Module 1

BUILDING SERVICES-I (MODULE-I)
INTRODUCTION
Necessity & Requirement of water:
There are many element like air, water, food, shelter etc., available in the nature out of these water is
most important and essential requirement for the existence of human beings, animals and plants. Without
water, life cannot be continuing for long time and without sufficient water supply, the development of an
area is seriously affected.
Man uses water for variety of purposes, these include drinking, bathing, washing, heating, air
conditioning, irrigation, gardening, industrial processing, power generation, fire fighting, waste disposal,
swimming or other recreational purposes and also water has a political significance. Most of the bio-
chemical reactions which occur in metabolism and growth of living cells requires water. As such, water is
referred as the universal solvent.
Water as it is available in nature cannot be used because it contains impurities, these can cause
several health hazards and therefore, it is very essential that safe water is made to available to all consumers.
The drinking and usage of contaminated water may cause dysentery, typhoid, cholera etc., and only after the
bacteria are destroyed, the water is fit for drinking.
Introduction to sanitation:
Sanitation is one of the basic determinants of quality of life and human development index. Earlier
concept of sanitation was only limited to disposal of human excreta. But it also includes liquid and solid
waste disposal, food hygiene and disposal, domestic and environmental hygiene. Sanitation is the hygienic
means of promoting health through prevents of human contact with hazards of wastes. Hazards can be
physical, micro biological and biological and chemical agents of disease. Wastes that can cause health
problem are human and animal feces, solid waste, domestic waste water (sewage, sullage and grey water),
industrial wastes and agricultural waste. Hygienic means of prevention can be by using engineering
solutions (sewerage and waste water treatment) simple technologies (latrine, Septic tanks), or even by
personal hygiene practices (simple hand washing with soap)
Providing sanitation to people requires a system approach, rather than only focusing on the toilet or
waste water treatment plant itself. The experience of the user, waste collection methods, transportation or
conveyance of waste, waste treatment, and reuse or disposal of all need to be thoroughly considered.
Sanitation generally refers to the provision of facilities and services for the safe disposal of human urine and
feces. The word ‘sanitation’ also refers to the maintenance of hygienic conditions, through services such as
garbage collection and waste water disposal. Sanitation includes all four of these engineering infrastructure
items(even though often only the first one is strongly associated with the term sanitation): excreta
management systems, waste water management systems(included here are waste water treatment plants),
solid waste management systems, drainage systems for rain water, also called storm water drainage. The
over all purposes of sanitation are to provide a healthy living environment to everyone, to protect the natural
resources ( such as surface water, ground water, soil), and to provide safety, security and dignity to people
when they defecate or urinate. Effective sanitation provide barriers between excreta and humans in such a
way as to break the disease transmission cycle( for example in the case of fecal-borne diseases)
History of Sanitation:
A sophisticated and technologically advanced urban culture is evident in the Indus valley civilization
making them the first urban centres in the region. The quality of municipal town planning suggests the
knowledge of urban planning and efficient municipal governments which plays a high priority on hygiene or
alternatively, accessibility to the means of religious ritual. As seen in Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro and the
recently partially excavated Rakhi-Garhi, this urban plan included the world’s first urbanization systems.
With in the city, individual homes or groups of homes obtain water from wells. From a room that appears to
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have been set a side for bathing, waste water was directed to covered drains, which lined the major streets.
Houses opened only to inner courtyards and smaller lanes. The house building in some villages in the region
resembles in some respects the house building of the Harappa’s.
Importance of Health, Hygiene & cleanliness:

For any social and economic development, adequate sanitation in conjunction with good hygiene and
safe water are essential to good health. Lack of proper sanitation causes diseases. Most of the diseases
resulting from sanitation have a direct relation to poverty. The lack of clean water and poor sanitation causes
many diseases and spread them.
Lack of sanitation is a serious issue that is affecting most of the developing countries and
countries in transition. The importance of isolation of excreta and waste lies as an effort to prevent diseases
which can be transmitted through human waste, which afflict both developed countries as well as
developing countries to differing degrees.
It is estimated that up to 5million people die in each year from preventable water borne diseases, as a
result of inadequate sanitation and hygiene practices. The effects of sanitation have impacted the society of
people through out history. Sanitation is a necessity for a health life.
Primary functions of Sanitation:

Hygiene and disease protection:
 To maintain hygienic standard within the toilet and the washing areas.
 To store and dispose of excreta without the risk of contamination of pathogens into the environment.
 To collect and dispose of waste products in a hygienically safe manner.
Water protection:
 To store and dispose of excreta with no risk of polluting the ground water.
 Protection of surface waters from nutrients and organic matter originating from toilet and grey
water/waste water.
Natural resources conservation:
 Recycling of virtually all nutrients from the sanitary system on to productive land.
 Collection and recycling of water.
Diseases related to water:

Water borne diseases- Diseases caused by injection of water contaminated by human or animal excreta,
which contain pathogenic micro organisms, ex: cholera, typhoid, amoebic and bacilery dysentery and other
diarrheal diseases. In addition, water-borne disease can be caused by the pollution of water with chemicals
that have an adverse effect on health like arsenic, fluoride, nitrates from fertilizers, pesticides (DDT), lead
(from pipes) and heavy metals.
Water-washed disease
Diseases caused by poor personal hygiene and skin and eye contact with contaminated water. These
include scabies, trachoma, typhus and other flea, lice and tick-borne diseases.
Water-based diseases:
Diseases caused by parasites found in intermediate organism living in contaminated water.
Water-related diseases:
Water-related diseases are caused by insect vectors, especially mosquitoes, that bree or fee near
contamination water. They are not typically associated with lack of access to clean drinking water or
sanitation services. Include dengue, malaria, yellow fever etc.
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Rural Sanitation:
Open defecation is a huge problem in rural areas. Though it has reduced but the practise has not
completely vanished. Lack of priority to safe confinement and disposal of human excreta poses significant
health risks manifest in the sanitation challenge facing the nation today. It is estimated that 1 in every 10
deaths in India in villages, is linked to poor sanitation and hygiene. Diarrhoea, a preventable disease, is the
largest killer and account for every 20th death. Around 4,50,000 deaths were liked to diarrhoea in 2006, of
which 88% were deaths of children below 5. Prevalence of child under nutrition in India is among the
highest in the world studies show that the education of children especially the girl child is also significantly
impacted by poor sanitation. Girls are often forced to miss school or even drop out of education due to lack
of sanitation facilities in their schools. Another impact of poor sanitation and the resultant illness is the loss
of productivity of the family members. It is also know as lack of adequate sanitation leads to significant
losses for the country.
Government started the central rural sanitation programme (CRSP) in 1986 primarily with the
objective of improving the quality of life of rural people and also to provide privacy and dignity to women.
In 1999, a demand driven and people-centred sanitation programme was initiated under the name Total
Sanitation Campaign (TSC) which has some similarities with community-lead total sanitation (CLTS), but
is not the same. It evolved from the limited achievements of the first structured programme for rural
sanitation of India, The central rural sanitation programme, which had minimal community participation.
The main goal of total sanitation campaign is to eradicate the practise of open defecation by 2017.
community-lead total sanitation is not focused on building infrastructure, but on preventing open defecation
through self awareness.
Urban Sanitation:
The JMP (Joint Monitoring Programme) 2014 revised estimates for 2012 were 18% urban Indian
population defecating in the open and 75 using unimproved toilets and about 75% population having access
to sanitation-51% individual toilets and 24% sharing toilets. Urban sanitation is a form of sanitation which
focuses on maintaining sanitary conditions in urban environments. Many people think specifically of the
collection, treatment and disposal of human waste when they hear the words,” urban sanitation”, but
sanitation in urban environments is a much more complex system. Sanitation is an especially pressing issue
in slums, where crowded conditions and poor sanitation contribute to frequent out breaks of disease which
threaten the inhabitants of slums in addition to exposing other city residents to health risks.
Historically, urban communities gave little thought to sanitation, which turned into a major problem
in some areas. The edges of many urban streets were piled with garbage which could include dead animals
along with untreated human waste. Walking in urban streets was an exercise in avoidance, as people freely
threw garbage and human waste out onto the street without a care for those passing by, and disease was
rampant as a result of waste materials on the streets and in urban water ways. A growing understanding of
hygiene combined with social pressure from people tired of living in filth eventually led to the development
of urban sanitation. One of the major factors is human waste, which is generated in large volumes in urban
areas. Sewers which collect such waste and route it to central processing facilities are, therefore, a key
aspect of urban sanitation. So are facilities like public toilets, which discourage people from using the streets
as a bathroom. Urban sanitation also involves the management of water supplies. A good sanitation service
is concerned with providing safe drinking water for citizens. This can include isolating wells to prevent
them from being contaminated, securing water supplies from outside the city and developing a safe network
of pipes to deliver water to residents.
Sanitation department is also concerned in most of the urban areas by conducting a segregated
garbage collection and deliver it to a processing facility. Recycling and composting may be the elements of
municipal garbage collection and is designed to reduce strain on environment.
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Objectives of Water supply system:
 To provide adequate pure drinking water to the public.
 To provide adequate quantity to meet the minimum needs of an individuals.
 To prevent the pollution of water stored, conveyance and at source.
 To store the adequate quantity of water to meet the emergency situations like festivals, fire fighting
etc.
 To meet the future demands due to increase in population, living standards, etc.
 To maintain the treatment and distribution systems in good condition.
 To develop the city commercially and industrially.
 To maintain the cleanliness of the city.
Factors to be considered for water supply scheme:

1. Sources of water:
The source of water should be nearer and water treatment may be reasonable, as the cost of water
supply system depends upon the site selection of water resource.
2. Population forecast:
To design and maintain the economical and reliable water supply system, the probable
population to the city or town should be calculated for the future decades.
3. Rate of water demand:
The quantity of water required for the water supply system depends on the probable population
and rate of consumption per capita. Rate of consumption per capita is multiplied by the population
gives the total quantity of water required.
4. Design period:
The total number of years for which the design of water works have been done is called as design
period. The designed period should not be too short nor too long. Generally, the water works are
designed for a period of 20-30 years. The design period normally depends on existing population,
rate of population growth, funds available, life of the pipes and other materials used etc.
5. Quality of water:
The water should be less turbid and with a negligible contamination to avoid excessive water
treatment.
6. Survey of area:
The survey of the area should be made properly considering each and every water requirement
places to meet the present and future water requirements at a city or town.
7. Trends of future development:
To have a proper design of water supply scheme for longer period, the trends of future
developments of a town or city should be properly predicted.
8. Topography:
The topography map of an area where water supply scheme is to be implemented should be
prepared and studied with respect to the population, ridges, low lying area to have an effective water
supply system.
9. Overhead reservoir:
Generally, after the treatment of water is stored in overhead reservoir or tank from where it is
supplied to the consumers. The location for the reservoir should be such that, the water flow easily
through the distribution system.
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Layout of Water Supply Project or scheme:
1. Location of intakes including pumping plant to get raw water for treatments.
2. Plain sedimentation tank to remove suspended impurities like clay, sand, silt etc.
3. Coagulation sedimentation tank to remove the suspended matter.
4. Filter units to remove micro-organs and colloidal matters.
5. Water softening and other miscellaneous treatment plants, to remove the hardness of water,
dissolved gases, taste, odour etc.
6. Disinfection plant to remove pathogenic bacteria.
7. Storage of clear water in underground and overhead reservoir tanks.
8. Distribution of water.
Estimation of minimum domestic water consumption for various purposes with full flushing systems:
Consumption in
SI No. Purpose Litres/person/day
1 Drinking 5
2 Bathing 75
3 Cooking 5
4 Washing utensils 15
5 Washing of floors etc. 15
6 Washing clothes 25
7 Flushing of toilets 45
8 Lawn watering & gardening 15
Total 200
Estimation of minimum domestic water consumption for various purposes LIG colonies:
Consumption in
SI No. Purpose Litres/person/day
1 Drinking 5
2 Bathing 55
3 Cooking 5
4 Washing utensils 10
5 Washing of floors etc. 10
6 Washing clothes 20
7 Flushing of toilets 30
Total 135
Per Capita demand and factors affecting the demand:

The per capita demand or rate of demand is the rate of water to be supplied per person per day. This
depends on several factors such as requirements for domestic, industrial needs, fire demands etc. The total
demand is worked out on per capita basis by dividing the total demand by the number of persons served.
…Q… = L/P/D
Px365
Q = Quantity of water per year in litres
P = Population served for
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SI No. Uses Demand in l/p/d
1 Domestic use 200
2 Industrial use 50
3 Commercial use 20
4 Public or civic purpose 10
5 Waste and losses 55
Total 335
Following are the factors affecting the per capita demand:

1. Cost of water – The rate at which water is supplied to the consumers will effect the rate of demand.
Higher the water cost, lower be the demand and vice-versa.
2. Climatic conditions – The water requirement is more in summer than in winter. In case of cooler
and hotter places it will effect.
3. Habits of population – For high value premises, the water requirement is more due to high living
standard. In middle class premises, the consumption rate is medium. In case of slum areas the water
consumption is very low.
4. Distribution pressure – Higher the distribution pressure, higher the water consumption rate due to
increased loss or waste of water at high pressure. Therefore there should be a designed pressure to be
maintained.
5. Industries – If industries are present, the water consumption will be more. If however, the industry
has its own source of water supply supplementary to the city water supply, the consumption will not
be affected.
6. Quality of water – The consumption of water will be high, if the water quality is good.
7. Sewerage – If sewerage system exists in the town, then the water consumption rate is high. In a
sewered home were water will be used for flushing urinals and water closets.
8. Policy of metering – Metering consists in providing a meter in the pipeline from the water main to
the building served. Metering, generally reduces the consumption of water and forces the consumers
to use water carefully.
9. System of supply – If the water-supply to a town is continuous, then the water consumption is more.
10. Size of the city – Larger the city, higher the rate of water demand. For the city with industries, the
rate is still higher.
SOURCES OF WATER
The main source of water is rain, and when rain falls on the ground. It gets distributed in three ways.
1. Evaporation into atmosphere
2. Percolation into the ground to form underground water.
3. Flow on the ground surface to form rivers, streams, lakes etc.
Earth is made up of various layers of strata consisting of sand, gravel, soft rock etc. Sand, gravel and some
porous rocks allow rain water to percolate through them.
The layers containing or holding water in them are called as water bearing strata or Aquifers.
The layers which do not allow the passage of water through them are called as Impervious Strata.
If shafts are driven from the surface of the ground to the porous strata or aquifers, water collects in such
shafts, these shafts are called as Wells.
Inside the ground, the top most surface or profile of water is called as Water table.
The water available above the ground is called Surface water.
The water below the ground is called as Ground water.
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Classification of sources of water:
The sources of water may be classified into following:
1. Surface water
a. Tanks
b. Lakes, Ponds etc.
c. Rivers and streams
d. Sea
e. Impounding Reservoirs
2. Underground Sources
a. Springs
i. Gravity springs
ii. Artesian springs
b. Infiltration Galleries
c. Wells
i. Shallow wells
ii. Deep wells
iii. Artesian wells
iv. Bore wells and tube wells
Features of Surface water sources:
a. Tanks: In small villages and towns, tanks can be a main source of water supply. Generally, tanks are
used for irrigation, but in some cases, these are the only main available sources. By virtue of its
stagnated condition, tank water cannot be used directly for drinking and cooking. The water has to be
treated properly before it can be used.
b. Lakes and ponds: These are natural formed large depressions in the ground filled with water. If it is
small, it is called as pond and if it is big, it is called as a lake. Small streams and underground springs
contribute to the supply of lake water.
 The quality of lake water is usually good and not requires much purification.
 Larger and older lakes have purer water than smaller and recently formed ones.
 Due to sedimentation of particles, the lake water undergoes self-purification.
 Self-bleaching of colour and removal of bacteria also takes place.
 Lake water is better in appearance.
 These are best suitable for small towns and hilly regions.
 Some lakes due to growth of algae, weeds and unpleasant smell, colour and taste may be
produces in the water.
c. Rivers and streams: In rivers and streams, the water is usually dynamic and there is a scope for
natural filtration. But these days, due to the discharge of sewage or industrial wastes into rivers, the river
water is getting highly polluted, thereby requiring proper treatment for human consumption.
 The quantity and quality of water flowing in river depends on nature of catchment,
topography, soil characteristics, temperature, geographical conditions, nature and amount of
rainfall.
 Small rivers and streams usually feed their water to lakes or bigger rivers.
 Small rivers are not suitable for water supply projects
 Small rivers can be used as sources of water for small villages and hilly regions.
 Cities along the river get faster development.
 These are the important sources of public water supply schemes.
 The perennial river water is available throughout the year and can be used for public water
supply.
 In seasonal rivers, water is available during some seasons of the year.
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The natural water from Rivers and streams have Self-purification tendency to an extent. That is
when wastewater is discharged into the river or stream, the BOD of mix increases initially and DO level
starts falling. BOD is Biochemical oxygen demand (or biological oxygen demand) is the amount of
dissolved oxygen needed (i.e., demanded) which is consumed to completely oxidize the organic matter
is faster than the rate of atmospheric oxygen that can dissolve into the water. As river water travels
further BOD gradually reduces and DO increases, the recovery of oxygen lost to bacterial degradation of
organic waste is accomplished by the transfer of oxygen from the air into water, conversely gases
evolved in the water by the physical, chemical and biological processes are transferred from water to the
atmosphere and oxygen reaches its saturation level. Thus, water gets purified on its own. This
phenomenon is known as Self-purification of natural waters.
d. Sea: The sea water is salty and cannot be used directly for drinking, washing or cooking purposes.
Considerable efforts are underway to convert salt water into drinking water. The various processes used
for this conversion are:
i. Thermal distillation
ii. Electro-dialysis
iii. Solar distillation
iv. Separation by freezing
v. Reverse osmosis etc.
Desalination, removing the salt is a useful way of supplying water for deserts, islands, military camps, ships,
boilers, marine industry, fishery works etc.
e. Impounded reservoir: It is defined as an artificial lake created by the construction of a dam across a
valley containing a water course, or these are the basins constructed in the valleys of streams. These may
be in the form of earthen dams, concrete dams, masonry dams etc. these are very necessary in order to
store stream water during the monsoon, so that the water supply can be ensured though out the year. The
quality of water from the storage reservoir is almost like that of lake.
Features of Underground Water Sources:
The sub-surface which contributes to ground water may be in any one of the following forms:
a) Springs: These are regarded as outcrops of underground water and usually they appear as
small water pockets at the foot of a hill or along a river bank. The springs are of these types:
i. Gravity Springs: The gravity springs may be a result of out cropping of an impervious layer
of rock under a water bearing formation or outflow of water table by its continuous rise into
the side of the valley. The yield from a spring varies with rainfall and position of water table.
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ii. Artesian Springs: it is formed when two impervious strata enclose an aquifer or water
bearing stratum between them and the aquifer will be under pressure. The water rises to find
an outlet in the weaker portions (cracks, holes etc.) of the impervious strata and gushes out
under pressure. These springs gives a constant and uniform yield throughout the year. The
quantity of water obtaining by a spring is very small, therefore these are not suitable for big
water supply projects, but can be used as water supply sources for small areas.
b) Infiltration Galleries:
It is a horizontal or nearly horizontal tunnel, constructed through water bearing strata and it is
also call as horizontal well. The gallery is usually constructed by brick walls with R.C.C slab roof and
foundation(if required). The gallery gets its water from water bearing strata by various porous drain
pipes. The pipes are covered with gravel, pebbles etc., so as to prevent the entry of very fine material
into the pipe. The gallery is laid at a slope and the water collected in the gallery is carried to a sump
from where it is pumped and supplied to the public after proper treatment.
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c) Wells: The well is a vertical shafts or opening driven from the surface of the ground to an aquifer
for the purpose of tapping the water from the ground. Wells are classified into:
i. Shallow wells – The water from a shallow well is drawn from the pervious layer overlaying
the first impermeable layer. The well dug in the upper most layer of the earth. They get their
water supply from the subsoil water table. Water quality is good very good, needs
purification, supply yield is uncertain due to fluctuations of water table.
ii. Deep wells – Deep wells are wells dug into pervious layers below the first impermeable
stratum. They draw their supply from different pervious layers, so the yield is much greater
than from the shallow wells. Quality water is good as water travels through a number of
layers.
iii. Artesian wells – When a porous aquifer is enclosed between two impervious strata, an
artesian condition is created. The outcrop is so high that the hydraulic gradient line (HGL) is
above the ground level. This is possible in valley, when a shaft is driven in valley, water
gushes out with sufficient force. As HGL is above the top level of the well, no pumping is
necessary. But when it falls below the top level of the well, water requires lifting. The quality
of water from these wells is very pure. It is rare to have artesian conditions.
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iv. Bore wells or tube wells – Tube wells are deep wells of diameter (0.15 to 1.0m) and great
depth (60 to 300m). Holes of required diameter are driven to the required depth by using
boring machine into the permeable layers. The bores may be lined to some depth in order to
support the surrounding loose strata. For the remaining depth the bore is left without lining.
QUALITY OF WATER
The water which is available in nature is always dissolved with impurities. Even rainwater which is
in fact, distilled water, collects impurities such as dust, gases, bacteria etc. during its passage through
atmosphere. Water for domestic use should be clear, odourless, colourless, pleasant to drink and reasonably
cool and free from impurities harmful to health. Therefore water is analysed to determine its fitness for the
purpose to which it is required.
Impurities in water and Analysis:
Impurities in water may be classifies into following:
1) Physical impurities: These will give the taste, odour, colour and turbidity. Taste and odour may be
caused due to the presence of organic matter in the water during passage through ground; turbidity is caused
due to suspended and colloidal matter while colour may be due to presence of mineralogical compounds like
iron oxide etc.
These involves test for colour, odour and Turbidity.
a) Colour: Colour in water is due to the presence of floating organism, organic matter from
decomposing vegetation, natural metallic ions (Fe &Mn), humus(sludge), algae and industrial waste.
Effects – Objectionable appearance, discolour the clothing and adversely effect the industrial
proceedings.
Test – remove the suspended matter from water sample by centrifuging (i.e. rotating the cylinder
about its axis containing a sample of water).
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Comparing the sample colour with standard colour solution or colour discs.
The maximum permissible colour for domestic water is 50mg/l on platinum cobalt scale. The colour
test of water is done by using Tintomer.
b) Taste and odour: The taste and odour may be cause by decaying organic matter, algae and other
micro-organisms, iron etc. Taste and odour are subjective; these are to be discussed in terms of
comparison with what the person is familiar. Taste may be sweet, bitter, salty, they both are closely
related. Detection of taste and odour are not found accurately because of variation from person to
person. The test is made by inhaling through an osmoscope in a flask containing diluted water.
c) Turbidity: Turbidity of water is the apparent colour or opacity caused by the presence of suspended
matter like, clay, silt, finely divided organic and inorganic matter, floating and other microscopic
organisms etc. It is expressed by the amount of suspended matter in parts per million, ppm mg/l in
water by optical observations.
The Turbidity is measured by an instrument called Turbidimeter.
d) Temperature: The test for temperature has no practical meaning in the sense that it is not possible to
give any treatment to control the temperature I n any water supply project. The desirable temperature of
potable water is 10C while temperature of 25C is considered to be objectionable. If water temperature
is about 15C are collected for bacteriological analysis, they should be cooled down as quickly as
possible.
2) Chemical impurities: These are either organic or inorganic. This involves determination of pH value,
fluoride, hardness, dissolved oxygen, total solids, chlorides, manganese etc.
a) pH Value Test: The hydrogen concentration or pH value is measured of the degree of acidity or
alkalinity of water. The practical pH value extends from 0 (max. acidity) to 14 (max. alkalinity) with
the mid value 7 corresponds to exact neutrality. For public water supply, pH value should be
preferably between 7 and 8.5.
b) Total Solids: The solids may be suspension, in colloidal form or in dissolved form.
i. The quantity of suspended solids is determined by filtering the sample of water through a
fine filter (Imhoff Cone), drying and weighing.
ii. The quantity of dissolved and colloidal solids is determined by evaporating the filtered water
and weighing the residue.
iii. If the residue of total solids is fused in a muffle furnace, the organic solids are decomposed
leaving the inorganic solids. Total solids should not exceed 500ppm.
iv. The increase in total number of total solids in water leads to water pollution which in turn
leads to physiological effects on human system.
c) Hardness: It is property of water, which prevents the lathering of soap. It is caused by the presence
of carbonates, sulphates of calcium and magnesium, chlorides and nitrates of calcium and
magnesium. The temporary hardness which is caused by the presence of bi-carbonates of calcium
and magnesium can be removed by added lime to water. The permanent hardness caused by the
presence of sulphates, chlorides and nitrates of calcium and magnesium can be removed by boiling
water. Hard water is not preferred for human consumption and also causes scales on boilers, causes
corrosion, incrustation of pipes and makes food tasteless etc. it is expressed in ppm or in degrees
(10 = 100 ppm).
d) Chlorides: The chloride contains sodium chloride or salt. The excess presence of sodium chloride
indicates pollution of water due to sewage, minerals etc. for portable water the desirable level is
200mg/litre.
e) Iron and Manganese: These normally occur together in water and are not objectionable if present
less than 1.5mg/l. when more, results in growth of certain organisms. Can find rust spot son fabrics
etc.
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f) Fluorides: These occur largely in chemical water waters from industries, from itching of glass,
scrubbing of flue gases and in effluents from atomic energy plants etc. Fluorides are beneficial if
present in water in concentration up to 1mg/l. if it is more than this it result in fluorosis disease for
human.
g) Dissolved Oxygen: It is present in variable quantities in ground water. For safe water the content of
oxygen should be 5 to 10mg/l, if it exceeds causes corrosion of pipes and not suitable for drinking.
SI No. Impurities Causes Effects
Inorganic Impurities
(Minerals)
1 Suspended salt and clay particles Turbidity
i) Carbonates and bocarbonates of clacium
2 Dissolved and magnesium Hardness and alkalinity
ii) Sulphates and clorides of calcium and Hardness and corrosion of
magnesium boilers
iii) Carbonates and bocarbonates of sodium Alkalinity and softness

