-esteem, and lethargy. They may become
"couch potatoes" if they are not allowed to develop interests.
Fidelity: Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence, 13-19 Years)
Existential Question: Who Am I and What Can I Be?
The adolescent is newly concerned with how they appear to others. Superego identity is the
accrued confidence that the outer sameness and continuity prepared in the future are matched
by the sameness and continuity of one's meaning for oneself, as evidenced in the promise of a
career. The ability to settle on a school or occupational identity is pleasant. In later stages of
adolescence, the child develops a sense of sexual identity. As they make the transition from
childhood to adulthood, adolescents ponder the roles they will play in the adult world.
Initially, they are apt to experience some role confusion-mixed ideas and feelings about the
specific ways in which they will fit into society-and may experiment with a variety of
behaviors and activities (e.g. tinkering with cars, baby-sitting for neighbors, affiliating with
certain political or religious groups). Eventually, Erikson proposed, most adolescents achieve
a sense of identity regarding who they are and where their lives are headed. The teenager
must achieve identity in occupation, gender roles, politics, and, in some cultures, religion.
Erikson is credited with coining the term "identity crisis" (Gross, 1987, p. 47). Each stage
that came before and that follows has its own “crisis” but even more so now, for this marks
the transition from childhood to adulthood. This passage is necessary because "Throughout
infancy and childhood, a person forms many identifications. But the need for identity in
youth is not met by these" (Wright, 1982, p. 73). This turning point in human development
seems to be the reconciliation between “the person one has come to be” and “the person
society expects one to become.” This emerging sense of self will be established by “forging”
past experiences with anticipations of the future. In relation to the eight life stages as a whole,
the fifth stage corresponds to the crossroads.
What is unique about the stage of Identity is that it is a special sort of synthesis of earlier
stages and a special sort of anticipation of later ones. Youth has a certain unique quality in a
person's life; it is a bridge between childhood and adulthood. Youth is a time of radical
change-the great body changes accompanying puberty, the ability of the mind to search one's
own intentions and the intentions of others, the suddenly sharpened awareness of the roles
society has offered for later life (Gross,1987)
.
Adolescents "are confronted by the need to re-establish [boundaries] for themselves and to do
this in the face of an often potentially hostile world" (Stevens, 1983, pp. 48-50). This is often
challenging since commitments are being asked for before particular identity roles have
formed. At this point, one is in a state of “identity confusion” but society normally makes
allowances for youth to "find themselves" and this state is called “the moratorium.”
The problem of adolescence is one of role confusion-a reluctance to commit which may haunt
a person into his mature years. Given the right conditions-and Erikson believes these are
essentially having enough space and time, a psychosocial moratorium, when a person can
freely experiment and explore-what may emerge is a firm sense of identity, an emotional and
deep awareness of who he or she is (Stevens, 1983, pp. 48-50).
As in other stages, bio-psycho-social forces are at work. No matter how one has been raised,
one's personal ideologies are now chosen for oneself. Often, this leads to conflict with adults
over religious and political orientations. Another area where teenagers are deciding for
themselves is their career choice, and often parents want to have a decisive say in that role. If
society is too insistent, the teenager will acquiesce to external wishes, effectively forcing him
or her to ‘foreclose' on experimentation and, therefore, true self-discovery. Once someone
settles on a worldview and vocation, will he or she be able to integrate this aspect of self-
definition into a diverse society? According to Erikson, when an adolescent has balanced
both perspectives of "What have I got?" and "What am I going to do with it?" he or she has
established their identity (Gross, 1987). Dependent on this stage is the ego quality of fidelity-
the ability to sustain loyalties freely pledged in spite of the inevitable contradictions and
confusions of value systems (Stevens, 1983).
Given that the next stage (Intimacy) is often characterized by marriage, many are tempted to
