CHA Introduction Children learn every day. This happens in various settings and d ways. Learning at times happens intentionally and with great effort there are situations where it happens almost effortlessly. This chapter on learners with additional needs, highlighting the definition, identificat learning characteristics, and general education adaptations. Objectives: At the end of the chapter, you will be able to: + _ identify the various additional needs learners might have; : * differentiate the additional needs from one another; * recognize the characteristics of learners with additional needs; * discuss what marginalization means; and + identify different marginalized groups. |. LEARNERS WHO ARE GIFTED AND TALENTED A. Definition Learners who are gifted and talented are students with higher abilities _ than average and are often referred to as gifted students. This group refers _ to students whose talents, abilities, and potentials are developmentally — advanced. They require special provisions to meet their educational needs, thus presenting a unique challenge to teachers, They often finish tasks ahead and might ask for more creative tasks or exercises, Exciting and energizing activities should be provided to continuously keep them motivated. This Sroup includes students with exceptional abilities from all socio-economic, ethnic, and cultural populations. What is the difference then between gifted and talented? The term giftedness refers to students with extraordinary abilities in various academic areas. However, talent focuses on students with extraordinary abilities in a specific area, There is also another way to look into giftedness which is conceptualized by Gardner in 1993. According to him, intelligence is multifaceted. The following intelligences are seen in Figure 6.1.Gets bored easily Can retain and recall information Excited about learning new concepts Independence in learning Good comprehension of complex contexts Strong, well-developed imagination Looks for new ways to do things Often gives uncommon responses to common questions D. General Educational Adaptations Learners who are gifted and talented usually get bored since they have mastered the concepts taught in classes. One thing that is common among gifted students is that they are very inquisitive. Fulfilling their instructional needs may be a challenging task. These are some suggested strategies for _ teaching gifted students: Teachers may give enrichment exercises that will allow learners to study the same topic at a more advanced level, Acceleration can let students who are gifted and talented can move at their own pace thus resulting at times to in completing two grade levels in one school year. Open-ended activities with no right or wrong answers can be provided, emphasizing on divergent thinking wherein there are more possibilities than pre-determined answers. Leadership roles can be given to gifted students since studies have shown that gifted students are often socially immature. Extensive reading on subjects of their own interest may be coordinated with the school librarian to further broaden their knowledge. Long-term activities may be provided, that will give the gifted students an opportunity to be engaged for an extended period of time.Il, LEARNERS WITH DIFFICULTY SEEING A. Definition Students in the classroom will exhibit different levels of clarity of eyesight or visual acuity. There may be some students with hampered or restricted vision. Learners with difficulty seeing are those with ssues regarding sight that interfere with academics. The definition aie Paatviduals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) states that “an impairment in vision that, even with correction, adversely affects a child’s educational performance, which includes both partial sight and blindness.” These students ney need to have their eyesight corrected by wearing glasses or other optical devices. B. Identification Learners with difficulty seeing often have physical signs, such as crossed eyes, squinting, and eyes that turn outwards. They may also be clumsy, usually bumping into objects which causes them to fall down. They like to sit near the instructional materials or at times would stand up and go near the visual aids. Learners with difficulty seeing may also show poor eye-hand coordination. This can be seen in their handwriting or poor performance in sporting activities. Another indication is poor academic performance as these students might have difficulty reading as well as writing. C. Learning Characteristics Good visual ability is critical in learning. Most school lessons are done through blackboard writing, presentations, or handouts, in most major ‘subjects. Visual impairments, whether mild, moderate, or severe, affect the student’s ability to participate in normal Classroom activities. In the ‘past, students who are visually impaired are placed in special institutions Nowadays, most are enrolled with other children who are not visually impaired. Learners with difficulty seeinghave restricted ways to learn incidentally from their surroundings since most of them learn through visual clues Because of this, the other senses are used to acquire knowledge. Due to the limited ability to explore the environment, low Motivation to discover is present.MODULE 1 D. General Educational Adaptations diffi Modification in teaching is needed (0 accommodate students with culty seeing. The following strategies may be considered: If the use of books is part of your lesson, students with