More than 50ppm. Causes blue
iv) Nitrates babies
v) Cholrides of sodium Brackish taste
Excess over 1.5ppm. Causes
vi) Fluorides of sodium staining of teeth
vii) Iron oxide Taste, colour and hardness
viii) Manganese taste and brown colour
Organic Impurities
Acidity, taste and change of
1 Suspended i) Vegetable-decayes leaves, algae, fungi etc. clour, bacteria
Water is ocntaminated and
ii) Animal-dead animals, hair insects etc. dangerous
i) Vegetable-large quantities of albuminoid
notrogen, with a little free ammonia and
2 Dissolved chorine Bacteria
ii) Animal- large quantities of albuminoid
nitrogen with a lot of free ammonia and Pathogenic bacteria, pollution
cholrides due to sewafe water, dangerous.
3) Bacteriological Impurities: These are caused by the presence of bacteria, making water unhealthy for
human consumption. The bacteriological examination of drinking water is very important to determine its
portability i.e. fitness for drinking. As may as diseases of the intestinal origin like typhoid fever, dysentery
etc. may transmitted to humans if the water is polluted with bacterial contamination. This involves the test
of B-coli, E-coli etc.
Potable water: Potable water is safe to drink, but smells objectionably. There is a ton of chemicals that can
be in water that are perfectly safe but taste like crap. That’s why many cities in the Great Lakes region of
the US have taste and odour problems with their water yet the water is considered safe.
Palatable water: Palatable water is water at a desirable temperature that is free from objectionable tastes,
odours, colours, turbidity and smells like nothing (water is odourless)
Water Borne Diseases and their control: Water borne diseases are those diseases which spread primarily
through contaminated waters and important of this water borne diseases are:
i. Diseases caused by bacterial infections:
a. Typhoid ever and paratyphoid fever
b. Cholera
c. Bacillary dysentery
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ii. Diseases caused by viral infections:
a. Infectious hepatitis or infectious jaundice
b. Poliomyelitis
iii. Diseases caused by protozoal infections:
a. Amoebic dysentery
All these water borne diseases are infectious in the sense that although they may also spread through
direct contact, or through flies or filth etc. yet since water is the main and prime media responsible for the
start and spread of these diseases, they are termed as water borne diseases.The germs or micro-organisms
responsible for spreading these diseases enter human body with food or water which has been contaminated.
Shallow wells waters in villages are more likely to get such contaminations due to the leakage of sewage
from cesspools etc. Sometimes, in cities too, the sewer pipe line may leak into water pipe lines or pollutants
can sometimes seep into leaky water pipe joint from dirty surroundings around the water pipe. Sometimes
the intake points or sources point only water might be contaminated due to inflow of sewage into it.
To avoid these situations following measures need to be taken:
a. The water supplies of the town or the city must be thoroughly checked and disinfected before supplying
to the public.
b. The water pipe lines should be frequently, tested, checked and inspected, so as to detect any leakage and
possible sources of contamination from nearby surroundings. The leaking joints must be properly sealed.
c. While laying or designing the water distribution system, attempts should be made as to keep the sewer
lines and water lines as far away as possible.
d. In case of the slightest doubts about the supplies, especially in time or rain or floods when surface
sources are likely to be most contaminated, people must be forewarned and advised to use boiled water.
e. The general habit of cleanliness must be inculcated among the people.
f. The fly nuisance in the city should be checked and reduced to minimum by general cleanliness and by
using insecticides.
Quality standards for Municipal or Domestic Supplies (National & International Standards):
Max. Limit
SI Generally acceptable to (above which supply
No. Characteristics consumer should be rejected)
1 Turbidity PPM (JTU scale) 2.5 10
Colour (units on platinum-cobalt
2 scale) 5 25
3 Taste & odour Unobjectionable Unobjectionable
4 Temparature 10C 15.6C
5 pH value 7.0 to 8.5 6.5 to 9.2
6 Total dissoved Solids (mg/l) 500 1500
7 Chlorides as Cl (mg/l) 200 1000
8 Total hardness as CaCO3(mg/l) 200 600