cap off the fifth stage at 20 years of age. However, these age ranges are actually quite fluid,
especially for the achievement of identity, since it may take many years to become grounded,
to identify the object of one's fidelity, to feel that one has "come of age". In the
biographies Young Man Luther and Gandhi's Truth, Erikson determined that their crises
ended at ages 25 and 30, respectively.
Erikson does note that the time of Identity crisis for persons of genius is frequently
prolonged. He further notes that in our industrial society, identity formation tends to be long,
because it takes us so long to gain the skills needed for adulthood's tasks in our technological
world. So… we do not have an exact time span in which to find ourselves. It doesn't happen
automatically at eighteen or at twenty-one. A very approximate rule of thumb for our society
would put the end somewhere in one's twenties (Gross, 1987).
Love: Intimacy vs. Isolation (Early Adulthood, 20-39 years)
Existential Question: Can I Love?
The Intimacy vs. Isolation conflict is emphasized around the age of 30. At the start of this
stage, identity vs. role confusion is coming to an end, though it still lingers at the foundation
of the stage (Erikson, 1950). Young adults are still eager to blend their identities with friends.
They want to fit in. Erikson believes we are sometimes isolated due to intimacy. We are
afraid of rejections such as being turned down or our partners breaking up with us. We are
familiar with pain and to some of us rejection is so painful that our egos cannot bear it.
Erikson also argues that "Intimacy has a counterpart: Distantiation: the readiness to isolate
and if necessary, to destroy those forces and people whose essence seems dangerous to our
own, and whose territory seems to encroach on the extent of one's intimate relations"
(Erikson, 1950, p. 237).
Once people have established their identities, they are ready to make long-term commitments
to others. They become capable of forming intimate, reciprocal relationships (e.g. through
close friendships or marriage) and willingly make the sacrifices and compromises that such
relationships require. If people cannot form these intimate relationships-perhaps because of
their own needs-a sense of isolation may result; arousing feelings of darkness and angst.
Care: Generativity vs. Stagnation (Adulthood, 40-64 years)
Existential Question: Can I Make My Life Count?
Generativity is the concern of guiding the next generation. Socially-valued work and
disciplines are expressions of generativity. The adult stage of generativity has broad
application to family, relationships, work, and society. "Generativity, then is primarily the
concern in establishing and guiding the next generation... the concept is meant to include...
productivity and creativity" (Erikson, 1950, p. 240).   
During middle age the primary developmental task is one of contributing to society and
helping to guide future generations. When a person makes a contribution during this period,
perhaps by raising a family or working toward the betterment of society, a sense of
generativity-a sense of productivity and accomplishment-results. In contrast, a person who is
self-centered and unable or unwilling to help society move forward develops a feeling of
stagnation-a dissatisfaction with the relative lack of productivity. Central tasks of middle
adulthood are to:
 Express love through more than sexual contacts.
 Maintain healthy life patterns.
 Develop a sense of unity with mate.
 Help growing and grown children to be responsible adults.
 Relinquish central role in lives of grown children.
 Accept children's mates and friends.
 Create a comfortable home.
 Be proud of accomplishments of self and mate/spouse.
 Reverse roles with aging parents.
 Achieve mature, civic and social responsibility.
 Adjust to physical changes of middle age.
 Use leisure time creatively.
Wisdom: Ego Integrity vs. Despair (Maturity, 65-Death)
Existential Question: Is it Okay to Have Been Me?
As we grow older and become senior citizens we tend to slow down our productivity and
explore life as a retired person. It is during this time that we contemplate our
accomplishments and are able to develop integrity if we see ourselves as leading a successful
life. If we see our life as unproductive, or feel that we did not accomplish our life goals, we
become dissatisfied with life and develop despair, often leading to depression and
hopelessness.
The final developmental task is retrospection: people look back on their lives and
accomplishments. They develop feelings of contentment and integrity if they believe that