difficulty Seeing should be informed ahead of time so that they ean be ordene in braille or in an audio recorded format. Portions of textbooks and other printed materials may be recorded s0 that visually-impaired students can listen instead of focusing on the visual presentation, All words written on the board should be read clearly. Students with difficulty seeing should be seated near the board so that they can easily move close to the instructional materials used during the lesson. A buddy can be assigned to a student with difficulty seeing as needed. This can be crucial to assist in the mobility of the student such as going to the other places in school during the day. Students with difficulty seeing might need more time to complete @ task or homework. This might be on a case to case basis. Teachers should be aware of terminology that would require visual acuity (such as over there or like this one) which the impaired student may not possess. Teachers should monitor the students closely to know who needs extra time in completing tasks. This refers to students with an issue regarding hearing that interferes - with academics, The definition from Individuals with Disabilities Education "Act (IDEA) defines it as “an impairment in hearing, whether permanent or : fluctuating, that adversely affects a child’s educational performance but is ot included under the definition of ‘deafness’.” Deafness is considered when hearing loss is above 90 decibels. A hearing loss below 90 decibels is called hearing impairment. The main challenge of hearing-impaired students is communication, Dgince most of them have varying ways of communicating. The factorsaffecting the development personality, the degree and environment, and the age ofSemantics refers to the and combination of wor Vocabulary, concept words, and categories, (eg., narrating, explaining, \g, etc.), (2) char F language according to the context (e.g,, talking to a peer as compared to speaking to a well-respected professor), and (3) following rules for conversations and story-telling (eg, taking turns, rephrasing when unclear, how to use _ facial expressions and eye contact, etc.) (American Speech- Language Hearing Association, 2011 cited in Heward, 2013). Knowing these terms is necessary to understand the different bilities that are associated with communication disorders, namely Speech Impairments and Language Disorders. disal Speech Impairments are communication disorders such as stuttering, impaired articulation, and language or voice impairment. Such disorders are significant enough that they can adversely affect a student’s academic performance. There are four basic types of speech impairments: articulation, phonological, fluency, and voice disorder (see Table 6.2). Table 6.2. Types of speech impairments A child is unable to “I want a blue lollipop.” produce a given sound physically. Severe “I want a boo wowipop.” articulation disorder may ‘ulation disorder ete ee Can I get three bananas?” are substitutions, omissions, distortions, and additions of speech sounds. “An I et tee nanas?”A child produces multiple | “That pie is good. atterns of sound errors ‘ ‘with ‘obvious impairment | “Cat bye is tood. of intelligibility. There is Pho ical disorder also noted inconsistent Pea ta misarticulation of sounds (ie, sometimes a child is able to articulate it but {not in other words). Difficulties with the Blocks: hhythm and timing of ¥ ee Stuttering i “Twant a... banana. an example marked by rapide repetiions (locks) ’ of consonant or vowel sounds especially a Prolongations Fluency disorder the beginning of words, | ; prea hesitations, | “Twaaaant a bbbanana. interjections, and complete verbal blocks | Repetitions (Ramig & Shames, 2006 cited in Gargiulo 2012). | “I want a ba-ba-ba- banana,” Problems with the qual- | Phonation disorder Pee eet Nae eness Voice disorder of the larynx. Voice may be excessively hoarse, Hypernasality breathy, or too high- pitched. Hyponasality _ Language Disorders involve problems in one or ‘More of the five components ‘of language and are often Classified as expressive or Teceptive. Language lties in acquiring use of language that result from deficits in comprehension that {i limited e structure, and impairments in discourse, that limit ild’ “ z ( a child’s functioning (American Psychiatric Association 2013). To i language disorder, the difficulties Must not be due to an accompanying medical or neurological condition and other developmental disability (Le, intellectual disability or global developmental delay), : There are different types of di x : i 4 combination of the two, pee language disorder. expressive, receptive, and : expressive language disorder interferes with the Production of language. A child may) have very limited Vocabulary that impacts communications skills or mMisuses words and phrases in Sentences. On the other 96 Foundations of special and Inch d 5 lusive Education. " ;hand, a rece \ 4 Beare is language disorder interferes Witt! ae AY Nave difficulty understanding §p0 ections a teacher gives, Some children may De receptive and expressive language disorden Atthis point, itis jon that p Disorder (ASD) also hoy aa rai au term for related disorders that affect social development a (Kirk et al. 2015), students with ASD display a triad of imp! relationships, social communication, and social understanding, that are subsumed under ASD are Rett Syndrome, Pervasive Disorder, and Asperger's Syndrome. Oftentimes, students with ASD di in the pragmatic use of language that impact their