9 Sulphates as SO4 (mg/l) 200 400
10 Fluorides as F (mg/l) 1 1.5
11 Nitrates as NO2 (mg/l) 45 45
12 Calcium as Ca 75 200
13 magnesium as Mg (mg/l) 30 150
14 Iron as Fe (mg/l) 0.1 0.1
15 Zinc as Zn (mg/l) 5 15
16 Mineral Oil (mg/l) 0.01 0.3
17 Copper as Cu (mg/l) 0.05 1.5
18 Arsenic as As(mg/l) 0.05 0.05
19 Cadmium as Cd(mg/l) 0.01 0.01
20 Lead as Pb 0.1 0.1
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PURIFICATION OF WATER
Objectives of purification of water: Following are the objectives of purification of water
a. To remove the unpleasant taste, colour and smell
b. To remove pathogenic bacteria
c. To remove turbidity and suspended impurities
d. To regulate pH value within desirable limits
e. To remove the hardness
f. To remove the dissolved gases and harmful minerals
g. To make the water safe for drinking and domestic purposes.
After selecting the source of water for water supply scheme, for purification, the necessary treatment works
have to be decided due to the presence of impurities in the water.
A layout of typical treatment plant is:
8
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9
1 - Source 6 - Aeration
2 - Pre-chlorination/Screening (if required) 7 – Softening
3 - Plain Sedimentation/ Sedimentation with coagulation 8 - Storage and pumping
4 - Filtration 9 – Distribution system
5 – Disinfection
The above layouts consist of following units:
1. Intake works including pumping plant: the water is drawn from the source and process of cleaning
is done to exclude floating matter.
2. Plain sedimentation tank: Impurities such as clay, slit, and sand are removed by the sedimentation
process.
3. Clari-flocculator: Fine suspended particular and some bacteria are removed by the process of
coagulation in a clari-flocculator.
4. Filter beds: Very fine particles and colloidal matter which have escape extraction in sedimentation
tanks are removed by filtration
5. Disinfection plant: The bacteria that still remains in the water after the aforesaid treatment works
are reduced to a safe minimum limit by the disinfection process.
6. Aerators: the water is treated thereby exposing it to the atmospheric air to remove gases like Co2,
hydrogen sulphite and minerals such as iron.
7. Softening and miscellaneous treatments such as fluoridation, recarbonation liming, desalination
etc.
8. Pumping plant for pumping water to over-head reservoir
9. Distribution system: The water from over-head reservoir is distributed to consumers through pipes.
If the ground water is the source then filtration is not required as the water is already filtered while
percolation and requires only disinfection. Suitable processes are also included if the water contains
following impurities more than the required.
 Hardness
 Iron and Manganese
 Colour
 Fluorides
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SEDIMENTATION
Plain Sedimentation
Plain sedimentation is the process of allowing the water to rest or flow at a very slow velocity. So that the
heavier particles settle down due to gravity. However, the lighter particles do not settle down easily. The
process of settling depends on:
 Velocity of flow
 Size, shape & specific gravity of particles
 Viscosity of liquid
Types of sedimentation tanks: the different sedimentation tanks are
- Horizontal flow tanks - Vertical flow tanks
Horizontal Flow tanks: In these tanks the direction of flow is horizontal and these tanks are further divided
into – Rectangular tanks - Circular tanks flow tanks
Rectangular Tanks (continuous flow type): These tanks majorly have three zones- Inlet zone, settling zone
& outlet zone. The inlet pipe is tilted to the inside channel at one end. The inlet channel should be provided
with baffle wall to reduce the velocity of water and to provide uniform distribution of flow across the width
of the tank. The water is collected by a series of launders (outlet) with interconnection across the width of
the tank or one single launder with weir plate at the opposite end of inlet.
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Circular Tanks: In this tank, the water enters the tank through a central inlet pipe place deflector box. The
deflector box consists of wholes on the sides through which the water is deflected in the box and flows
radially towards the circumference. The water from the circumference goes out through the outlet. During
this process the suspended particles settles down on the sloping floor of the tank and get removed by means
of scraper. The scraper moves continuously around the floor at a very low velocity not greater than 4.5m/hr.
1. Inlet
2. Water Deflection
3. Outlet
4. Sludge discharge pipe
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Vertical Flow Tanks: This tank is also called as hopper bottom settling tank. In the inlet pipe of the hopper
is placed across up to the centre and it is brought down vertically in the hopper position. The heavy
suspended particles settle down at the bottom and are removed by means of an inclined sludge pipe and
which comes out of the tank through the vertical wall of the tank.
SEDIMENTATION WITH COAGULATION

In plain sedimentation the heavier particles gets settle down and fine particles takes many hours or
some times days to get settling down. A process of adding certain chemicals to water in order to form an
insoluble gelatinous, flocculent precipitate for absorbing and entraining suspended and colloidal matter is
called coagulation. A chemical called a coagulant have to be added to water so that fine particles are
removed rapidly and turbidity is reduced up to 20ppm. The bacterial load is also reduced to 5%.
Principles of coagulation:
 Floc formation: when a coagulant is added to the water and mixed thoroughly, a thick gelatinous
precipitate is formed which is insoluble in water which settles down, it attracts and arrests the
colloidal particles and brings them down.
 Electric charges: The ions produced from floc have +ve charges and colloidal particles have –ve
charge ions. The floc attracts the colloidal particles and brings them down.
Commonly used Coagulants:

 Salts of aluminium:
o Alum (aluminium sulphates)
o Filter alum
o Sodium aluminates
 Salts of iron:
o Ferrous sulphate
o Ferric sulphate
o Ferric chloride
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Process of coagulation:
a) Feeding b) Mixing c) Flocculation d) Sedimentation (Clarifying)
a) Feeding: The coagulant may be added to the raw water either in the form of powder or solution.
When it is fed ion powder form, the process is called dry feeding. When it is fed in solution form, the
process is called wet feeding. These feeding devices are automatic and are so designed that the coagulant
solution is fed in a proper rate to the raw water into the tank.
b) Mixing: Floc is formed efficiently only when the coagulant is mixed thoroughly with the water.
Commonly used device used for mixing is Flash mixer. It consists of rectangular tank provided with an
impeller, driven by an electric motor. The impeller revolves at a high speed; the coagulant is discharged just
below the blades of the impeller. Raw water is allowed through the inlet and the deflector wall guides the
water towards the rotating impeller. The water and coagulant are thoroughly mixed and the water is then
discharges from the outlet to a flocculation tank.
c) Flocculation Tank: Flocculation is done in a flocculation basin or chamber. It consists of a