they have led a happy, productive life. They may instead develop a sense of despair if they
look back on a life of disappointments and unachieved goals. This stage can occur out of the
sequence when an individual feels they are near the end of their life (such as when receiving
a terminal disease diagnosis).
Ninth Stage
Joan M. Erikson, who married and collaborated with Erik Erikson, added a ninth stage in The
Life Cycle Completed: Extended Version (Erikson & Erikson, 1998).  Living in the ninth
stage, she wrote, "old age in one's eighties and nineties brings with it new demands,
reevaluations, and daily difficulties" (Erikson & Erikson, 1998, p. 4). Addressing these new
challenges requires "designating a new ninth stage". Erikson was ninety-three years old when
she wrote about the ninth stage (Erikson & Erikson, 1998, p. 105).
Joan Erikson showed that all the eight stages "are relevant and recurring in the ninth stage"
(Mooney, 2007, p. 78). In the ninth stage, the psychosocial crises of the eight stages are faced
again, but with the quotient order reversed. For example, in the first stage (infancy), the
psychosocial crisis was "Trust vs. Mistrust" with Trust being the "syntonic quotient" and
Mistrust being the "diatonic" (Erikson & Erikson, 1998, p. 106). Joan Erikson applies the
earlier psychosocial crises to the ninth stage as follows:
 Basic Mistrust vs. Trust: Hope
In the ninth stage, "elders are forced to mistrust their own capabilities" because one's "body
inevitably weakens." Yet, Joan Erikson asserts that "while there is light, there is “hope” for a
"bright light and revelation" (Erikson & Erikson, 1998, pp. 106-107).
 Shame and Doubt vs. Autonomy: Will
Ninth stage elders face the "shame of lost control" and doubt "their autonomy over their own
bodies." So it is that "shame and doubt challenge cherished autonomy" (Erikson & Erikson,
1998, pp. 107-108).
 Inferiority vs. Industry: Competence
Industry as a "driving force" that elders once had is gone in the ninth stage. Being
incompetent "because of aging is belittling" and makes elders "like unhappy small children of
great age" (Erikson & Erikson, 1998, p. 109).
 Identity Confusion vs. Identity: Fidelity
Elders experience confusion about their "existential identity" in the ninth stage and "a real
uncertainty about status and role" (Erikson & Erikson, 1998, pp. 109-110).
 Isolation vs. Intimacy: Love
In the ninth stage, the "years of intimacy and love" are often replaced by "isolation and
deprivation." Relationships become "overshadowed by new incapacities and dependencies"
(Erikson & Erikson, 1998, pp. 110-111).
 Stagnation vs. Generativity: Care
The generativity in the seventh stage of "work and family relationships" if it goes
satisfactorily, is "a wonderful time to be alive." In one's eighties and nineties, there is less
energy for generativity or caretaking. Thus, "a sense of stagnation may well take over"
(Erikson & Erikson, 1998, pp. 111-112).
 Despair and Disgust vs. Integrity: Wisdom
Integrity imposes "a serious demand on the senses of elders." Wisdom requires capacities that
ninth stage elders "do not usually have." The eighth stage includes retrospection that can
evoke a "degree of disgust and despair." In the ninth stage, introspection is replaced by the
attention demanded to one's "loss of capacities and disintegration" (Erikson & Erikson, 1998,
pp. 112-113).
Living in the ninth stage, Joan Erikson expressed confidence that the psychosocial crisis of
the ninth stage can be met as in the first stage with the "basic trust" with which "we are
blessed" (Erikson & Erikson, 1998, pp. 112-113). Erikson saw a dynamic at work throughout
life, one that did not stop at adolescence. He also viewed the life stages as a cycle: the end of
one generation was the beginning of the next. Seen in its social context, the life stages were
linear for an individual but circular for societal development (Erikson, 1950). Erik Erikson
believed that development continues throughout life. Erikson took the foundation laid by
Freud and extended it through adulthood and into late life (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2004).
CRITICISM OF THE PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY OF IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT 
Erikson's theory may be questioned as to whether his stages must be regarded as sequential,
and only occurring within the age ranges he suggests. There is debate as to whether people
only search for identity during the adolescent years or if one stage needs to happen before
other stages can be completed. However, Erikson states that each of these processes occur
