Paper 1

Photoelectric effect
Only one photon can transfer energy to a single electron
Photon energy depends on frequency
Photon energy must be greater than or equal to work function
Light with a greater intensity supplies more photon per second
So more electrons can be emitted per second.
Work function: The minimum energy required for the electron to escape from the metal

Atomic electron energies

Excited atom: Electron gain energy move to higher energy level
Emission: Electrons move to lower energy, emit photons
Only certain frequencies of radiation emit: electrons exist in discrete energy levels
Only certain energy changes are possible.
Energy level: discrete energy of an atom/ allowed energy of electron
Photon: packet of energy
Ground state: the lowest energy level
Ionisation energy: the minimum energy required by an electron in an atom’s ground state in order to
remove the electron completely from the electron.
Fluid flow
Laminar flow is fluid moves with uniform line in which the velocity is constant over time
Turbulent flow is fluid velocity changes over time.
Object falling through a fluid, it moves at a steady speed in a constant direction because the resultant
force acting on it is zero through a fluid.
An object from rest will increases its speed until it reaches terminal velocity.

Paper 2
Proton is accelerated by linac
 Proton is accelerated by the electric field
 The alternating p.d means that as a proton emerges from one tube the next one is negative.
Length of drift tubes increases because proton travels further during that half period of the cycle
as its speed is grater
 p.d must switch at a constant frequency so time in each drift tube is the same
 Drift tube length become the same at the end of the of linac
 Speed of particles is near the speed of light
 Additional energy increases mass
 Time spent in each drift tube is constant and speed is constant.

Proton is accelerated by cyclotron

 Protons accelerated by electric field between the dees
 The magnetic field is perpendicular to proton motion
 This causes a centripetal acceleration
 The polarity has reverse when the proton reaches the gap again
 The path of the proton has larger radius with greater speed

Definition: A standard candle is a stellar known luminosity

The star is view from two position at 6 month intervals
The change in angular position of the star against background of fixed stars is measured.
Trigonometry is used to calculate the distance

Explain how a standard candle can be used to determine distance

Standard candle has a known luminosity
(Radiation) flux/brightness of standard candle is measured at the
Earth
Inverse square law used to calculate distance

Main sequence: A star that is fusing hydrogen in its core

Nuclear fusion energy release:
Hydrogen nuclei combine to form helium
There is loss of mass
This mass loss convert to energy and release
When the star runs out of hydrogen, it becomes a Red giant.
White draft: These stars have small surface area. The have a very high temperature and emit all visible
wavelength so they appear white

Baryon : 3 quarks
Mesons : a quark and an anti quark
Antiparticle :  has the same mass but opposite charge
Pion quark composition: π + : u d π 0 : u u or d d π − : d u
Kaon quark composition : K + : u s K 0 : d s and s d K − : s u
Pair production: The photon energy produces an electron and a positron
Annihilation: a particle meets it antiparticle to form 2 photns