rectangular tank with inlet, outlet and 3 chambers divided with baffle walls, stirring the water by paddles
with the help of a driving unit and which also regulates the velocity of the water at high, medium and slow
speeds before it enters the sedimentation tank.
d) Sedimentation Tank: It has been possible to combine the flocculation tank along with the
sedimentation tank; such a tank is known as coagulation sedimentation tank. In such tanks floc
chamber without any mechanical devices is provided before water in the sedimentation chamber.
The detention period of floc chamber is kept as 15 to 40minutes and that foe settling tank at about 2
to 4 hours.
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FILTRATION
Screening and sedimentation removes a large percentage of the suspended solids and organic mater
present in the raw supplies. The percentage of removal of fine colloidal matter increases when coagulants
are also used before sedimentation. But, however the resultant water will not be free of impurities, and mat
contain some very fine suspended particles (discrete or flocculated when coagulation is used) and bacteria
present in it. To remove or to reduce the remaining impurities still further, and to produce potable and
palatable water, the water is filtered through the beds of fine granular material, such as sands etc. The
process of passing water through the beds of such granular materials (called filters) is known as filtration.
Objectives of filtration:
o To remove colour, odour and turbidity.
o To remove colloidal and suspended matter remaining after sedimentation
o To remove bacterial load.
Types of filters commonly used are:
Municipal water supplies – Slow sand Filters & Rapid sand filters
Small or individual industrial Supplies – Pressure filters
Slow Sand Filters:
Slow sand filters were the first devised when the process of filtration was invented in England by
James Simpson in 1829. They were widely used till last decade of the 19th century, when the rapid sand
filters were invented. However, they are still preferred on smaller plants at warm places, where covers in
filters are not required to protect the filters from freezing.
A slow sand filter consists of an inlet chamber; it is constructed for admitting the effluent from the
plain sedimentation tank without disturbing the sand layers of the filter and to distribute it uniformly over
the filter bed. The next chamber is a watertight tank containing a layer of sand of 750-900mm thickness
with an effective size of sand being 0.2-0.3 mm of well graded. The sand overlies a layer of gravel of 300 to
600 mm thickness. The gravel is usually placed in 3 layers using graded size of 2 – 45mm. the gravel is
placed over a system of under drain. The under drainage system consists of a central drain and lateral drains.
The laterals are porous drain placed 3 to 5m apart on the bottom floor and sloping towards a main covered
central drain. The laterals collect the filtered water and discharge it into the main drain, which leads the
water to the filtered water well. Generally the inlets and outlets are governed by automatic valves.
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The loss of head or filter head: filtration head is generally limited to a maximum value of about 0.7 to 1.2
m. when this limiting value, which is roughly kept 0.7 to 0.8 times of the depth of the filter sand, is reached,
the filter unit must be put out of service and the filter to be cleaned.
Advantages:
o High bacterial removal efficiency (98-99.9%)
o Removes the odour
Disadvantages:
o Slow rate filtration
o Large surface area required, It is uneconomical and costly
o Removal of colour and taste efficiency is low (20-25%).
o Removal of turbidity is only 50ppm
Rapid Sand Filters:

Rapid sand filters were developed in the last decade of the nineteenth century through the efforts of
G.W. Fuller, U.S.A. These filters on an average yield 30 times high than the yield given by slow sand filters.
They are also known as mechanical filters. Sedimentation with coagulation is invariably used preliminary
treatment to rapid sand filtration.
A rapid sand filter consists of rectangular tank of size about 3 to 4m or surface area of 10 to 30Sqm
and is provided with media of very hard sand and gravel of different grades in layers. Layer of sand has an
effective size of 0.45 to 0.7 mm. the depth of media adapted from top to bottom are as follows:
o Top layer of fine sand: 0.40 to 0.50m depth of 1.5 to 3mm Size
o Next layer of sand: 150m depth of 3 to 6mm size
o Next layer of sand: 150mm depth of 12 to 18mm size
o Next layer of gravel: 150mm depth of 6 to 18mm size
o Next layer of gravel: 150mm depth of 18 to 25mm size
o Next layer of pebbles: 150mm depth of 25 to 40 mm size
o Next layer of pebbles: 150mm depth of 40 to 50mm size.
This gives a total depth of about 1m or more. The flocculent matter which remains in water after
coagulation and sedimentation enters filtering media during filtration and this forms as a mesh in the
straining action which removes the bacteria and other suspended matters. It is provided with strainer system
at bottom for collecting filtered water and carried through a pipe to filtered water storage tank. The under-
drain pipe consists of central main cast-iron pipe called manifold pipe with perforations of 50mm diameter
at 200mm apart and steel pipe laterals branching from the manifold pipe. Rapid sand filters clog rather
rapidly and cleaning is, therefore necessary at an intervals of 24 to 72hrs. it is accomplished by an
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arrangement of pipes, air compressor and water troughs and wash water storage tank. Which allows a
reversal flow of water through the filter called back washing of filter.
Working and cleaning:
Value 1 – Inlet valve
Value 2 – Filtered water storage tank valve
Value 3 – Waste water valve to drain from inlet chamber
Value 4 – Wash water storage tank valve
Value 5 – Waste water valve to drain water from main
Value 6 – Compressed drain air valve.
Working: Valve 1 is opened and water from coagulated sedimentation tank is allowed to enter in the filter.
Valve 2 is opened to carry filtered water to filtered water storage tank. All other valve are kept in closed
position at the time when filter is in working condition except the valves 1 and 2.
Cleaning:
i. Close the valves 1 & 2.
ii. Open the valves 4 & 6. the wash water is then forced in the upward direction through under drainage
system, base material and filter media of sand. The compressed air in a proper rate is supplied to
assist the cleaning process of filter.
iii. Valve 6 is closed and valve is 3 is opened out to carry dirty water through inlet chamber to wash-
water drain.
iv. When washing of filter is over, valves 3 & 4 are closed and valves 1 & 5 are opened out. Thus, when
filter is put into use after washing, the filtered water in the beginning is led to wash-water drain
through main drain. This is continued for few minutes to condition the filter.
v. Valve 5 is closed and valve 2 is opened out to put the filter in normal working condition.
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Comparison between Slow Sand Filters & Rapid Sand Filters:

Rapid Sand Filters
SI No. Item Slow Sand Filters (Gravity type)
50 to 200 Sqm, requires large are for 10 to 100 Sqm, requires small area for
1 Size of each unit installation. installation
Complicated as under drainage system
is to be properly designed and
2 Construction Simple constructed.
3 Cost of installation High initial cost of both land and material Cheap and quite economical
4 Cost of operation Low High
5 Depreciation of plant Low High
Coagulation with sedimentation is
6 Pre treatment Not required except plain sedimentation required
Base material of Varies from 3 to 65mm in size and 30 to varies from 3 to 40mm in size and 60 to
7 gravel 75cm in depth 90cm in depth
8 filter media of sand
Effective size 0.25 to 0.35mm 0.45 to 0.70 mm
Uniformly coefficent 3 to 5.0 1.2 to 1.7
Thickness of sand bed 80 to 100 cm 60 to 75 cm