throughout the lifetime in one form or another, and he emphasizes these "phases" only
because it is at these times that the conflicts become most prominent (Erikson, 1956).
Most empirical research into Erikson has related to his views on adolescence and attempts to
establish identity. His theoretical approach was studied and supported, particularly regarding
adolescence, by James E. Marcia. Marcia's work (1966) has distinguished different forms of
identity, and there is some empirical evidence that those people who form the most coherent
self-concept in adolescence are those who are most able to make intimate attachments in
early adulthood. This supports Eriksonian theory in that it suggests that those best equipped
to resolve the crisis of early adulthood are those who have most successfully resolved the
crisis of adolescence.
Educational Implications
Teachers who apply psychosocial development in the classroom create an environment where
each child feels appreciated and is comfortable with learning new things and building
relationships with peers without fear (Hooser, 2010). Teaching Erikson’s theory at the
different grade levels is important to ensure that students will attain mastery of each stage in
Erikson's theory without conflict. There are specific classroom activities that teachers can
incorporate into their classroom during the three stages that include school age children. The
activities listed below are just a few suggested examples that apply psychosocial
development.
At the preschool level, teachers want to focus on developing a hardy personality. Classroom
examples that can be incorporated at the Preschool Level are as follows:
1. Find out what students are interested in and create projects that incorporate their area
of interest.
 2. Let the children be in charge of the learning process when participating in a classroom
project. This will exhibit teacher appreciation for the areas of interest of the students
as well as confidence in their ability.
3. Make sure to point out and praise students for good choices.
4. Offer continuous feedback on work that has been completed.
5. Do not ridicule or criticize students openly. Find a private place to talk with a child
about a poor choice or behavior. Help students formulate their own alternate choices
by guiding them to a positive solution and outcome.
6. When children experiment, they should not be punished for trying something that may
turn out differently than the teacher planned.
7. Utilize physical activity to teach fairness and sportsmanship (Bianca, 2010).
Teachers should focus on achievement and peer relationships at the Elementary Level.
Classroom examples that can be incorporated at the Elementary Level are as follows:
1. Create a list of classroom duties that needed to be completed on a scheduled basis.
Ask students for their input when creating the list as well as who will be in charge of
what.
2. Discuss and post classroom rules. Make sure to include students in the decision-
making process when discussing rules.
3. Encourage students to think outside of their day-to-day routine by role playing
different situations.
4. Let students know that striving for perfection is not as important as learning from
mistakes. Teach them to hold their head high and move forward.
5. Encourage children to help students who may be having trouble socially and/or
academically. Never allow any child to make fun of or bully another child.
6. Build confidence by recognizing success in what children do best.
7. Provide a variety of choices when making an assignment so that students can express
themselves with a focus on their strengths.
8. Utilize physical activity to build social development and to help students appreciate
their own abilities as well as the abilities of others (Bianca, 2010).
During the middle and high school years, building identity and self-esteem should be part of a
teacher's focus. Classroom examples that can be incorporated at the Middle School and High
School Level are as follows:
1. Treat all students equally. Do not show favoratism to a certain group of students
based on gender, race, academic ability or socioeconimic status.
2. Incorporate guest speakers and curriculum activities from as many areas as possible
so as to expose students to many career choices.
 3. Encourage students to focus on their strengths and acknowledge them when they
exhibit work that incorporates these strengths.
4. Encourage students to develop confidence by trying different approaches to solving
problems.
5. Incorporate life skills into lesson planning to increase confidence and self-sufficiency.
6. Utilize physical activity to help relieve stress, negative feelings and imp

