Psychological,

Sociological

Foundations
Education of

Unit II
The Learner
Submitted by:
Jenelyn P. Urriza

Submitted to:
Dr. Marilyn P. Pielago
The 4 Stages of Cognitive Development
Background and Key Concepts of Piaget's Theory
Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that children move through four
different stages of mental development. His theory focuses not only on understanding how
children acquire knowledge, but also on understanding the nature of intelligence.1 Piaget's
stages are:
Sensorimotor stage: birth to 2 years
Preoperational stage: ages 2 to 7
Concrete operational stage: ages 7 to 11
Formal operational stage: ages 12 and up

The Stages
Through his observations of his children, Piaget developed a stage theory of intellectual
development that included four distinct stages:
THE SENSORIMOTOR STAGE
Ages: Birth to 2 Years
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
 The infant knows the world through their movements and sensations.
 Children learn about the world through basic actions such as sucking, grasping,
looking, and listening.
 Infants learn that things continue to exist even though they cannot be seen (object
permanence)
 They are separate beings from the people and objects around them.
 They realize that their actions can cause things to happen in the world around them.
During this earliest stage of cognitive development, infants and toddlers acquire knowledge
through sensory experiences and manipulating objects. A child's entire experience at the
earliest period of this stage occurs through basic reflexes, senses, and motor responses.
The cognitive development that occurs during this period takes place over a relatively short
period of time and involves a great deal of growth. Children not only learn how to perform
physical actions such as crawling and walking; they also learn a great deal about language
from the people with whom they interact.
THE PREOPERATIONAL STAGE

Ages: 2 to 7 Years

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

 Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to represent
objects.
 Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from the
perspective of others.
 While they are getting better with language and thinking, they still tend to think about
things in very concrete terms.

Children become much more skilled at pretend play during this stage of development, yet
continue to think very concretely about the world around them. 

At this stage, kids learn through pretend play but still struggle with logic and taking the point
of view of other people. They also often struggle with understanding the idea of constancy.
For example, a researcher might take a lump of clay, divide it into two equal pieces, and then
give a child the choice between two pieces of clay to play with. One piece of clay is rolled
into a compact ball while the other is smashed into a flat pancake shape. Since the flat
shape looks larger, the preoperational child will likely choose that piece even though the two
pieces are exactly the same size.
THE CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE
Ages: 7 to 11 Years
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
 During this stage, children begin to think logically about concrete events.
  They begin to understand the concept of conservation; that the amount of liquid in a
short, wide cup is equal to that in a tall, skinny glass, for example.
 Their thinking becomes more logical and organized, but still very concrete.
 Children begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from specific information to a
general principle.
 While children are still very concrete and literal in their thinking at this point in
development, they become much more adept at using logic. The egocentrism of the
previous stage begins to disappear as kids become better at thinking about how other
people might view a situation.
During this stage, children also become less egocentric and begin to think about how other
people might think and feel. Kids in the concrete operational stage also begin to understand
that their thoughts are unique to them and that not everyone else necessarily shares their
thoughts, feelings, and opinions.
THE FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE
Ages: 12 and Up
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
 At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think abstractly and reason about
hypothetical problems.
 Abstract thought emerges.
 Teens begin to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social, and political issues that
require theoretical and abstract reasoning.
 Begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle to specific information.

The final stage of Piaget's theory involves an increase in logic, the ability to use deductive
reasoning, and an understanding of abstract ideas. At this point, people become capable of
seeing multiple potential solutions to problems and think more scientifically about the world
around them.

It is important to note that Piaget did not view children's intellectual development as a
quantitative process; that is, kids do not just add more information and knowledge to their
existing knowledge as they get older. Instead, Piaget suggested that there is
a qualitative change in how children think as they gradually process through these four
stages. A child at age 7 doesn't just have more information about the world than he did at age
2; there is a fundamental change in how he thinks about the world.

Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development

Kohlberg's theory proposes that there are three levels of moral development, with each level
split into two stages. Kohlberg suggested that people move through these stages in a fixed
order, and that moral understanding is linked to cognitive development. The three levels of
moral reasoning include preconventional, conventional, and postconventional.

STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

LEVEL 1 - PRECONVENTIONAL MORALITY
Preconventional morality is the first stage of moral development, and lasts until
approximately age 9. At the preconventional level children don’t have a personal code of
morality, and instead moral decisions are shaped by the standards of adults and the
consequences of following or breaking their rules.
For example, if an action leads to punishment is must be bad, and if it leads to a reward is
must be good.
Authority is outside the individual and children often make moral decisions based on the
physical consequences of actions.
• Stage 1. Obedience and Punishment Orientation. The child/individual is good in order to
avoid being punished. If a person is punished, they must have done wrong.
• Stage 2. Individualism and Exchange. At this stage, children recognize that there is not
just one right view that is handed down by the authorities. Different individuals have
different viewpoints.
LEVEL 2 - CONVENTIONAL MORALITY
Conventional morality is the second level of moral development, and is characterized by an
acceptance of social rules concerning right and wrong. At the conventional level (most
adolescents and adults), we begin to internalize the moral standards of valued adult role
models.
Authority is internalized but not questioned, and reasoning is based on the norms of the group
to which the person belongs.
A social system that stresses the responsibilities of relationships as well as social order is
seen as desirable and must, therefore, influence our view of what is right and wrong.
• Stage 3. Good Interpersonal Relationships. The child/individual is good in order to be
seen as being a good person by others. Therefore, answers relate to the approval of others.
• Stage 4. Maintaining the Social Order. The child/individual becomes aware of the wider
rules of society, so judgments concern obeying the rules in order to uphold the law and to
avoid guilt.
LEVEL 3 - POSTCONVENTIONAL MORALITY
Postconventional morality is the third stage of moral development, and is characterized by an
individuals’ understanding of universal ethical principles. These are abstract and ill-defined,
but might include: the preservation of life at all costs, and the importance of human dignity.
Individual judgment is based on self-chosen principles, and moral reasoning is based on
individual rights and justice. According to Kohlberg this level of moral reasoning is as far as
most people get.
Only 10-15% are capable of the kind of abstract thinking necessary for stage 5 or 6 (post-
conventional morality). That is to say, most people take their moral views from those around
them and only a minority think through ethical principles for themselves.
• Stage 5. Social Contract and Individual Rights. The child/individual becomes aware that
while rules/laws might exist for the good of the greatest number, there are times when they
will work against the interest of particular individuals. 
The issues are not always clear-cut. For example, in Heinz’s dilemma, the protection of life is
more important than breaking the law against stealing.
• Stage 6. Universal Principles. People at this stage have developed their own set of moral
guidelines which may or may not fit the law. The principles apply to everyone.
E.g., human rights, justice, and equality. The person will be prepared to act to defend these
principles even if it means going against the rest of society in the process and having to pay
the consequences of disapproval and or imprisonment. Kohlberg doubted few people reached
this stage.
Significance of Developmental Theories to Education
 Recognition of the crucial role of children’s self-initiated, active involvement in
learning activities
 A deemphasis on practices aimed at making children adultlike in their thinking
 Focus on the process of children’s thinking, not just its products
 Acceptance of individual differences in developmental progress
 The importance of a consistent and regular satisfaction of needs during the early stage
of development
 Providing experiences to children during pre-school age that will encourage
independence and reward initiative , within their capabilities
 The need to help adolescents cope with their struggles to know and established a clear
sense of identity
 Develop a sense of mastery and industry for providing opportunities to children of
formal school age to acquire the basic skills and competencies
 A child is not inborn with skills, emotional controls, or attitudes