Very efficient in removal of bacteria but Les efficient in the removal of bacteria
less efficient in the removal of colour and but more efficient in the removal of
9 Efficieny turbidity. colour and turbidity
scraping of the top layer of 15mm to Backwashing with or without help of
25mm thickness. Long and laborious compressed air, short and speedy
10 Method of cleaning method method
11 Period of cleaning 1 to 3 months 2 to 3 days
Quantity of was water
12 required 0.2 to 0.5% of total water filtered 1 to 5 % of total water filtered
13 Rate of filtration 100 to 200 Lph/sq.m 4800 to 7200 Lph/sq.m
14 Post treatment Slight disinfection complete disinfection is a must
15 Skilled supervision Not essential Essential
For water supply to rural areas and small For public water supply to towns and
16 Suitability town cities
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Pressure Filters:
These are similar to rapid sand filter placed in a closed vessels and water is passed under pressure by
pumping. The pressure may vary from 3 to 7 Kg/Sq.cm.
Construction: The pressure filter are closed in a steel cylinders either riveted or welded. They may be
horizontal type or vertical type. The diameter of pressure filters varies from 1.5m to 3m and their length or
height varies from 3.50m to 8m. The manholes provided at the top are used for inspection.
Working: The water mixed with coagulant is directly fed into the filter. Flocculation takes place in the filter
itself. In normal condition, all the valves are closed except those for raw water and filtered water. The water
is admitted through inlet and after it is filtered, it is collected in the central drain and conveyed to filtered
water storage tank. The rate of filtration is high about 6000 to 15000 L/H/Sqm to filter area.
Cleaning: The compressed air may be used to agitate sand grains. The valves 1 and 2 are closed and valves
3 and 4 are opened during this operation. The cleaning of pressure filter may be required more frequently
and process of washing is same as rapid sand filter. These are less efficient than rapid sand filters.
Advantages:
i. A pressure filter is a compact machine and can be handled easily. Even completely automatic units
have been designed.
i. It requires less space and lesser filtering material for treating the same quantity of water, because the
rate of filtration is higher (2 to 5 times that of a rapid gravity filter).
ii. Sedimentation and coagulation tanks are avoided.
iii. They are more flexible, as the rate of filtration can be changes by changing the pumping pressure.
Disadvantages:
i. Although the rate of filtration is high, the filter unit being smaller, the overall capacity of the plant is
small and they are costlier, particularly for treating large scale municipal supplies.
ii. They are less efficient in removing bacteria and turbidities, and hence, the quality of the filtered
effluents is poorer. Since these filters are operated under pressure, the normal tendency is to pump
the water at higher rates, and thus obtaining still poorer quality of effluents.
iii. Since the process of filtration, as well as that of back washing, takes place in a closed tank, proper
inspection, quality control is not possible. Replacement of sand, gravel and under drainage system is
also difficult.
Due to these disadvantages, pressure filters are generally not used for treating municipal surface supplies,
particularly for any city or major industrial town.
Hence, Rapid sand filters are almost invariably and universally used filters for municipal water
supply
24
DISINFECTION
The filtered water which is obtained either from the slow sand filters or rapid sand filters, normally
contain some harmful disease producing bacteria in it. These bacteria must be killed in order to make the
water safe for drinking. The chemicals used for killing these bacteria are known as disinfectants and the
process is known as disinfection or sterilisation.
The presence of turbidities, colour or minerals etc. may not be dangerous, but the presence of even a
single harmful organism will definitely prove dangerous, there by making “disinfection” is the most
important process.
Methods of Disinfection:
1) Boiling of water
2) Treatment with excess lime
3) Treatment with ozone
4) Treatment with iodine & bromine
5) Treatment with ultra-violet rays
6) Treatment with potassium permanganate
7) Chlorination
1) Boiling of water: The bacteria present in water can be destroyed by boiling it for a long time. It is
effective method of disinfection, but it is not practically possible to boil huge amounts of public water
supplies. Moreover, it can only kill the existing germs but cannot take care of the future possible
contaminations. This method is hence, not at all used for disinfecting public supplies. However, during
water borne epidemics, public is advised to drink water only after boiling it in their houses.
2) Treatment with Excess Lime: Lime is generally used at a water purification plant for softening
(reducing hardness) the supplies. But it has been found that if excess lime is assed to the water, it can in
addition, kill the bacteria also. An addition of 14 to 43ppm of excess limes has been found to remove the
bacterial load by about 99.3 to 100% from highly polluted water. The excess lime when added to water it
raises the pH value of water to about 9.5 making water extremely alkaline (acidity), this has been found
impossible to the survival of bacteria, thus killing them by partially or completely.
Though it is quite practical for complete removal of bacteria, yet needs the removal of excess lime
from the water before it can be supplied to the general public. Moreover, it cannot protect the water from the
possible dangers of recontamination and hence not used these days.
3) Treatment with Ozone: Ozone gas is a faintly blue gas of pungent odour, and is an excellent
disinfectant. Ozone gas is nothing but an unstable allotropic form of oxygen, when each of its molecule
containing three oxygen atoms. It can be produced by passing high tension electric current through a stream
of air in a closed chamber, under the following chemical reaction:
Because, of it s instability, ozone readily breaks down into normal oxygen and releases nascent oxygen as
below:
The nascent oxygen, so produced, is a powerful oxidising agent and removes the organic matter as well as
the bacteria from the water.
Advantages:
i. Ozone being unstable, nothing remains in water by the time it reaches the distribution system.
ii. Ozone removes the colour, taste and odour from water, in addition to removing the bacteria from it.
iii. The ozonised water becomes tasty and pleasant unlike the chlorinated water which becomes bitter to
tongue.
25
Disadvantages:
i. It is very costly, must costlier than chlorination
ii. Ozone needs electricity for its manufacture, and hence it can be used only when electricity is
available easily and cheaply.
iii. A complicated ozone manufacturing apparatus called ozoniser is required to be installed at the
treatment plants, because it cannot be supplied in cylinders as chlorine can be.
iv. Its use doesn’t ensure safety against possible future contamination.
v. It is less efficient than chlorine in killing bacteria.
4) Treatment with Iodine & Bromine: The addition of iodine or bromine to water can help in killing the
pathogenic bacteria, and thereby disinfecting the same. The quantity of these disinfectants may be limited to
about 8ppm and a contact period of 5 minutes is generally enough. These disinfectants are now-a-days also
available in the form of pills and are thus very handy. They are not used for treating any large scale public
supplies, but may be used for treating small water supplies for any army troops, private plants, swimming
pools.
5) Treatment with Ultra-Violet Rays: Ultra-violet rays are invisible light rays having wave lengths of
1000 to 4000 . They are basically found in sunlight, but can also be produced by passing electric current
through mercury enclosed in quartz bulbs. These rays are highly effective in killing all types of bacteria,
thus yielding truly sterilised water. The water to be treated with ultra-violet rays shloud be less turbid and
low in colour. For treatment, the water is passed several times around the quartz bulbs emitting such rays.
The depth of water over the bulbs should not generally exceed 10cm ot so, because these rays can
effectively penetrate to this much of distance only.
This method is unsuitable for large scale public supplies and can only be used for treating small
quantities of water in hospitals and dispensaries for surgical uses or for drinking purposes at places where
the cost is a minor factor.
6) Treatment with Potassium Permanganate: Potassium Permanganate is used as popular disinfectant for
well water in villages which are generally contaminated with lesser amounts of bacteria. Small amount of
potassium permanganate (KMnO4) is dissolved in a bucket of water and is mixed with the well water
thoroughly. The addition of this disinfectant to water, produces pink colour, however if the pink colour
disappears, it shows that organic matter is present in water and more quantity of potassium permanganate