Prepared by:

LEA P. MONTERON, LPT

MAED-ENGLISH
PSYCHOLOGICAL AND SOCIOLOGICAL FOUNDATION OF EDUCATION

REFERENCES
Villafuerte, Salvacion L., et.al., UNDERSTANDING THE SELF. Nieme Publishing
House
https://libguides.daltonstate.edu/c.php?g=722740&p=5523432
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/teachereducationx92x1/chapter/eriksons-stages-of-
psychosocial-development/
https://www.simplypsychology.org/psychosexual.html
https://pediaa.com/what-is-the-difference-between-oedipus-complex-and-electra-complex/
https://www.simplypsychology.org/Erik-Erikson.html#:~:text=Erikson%20maintained
%20that%20personality%20develops,negative%20outcome%20for%20personality
%20development.
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/teachereducationx92x1/chapter/eriksons-stages-of-
psychosocial-development/
https://www.verywellmind.com/erik-erikson-biography-1902-1994-2795538
http://www.ruelpositive.com/reflection-implications-education-freud-psychoanalytic-theory
 Republic of the Philippines
Laguna State Polytechnic University
Province of Laguna

COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

GRADUATE STUDIES AND APPLIED RESEARCH

 ILO: 3 The learning Process
(GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT)

Submitted by:

DIANA LEN C. BLEZA

Jenelyn P. Urriza
Lea P. Monteron

MAED-ENGLISH

Submitted to:

DR. MARILYN P. PIELAGO

Professor

(PSYCHOLOGICAL AND SOCIOLOGICAL FOUNDATION

: The Learning Process

I. The Nature, Significance and Definition of Learning

A. The Nature of LEarning

1.  Learning is Universal. Every creature that lives learns. Man learns most.

The human nervous system is very complex, so are human reactions and
 so are human acquisition. Positive learning is vital for children’s growth

and development.

2. Learning is through Experience. Learning always involves some kind of

experience, direct or indirect. 

3.  Learning is from all Sides: Today learning is from all sides. Children learn

from parents, teachers, environment, nature, media etc.

4.  Learning is Continuous. It denotes the lifelong nature of learning. Every

day new situations are faced and the individual has to bring essential

changes in his style of behaviour adopted to tackle them. Learning is birth

to death.

5. It results in Change in Behaviour. It is a change of behaviour influenced by

previous behaviour. It is any activity that leaves a more or less permanent

effect on later activity.

6. Learning is an Adjustment. Learning helps the individual to adjust himself

adequately to the new situations. Most learning in children consists in

modifying, adapting, and developing their original nature. In later life the

individuals acquire new forms of behaviour.

7. It comes about as a result of practice. It is the basis of drill and practice. It

has been proven that students learn best and retain information longer

when they have meaningful practice and repetition. Every time practice

occurs, learning continues.

8. Learning is a relatively Permanent Change. After a rat wake up from his

nap he still remembers the path to the food. Even if you have been on a

bicycle for years, in just a few minutes practice you can be quite proficient

again.
 9. Learning as Growth and Development. It is never ending growth and

development. At reach stage the learner acquires new visions of his future

growth and news ideals of achievement in the direction of his effort.

According to Woodworth, “All activity can be called learning so far as it

develops the individual.”

10. Learning is not directly observable. The only way to study learning is

through some observable behaviour. Actually, we cannot observe learning;

we see only what precedes performance, the performance itself, and the

consequences of performance.

B. Significance of Learning

1. Remain relevant

Don’t be left behind. Ensure you remain relevant to your sector by keeping

up-to-date with trends and adapting your skill set. To function effectively in this

rapidly changing world of technology, you need to learn new things to remain

valuable.

2. Prepare for the unexpected

Lifelong learning will help you adapt to unexpected changes – for example,

losing your job and having to depend on new skills to find work. By continuing to

learn, you’ll more easily step out of your comfort zone and take on new job

opportunities.

3. Boost your profile

When you’re always learning, you’ll keep improving, will grow in your

career, and start to receive recommendations from colleagues and

managers. The chances are that you’ll switch jobs multiple times
 throughout your life and you need to learn new skills to adapt

accordingly.

4. Competence leads to confidence

Learning new things gives us a feeling of accomplishment which, in

turn, boosts our confidence in our own capabilities; you’ll also feel more

ready to take on challenges and explore new business ventures.