social relationships, B. Identification Communication difficulty is oftentimes one of the most com! flags observed by family members, daycare workers, and early: teachers. Noted absence, delays, and difficulties in speech and/or often prompt family members to consult their general pediatrician who t! makes referrals to developmental pediatricians and other speciali ¥ To screen children with communication difficulties, early child ; professionals use questionnaires and developmental checklists to determ a the severity ofthedelayas compared with typicallanguage development. U screening, a child may receive educational supports and accom! to help address the delay. If the difficulty is pronounced, referrals already be made to developmental pediatrician and a speech and la u pathologist. At times, referrals are also made to an occupational tl speech difficulty is resulting from motor problems. How do specialists determine a speech and/or language probler comprehensive speech and language evaluation to determine the ofa communication disorder involves several components (Heward 20 Case history and physical examination, Assessment always begins with the case history that provides the specialistthe necessary backgro the child’s birth and developmental history, health record, achievement _ test scores, and adjustment in school. The specialist examines the child’s Oral-Peripheral Mechanism which includes the mouth, noting inregularities in the tongue, lips, teeth, palate, or other structures that may affect speech production. i CHAPTER 6 ars with Additional Needs 97Use pictures, charts, and other visual aids when supplement "a information, Sate directions into short steps: Break down can and give each one at a time instead of just repeating, Provide a written copy of directions for a task so the back to it at his/her own pace. : Use gestures to clarify information. 8. Use peer-mediated instruction so that peers without oe Serve as language models and learning buddies. 9. Provide extra time to prepare for oral language activities. Do not children with communication difficulties/disorders to recite in class. Call other typically developing children first to serve language models. 10. Model correct language forms and use appropriate wait times (3-5 seconds or more) to give the child time to think and respond. 11. Explicitly teach vocabulary that is needed in the learning context to Promote better comprehension. Universal Design for Learning, alongside different accommodatio: (Le, presentation, response, setting, and timing) that are appropriate the child, and collaboration between the general education teacher and the special education professional, will all help ensure that children " communication difficulties/disorders have a chance to be successful in an inclusive classroom. LEARNERS WITH DIFFICULTY MOVING/WALKING The previous section presented the strengths, difficulties, limitations, and educational strategies in working with and helping children with difficulties/disorders in communication. This section now focuses on learners with difficulty moving and/or walking, thus focusing on physical and motor disabilities, their learning characteristics, abilities, and the support they need in an inclusive classroom. A. Definition When a child has difficulty moving and/or walking, the physical domain of development is affected. Examples of physical disability are developmental coordination disorder or dyspraxia, stereotypic movement disorder, tics and cerebral palsy. Each one is defined in the succeeding sections. tests 2MODULE Diplegia Legs are affected, less ment of the arms leg B. Identification Developmental Coordination Disorder. Identifying motor difficulties begins with family members and early chil Practitioners, Upon noticing that their child is showing difficulties and de in fine and/or gross motor movements, parents oftentimes consult | general pediatrician who in turn may refer them to other specialists asa developmental Pediatrician, a physical therapist, or an occupat therapist. Some signs that a child may have developmental coordi disorder, that is more than just typical difficulty in moving or walking, Presented in Table 6.5 (Nordqvist 2017). i Table 6.5. Signs of developmental coordination disorder Developmental Stage Difficulty in tying shoelaces, button- ing, using spoon and fork, and getting dressed; problems in jumping, skippin eer tidhona catching, and kicking a ball; a higher tendency to buinp into things, to fall over, or to drop things ’ The difficulties in early childhood be- come more pronounced; tries to avoid sports; works on writing tasks for a longer period of time in comparison to typically developing peers In conducting an assessment, a specialist determines the child _ developmental history, intellectual ability, and gross and fine motor skills. differentiate between the two, gross motor skills involve the use of large muscl in the body to coordinate body movement, which includes throwing, jumping walking, running, and maintaining balance. On the other hand, fine motor skills involve the use of smaller muscles that are needed in activities like writing, " cutting paper, tying shoelaces, and buttoning. The evaluator needs to know when and how developmental milestones are ity to “touch, and performance in other gross and fine motor activities (Nordqvist 2017). EA achieved. Assessment is conducted to check the child’s balance, sensi CHAPTER 6 Learners with Additional Needs 103MODULE 1 Mental resources used to main attention for an extended