5. Spark new ideas

Acquiring new skills will unveil new opportunities and help you find innovative

solutions to problems. This could earn you more money.

6. Change your perspective

Continuous learning opens your mind and changes your attitude by building

on what you already know. The more you learn, the better you’ll get at seeing

more sides of the same situation – helping you understand more deeply.

7. Pay it forward

Continuous learning isn’t just about you. Lifelong learning helps develop

your leadership skills which then translates into fostering lifelong learning in

other individuals, by encouraging them to pursue further education.

C. Definition of LEarning

1. Gardener Murphy: “The term learning covers every modification in

behaviour to meet environmental requirements.”

2. Henry P. Smith: “Learning is the acquisition of new behaviour or the

strengthening or weakening of old behaviour as the result of experience.”

3.  Crow & crow: “Learning is the acquisition of habits, knowledge & attitudes.

It involves new ways of doing things and it operates in individuals attempts

 to overcome obstacles or to adjust to new situations. It represents

progressive changes in behaviour. It enables him to satisfy interests to

attain goals.

II. Types of Learning

Cognitive Learning 

 Attitudinal or affective learning 

 Psychomotor learning

1. Cognitive Learning - The acquisition of knowledge, facts, information,

principles, ideas, concepts, understanding, reasoning,

-Associate learning - Establishing the relationship between words or

ideas and their meanings, between words or ideas and the things that they refer to,

between principles and the situations and conditions they are applied to, etc.

- Problem-solving learning – Overcoming difficulties that hamper the

achievement of a goal by using knowledge and skills acquired from other types of

learning.

2. Attitudinal or affective learning – The formation of good and acceptable

attitudes, judgments, appreciations and values. Aesthetic learning Intellectual

learning

2. Psychomotor learning - This involves the use of the muscles in bodily

movement. Bodily movement coordination - The harmonious functioning of

the different parts of the body in order to achieve the preferred performance.

Manipulative dexterity - The adept use of hands and feet.

References: ILO 3: Topic 1 and 2 

 THE LEARNING PROCESS. Slide 2 The Nature of Learning  “Learning is

the acquisition, through maturation and experience, of new and more

knowledge,Published by Emery Lawrence Long

 https://edexec.co.uk/seven-reasons-why-continuous-learning-is-important/

 http://blog.lablearning.com/2013/05/08/the-importance-of-learning-powerpoint/

 https://essaysprofessors.com/samples/comparison/individual-differences.html

Theories of Learning
MAIN THEORIES
1. Behaviorism
 2. Cognitivism
3. Social Learning Theory
4. Social Constructivism
5. Multiple Intelligences
BEHAVIORISM
• It is confined to observable and measurable behavior.
• Learning is defined by the outward expression of new behaviors and context-independent.
• Biological basis for learning.
• Focuses on observable behaviors.
BEHAVIORISM CLASSICAL CONDITIONING (PAVLOV)
• A stimulus is presented in order to get a response.
• It is about reflexes. OPERANT CONDITIONING (SKINNER)
• The response is made first then reinforcement follows.
• It is about feedback/reinforcement.
BEHAVIORISM IN THE CLASSROOM
• Rewards and Punishments
• Responsibility for student learning rests squarely with the teacher.
• Lecture-Based and Highly Structured
CRITIQUES OF BEHAVIORISM
• It does not account for processes taking place in the mind that cannot be observed.
Advocates for passive student learning in a teachercentric environment.
One size fits all.
Knowledge itself is given and absolute.
There is programmed instruction and teacher-proofing.
COGNITIVISM
• Grew in response to Behaviorism. Knowledge is stored cognitively as symbols.
Learning is the process of connecting symbols in a meaningful and memorable way.
Studies focused on the mental processes that facilitate symbol connection.
COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORIES
DISCOVERY LEARNING (BRUNER)
MEANINGFUL VERBAL LEARNING (AUSUBEL) • • • Anybody can learn anything
at any age, provided it is stated in terms they can understand. Powerful Concepts (Not
Isolated Facts) • • • Transfer to many different situations. Only possible through
Discovery Learning. Confront the learner with problems and help them find solutions. Do
not present sequenced materials. Advance Organizers: • New material is presented in a
systematic way and is connected to existing cognitive structures in a meaningful way. •
When learners have difficulty with new material, go back to the concrete anchors
(Advance Organizers). • Provide a discovery approach and they will learn.
COGNITIVISM IN THE CLASSROOM • Inquiry-Oriented Projects • Provide
opportunities for the testing of hypotheses. • Curiosity is encouraged. • Stage
Scaffholding
12. CRITIQUES OF COGNITIVISM • Like Behaviorism, knowledge itself is given and
absolute. • Input – Process – Output model is mechanistic and deterministic. • It does not
account enough for individuality. • It has little emphasis on affective characteristics.
13. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
14. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY • • • • Grew out of Cognitivism. Learning takes
place through observation and sensorial experiences. Imitation is the sincerest form of
flattery. Social Learning Theory is the basis of the movement against violence in media
and video games.
15. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY Learning from Models: 1. Attend to pertinent clues.
2. Code for memory (store a visual image). 3. Retain in memory. 4. Accurately reproduce
the observed activity. 5. Possess sufficient motivation to apply new learning.
1. 16. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY Research indicates that the following factors
influence the strength of learning from models: 1. How much power the model seems
to have. 2. How capable the model seems to be. 3. How nurturing/caring the model
seems to be. 4. How similar the learner perceives self and model. 5. How many
models the learner observes.
2. 17. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY Four interrelated processes establish and
strengthen identification with the model: 1. Children want to be like the model. 2.
Children believe they are like the model. 3. Children experience emotions like those
the model is feeling. 4. Children act like the model.
3. 18. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY • Through identification, children come to
believe they have the same characteristics as the model. • When they identify with a
nurturing and competent model, children feel pleased and proud. • When they identify
with an inadequate model, children feel unhappy and insecure.
4. 19. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY IN THE CLASSROOM • Collaborative
Learning and Group Work • Modeling Responses and Expectations • There are
opportunities to observe experts in action.
5. 20. CRITIQUES OF SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY • It does not take into account
individuality, context and experience as mediating factors. • Suggests students learn
 best as passive receivers of sensory stimuli, as opposed to being active learners. •
Emotions and motivation are not considered important or connected to learning.
6. 21. SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM

7. 22. SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM • Grew out of and in response to Cognitivism and

was framed around Metacognition. • Knowledge is actively constructed. • Learning is:
• • • • • A search for meaning by the learner. Contextualized An Inherently Social
Activity Dialogic and Recursive The Responsibility of the Learner
8. 23. SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM IN THE CLASSROOM • Journaling •
Experiential Activities • Personal Focus • Collaborative and Cooperative Learning
9. 24. CRITIQUES OF SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM • Suggests that knowledge is
neither given nor absolute. • It is often seen as less rigorous than traditional
approaches to instruction. • It does not fit well with traditional age grouping and rigid
terms/semesters.
MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES
10. MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES • Grew out of Constructivism and was framed around
Metacognition. • All people are born with 8 intelligences: • 1. Verbal-Linguistic 2.
Visual-Spatial 3. Logical-Mathematical 4. Kinesthetic 5. Musical 6. Naturalist 7.
Interpresonal 8. Intrapersonal Enable students to leverage their strengths and
purposefully target and develop their weaknesses.
MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES IN THE CLASSROOM
• Delivery of instruction via multiple mediums.
• Student-Centered Classroom
• Authentic Assessment
• Self-Directed Learning
CRITIQUES OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES
• Lack of quantifiable evidence that MI exist.
• Lack of evidence that use of MI as a curricular and methodological approach has
any discernible impact on learning.
• Suggestive of a departure from core curricula and standards.