period: B called vigilance (eg. staying Sustained attention while reading a chapter in a classical novel without any interruptions is finished). on a specific stimulus that is imp i while ignoring others (e.g., focusi ‘Selective attention aes 5 ears trenton neously (eg, listening to music rit Students with Learning Disability (LD) and/or Attention D ‘Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) are characterized by having difficulties 1 mory and attention functions. The subsequent sections present the sntification, and learning characteristics for each disability. LD It was Samuel Kirk who coined the term, hhe met with parents and families as they discussed about st neountered pronounced difficulties in school despite having aver “CHAPTERS Learners with Additional(4 ria for ADHD, which include inattention, hyperactivity and impulsivity, and mbination of the two, For a child to be diagnosed with ADHD, the observed iors should meet the following criteria: Display a persistent pattern for at least 6 months that Significantly) interferes with functioning or development Observed in two or more settings (e.g. at home, school, friends or relatives; and in other activities) Several of the symptoms were present before the age of 12 yeai CHAPTER 6MODULE 1. *& 1.LD In identifying studentewith LD, adiscrepaney betweenacademic and intelligence needs to be established using tests that measure inte and standardized achievement tésts, Children with LD oftentimes d ae to above average intelligence but perform below their grade place ‘levement tests of reading, spelling, math, and written expression. Problem, however, in identifying children with LDis establishing the disc __as there is no clear description or level of. discrepancy to occur for a student to} diagnosed to have LD (Gargiulo 2012), i M addition to the use of clinical testing, teachers can provide eccontiall mation about a student's patterns of abilities and difficulties. Conductin; student observations, interviews, and error analysis of schoolwork will provi the supplementary information needed to determine ways to help a child who may be atrisk and/or have signs of a learning disability. A clinical/educational Psychologist and/or a special education diagnostician use all available data from: norm-referenced tests, teachers’ observations, analysis of achievement tests, and Parent interview to determine if the learning difficulties may be attributed to the presence of a learning disability. info! On the other hand, identifying children with specific learning disabilities, do not adhere to the achievement-potential discrepancy. In its place, what is measured is the discrepancy between the current level of skills (Le., reading, spelling, math, written expression) and the expected grade level performance in achievement tests in reading, spelling, oral reading fluency, and math. This discrepancy needs to be established to ascertain that the underlying difficulties emanate from the disability and not due to other contributory factors. To create a holistic picture of the learner, observations, and interviews with parents and teachers are essential. 2. ADHD There are four components that are needed in identifying students with ADHD: (1) medical examination, (2) clinic interviews, 3) use of teacher and parent rating scales, and (4) behavioral observations (Hallahan et al. 2014). Each one is discussed as follows. Medical examinations are needed to rule out the presence of sensory impairment or middle ear infections that can cause hearing problems. Other CHAPTER6 Learners with Additional Needs 111WINN LO WHO ave dot relation Wwe Detlon atonal expReRRION I HRUIS. Such ACAdonts are hotterat oxprossiig tt SAC AVe Made Co Canster thele thoughts tO. WHIRINg: A ONS Of reading al Lexi AW phonological peng! a Hh Aueney, Huodamental to roading is phonological awa that all Words cain be segmented into phonemes (sound _s weitten Word correspond to these sounds, Individuals with _ phonological awareness that subsequently impedes word reading ab acouracy, This basic weakness, then, blocks access to higher Sses and (0 gaining meaning from text, Thus, problems with compre De attributed to inaccurate decoding and lack of oral reading fluen se higher-level skills of vocabulary, reasoning, problem-solving, tion, and general intelligence (Shaywitz 2003), TO a certain extent, their reading skills may be compared with | dren who are at the beginning reading level, Oral reading fluency ten slowand laborious, others reading inaword-by-word fashion, attimes substituth “words, and lacking in proper intonation/expression due to poor decoding. and sight word vocabulary, Table 6,11 shows a sample oral reading of a year old student with dyslexia, It is expected that the student will not be ab understand the passage well because of all the substitution errors unless he/sI _ uses his/her prior knowledge and experience revolving. around the story. i ‘Table 6.10. Sample oral reading and spelling ofa student with dyslexia man got out of the car. Ina man got out of the car, had a pretty box under his arm, He had a pet pate on his arm: little girl ran from the house to meet Alet girl run form... farm the house to ithe man. meet him ’ allo, Father” she said. “Hello, Father,” she said. Do you have a surprise for me?’ Father said, “Ihave some ; Father said, “I have something f¢ “Do you have a sharp for me?’ thing for: i you got girl.” ‘The girl let her. “I have give good.” “Lam very good.” Student's Spell ip i CHAPTER 6 Leamers with AddtionalNeeds 113 AIn terms of writen language, students | letters or words, have veka organization, sentence fluency, handwriting, spelling, and gran 2017), 2M AAS for math skills, the d grade (Shalev 2004). Forinst the retrieval of basic math faMODULE * with dyslexia is Charles Schwab, founder of Charles § 2 attributes his success to his dyslexia. He only was 40 years old after his son was diagnosed wit being excellent in economics and business, he narral words to understand them when he was younger and understanding books about topics unfamiliar to him. he was able to think of out-of-the-box solutions. In relation to this, Shaywitz (2003) presented a “Sea of Dyslexia,” where weakness in decoding is compensated through such as reasoning, concept formation, comprehension, ger _ problem-solving, vocabulary, critical thinking, and reasoning a 7 the reason why students with dyslexia are oftentimes active in class recit and projects but struggle with literacy tasks that involve reading andi stemming from their phonological deficits. D. General Educational Adaptations F ‘The use of Universal Design for Learning (UDL) principles, such providing multiple means of representation, expression, and engagement at effective for all types of learners and provide a level playing field for students with LD, SLD, and ADHD (see Table 6.11) Through a variety of approaches, — students with difficulty remembering and focusing-are given opportunities to compensate for their weaknesses and use their strengths to learn as much as their typically developing peers. Table 6.11. Application of UDL in an inclusive classroom. Audio books alongside real books Multimedia presentations and videos to supplement textbooks Math-manipulative materials and illustrations to reinforce lessons ‘Multiple means of representation Hands-on experiences, use of m il activities in addition to teacher-talkiat ‘(COLLEGE UF TEACHER ESUCATIOR MODULE 1 et al. 2014) demo, and phonics was Principles. Anot nstrated that explicit instruction it essential to develop a firm under ther meta-analysis conducted by found that phonics instruction is the most intensively’ “proach and the only one thathas been found to be effective a confirmed in improving the reading and spelling performance of and adolescents with reading disabilities. ___ Moreover, planning the classroom environment and how implemented is equally importantin an inclusive classroom. Be with LD and ADHD show a tendency to be restless, become hype have short attention spans, providing a classroom that is highly st and with clear expectations is essential. Class rules and norms, agr Toutines as well as schedules need to be written and accompanied and simple images. These need to be explained, displayed, and in consistently to make the classroom environment structured and safe children. One intervention that has been reported to be effective in students with ADHD is the use of the Daily Report Card (DRC), which is individualized intervention to manage target behaviors of a child ( et al.2016). It begins with an assessment through observation and te parent interviews to determine specific behaviors that need to be n and/or developed in a student (see Figure 6.2). Once identified, the behaviors are framed positively, and teachers monitor the student's p1 on the DRC throughout the day by recording whether the targets have bet met. A system of reinforcements and consequences is developed with th child. Reinforcements canbe in the form of tangible rewards such as sti stamps, puzzles, etc. but they can also be opportunities to do certain acti in school, such as having extra time in the classroom or library, having extra book to borrow, being the leader for the day, being the teacher’s lu buddy, and other activities. Parents are also included in the planning and implementation to promote home-school communication and collaboration. — In this manner, generalization of behaviors is targeted to the home setting vice-versa. A meta-analysis of DRC literature from 2007-2017 yielded results that ranged from weak to strong impact on the academic and social behavior CHAPTER 6 Learners with ‘daionl Neds, dwees pth wee MODULE 1 Table 6. Ds 8 € 6.12. Types of accommodations to provide supp: difficulty remembering and fo pe of Accommodation Bigger font sizes materials and w Leveled books that 1 student’s reading Audio books and/or } read aloud the selec Digital text that prov meanings — ‘ Advance organizers to ser guide during lectures — Preview of vocab key points to provide picture Active involvement in cl Use graphic organizers mind mapping techniques note-taking during class _ Explain and write direct step-by-step while sure student is attentive listeningMODULE 1 Il. LEARNERS WITH DIFFICULT This section presents anothet s care, or caring for oneself, A. Definition Self-care often refers activities or specific to oneself, brushing teeth, living. Oftentimes, such students | deficits, including individuals with Int Intellectual disability is ad _tnintellectual and adaptive functioning “and practical that occur during the _ with ID/IDD, a student must have deficits in domains (Kirk 2015). Children with Down's _ severe disability may also have ae _ B. Identification Young children suspected to have co difficulties with self-care can be identified at a’ __ approach to measuring levels of severity of “use of intellectual tests: * Mild level * Moderate + Severe * Profound adaptive functioning also needs to be ata; intellectual disability. In place of 1Q with ID is used to determine the level or