should be added, until the pink colour stands. The well should not be used for at least 48 hours after the
addition of disinfectant. The normal dosage varies from 1 to 2 mg/L with a contact period of 4 to 6 hours.
Though it is cheap and handy it can not remove 100% bacteria except the bacteria causing cholera. It also
leaves a dark brown precipitate with the passage of time on the porcelain vessels and it is difficult to remove
without scouring.
7) Chlorination: The process of treating water by chlorine is called chlorination. It is cheap and
economical, harmless to human beings. It is reliable and effective. Chlorine in its various forms is invariably
and almost universally used for disinfecting public water supplies. It is capable of providing residual
disinfecting effects for long periods, thus affording complete protection against future recontamination of
water in the distribution system. Its only disadvantage is that when used in greater amounts, it imparts bitter
and bad taste to the eater, which may not be liked by certain sensitive tongues consumers. At times
potassium permanganate is added in small doses (Such as 0.05 to 0.10mg/l) to filter and chlorinated water as
potassium permanganate helps in oxidising the taste producing organic matter.
Types of Chlorination: Depending upon the quantity of chlorine added, or the stage at which it is added, or
upon the results of chlorination, various technical terms are used in relation to the chlorination. They are:
i) Plain chlorination ii) Pre-Chlorination iii) Post-Chlorination iv) Double Chlorination
v) Break point Chlorination vi) Super Chlorination vii) Dechlorination
26
i. Plain Chlorination: This term is indicated that only the chlorine treatment and no other treatment
have been given to the raw water. This helps in removing bacteria, organic mater and colour from
the raw water. This can be used for clearer water obtained from lakes, reservoirs, deep tube wells
etc. it may also be used during emergencies, when full-fledged treatment cannot be given, such as
water supply to army troops during war times. The used quantity of chlorine required for plain
chlorination is about 0.5mg/l or more.
ii. Pre-Chlorination: Pre-chlorination is the process of applying chlorine to the water before filtration
or rather before sedimentation-coagulation. It helps in improving coagulation, and reduces the loads
on the filters. The chlorine dosage should be 0.1 to 0.5 mg/l of residue chlorine comes to the filter
plant. Pre-chlorination is however always followed by post-chlorination, so as to ensure the final
safety of water.
iii. Post-Chlorination: post-chlorination or sometimes simply called as chlorination is the normal
standard process of applying chlorine in the end when all the other treatments have been completed.
While treating public supplies, post-chlorination is adopted after filtration and before the water
enters the distribution system. The dosage of chlorine should be such as to leave residual chlorine of
about 0.1 to 0.2 mg/l after contact period of about 20 minutes. This residual will ensure the
disinfection of water if at all any future recontamination occurs in the distribution system.
iv. Double Chlorination: The term double chlorination is used to indicate that the water has been
chlorinated twice. The pre & Post chlorination are generally used in double chlorination.
v. Break-point Chlorination: Break-point chlorination is a term which gives us an idea of the extent
added to the water. In fact, it represents, that much dose of chlorination, beyond which any further
addition of chlorine will equally appear as free residual chlorine.
When chlorine is added to the water, it first of all generally reacts with the ammonia present
in water and form chloramines. Chlorine is slowly added to the water and the residual is tested. It
will be found that the residual chlorine shall be slightly less than that added, as shown by the curve AB in
figure, if the addition of chlorine is continued beyond point B, the organic matter present in water starts
getting oxidised, and therefore the residual chlorine content suddenly falls down, as shown by the curve BC.
The point C is the point beyond which any further addition of chlorine will appear equally as free chlorine,
since nothing of it shall be utilised. This point ’C’ is called the ‘Break-point’.
At point B when oxidation of organic matter starts, a bad smell and taste generally appears, this
disappears at the break-point C when the oxidation has been completed. It is a general practice to add
chlorine beyond break-point and thus to ensure a residual of free chlorine, appearing after the break-point, is
not easily removed except by sunlight and therefore it takes care of the future recontamination of water in
the distribution system.
27
vi. Super chlorination: Super chlorination is a term which indicates the addition of excessive amount
of chlorine to the water ( 5 to 15mg/l). this may be required in some special cases of highly polluted
waters or during epidemics of water borne diseases. It may be used when there is a reason to believe
that the water contains cysts of histolytica (the organism which causes amoebic dysentery). The huge
quantity of chlorine which is added in super chlorination is such as to give about 1 to 2 mg/l of
residue beyond the break point, in the treated water. Sometimes even higher doses may be used and
the resultant water is dechlorinated after the end of the desired contact period.
vii. Dechlorination: As indicated above, the Dechlorination means removing the chlorine from water.
This is generally required when super chlorination has been practised. The Dechlorination process
may either be carried out to such an extent that sufficient residual chlorine (0.1 to 0.2mg/l) do
remains in water after Dechlorination. The agents used for this are sodium thiosulphate, activated
carbon, sulphur dioxide etc.
AERATION
It is a process of exposing the water to atmospheric air to eliminate gases such as carbon dioxide,
hydrogen sulphate and minerals such as iron and to increase oxygen content.
Method of aeration: (Aeration fountain) Aeration is done by bringing the water in contact with
atmospheric air by using the aeration fountain as in figure. It consists of steps of tower in which a inlet
water pipe with or without nozzle is fitted. At the bottom step which is at the ground level an outlet pipe is
fitted. Each steps of tower consists of a circular trough as shown in figure.
The water is allowed to pass through the inlet pipe of a tower and allowing the water to fall like a
spray through the nozzle in the form of film. The water fall is sub divided into a series of steps. This is done
to increase the area of water contact with air. So that most of the water droplets comes in contact with air to
increase the oxygen content of the water and to reduce the CO2, hydrogen sulphate and minerals. The water
drops freely from trough to trough and a trickle over the surface comes down to lower trough, there by the
water is allowed to excite through the out let pipe.
Objectives of Aeration:
i. Dissolved iron and manganese are oxidized.
ii. Bacteria may be killed due to aeration
iii. Methane is removed to prevent fires and explosions.
iv. To remove CO2, Hydrogen Sulphate and minerals like iron.
28
WATER SOFTENING
The reduction of removal of hardness from water is also known as water softening. It is not always
essential to softening raw public supplies to make the water safe for public uses, since the normally
prevalent hardness in raw water are not too high to cause any major harm to human health. The advantage of
softening, however lies chiefly in the reduction of soap consumption, lower cost in maintaining plumbing
fixtures and improved taste of food preparation. Hence whether or not in the water supply the hardness
should be reduced, depends on the relation between the cost of treatment and obtain resultant saving and
satisfaction to the costumers. However, for industrial supplies, the softening is more important, because the
hard waters are likely to cause scaling troubles in boilers and interfere in the working of dyeing systems.
Removing Temporary Hardness-
- By boiling the water: Calcium carbonate, bring only slightly soluble in water, usually exist in water as
calcium bicarbonate because it is easily dissolveds in natural water containing carbon dioxide. When such
water is boiled, the carbon dioxide ga will get out, leading to the precipitation of CACO3, which can be
sediment out in settling tank. But magnesium bicarbonate and magnesium carbonate cannot be satisfactorily
removed in this process.
- By adding lime (CaO): Generally the hydrated line (Ca(o\OH)2) is added to the water. The following
reactions take place and calcium carbonate and magnesium hydroxide are precipitated and can be removed
in the sedimentation tank.
Removing Permanent Hardness-

- Lime-Soda Process: In this process Lime (Ca(OH)2) and Soda Ash (NaCO3) are added to the hard water,
which react with the calcium and magnesium salts, so as to form insoluble precipitates of calcium carbonate
and magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)2). These precipitates can be sedimented out in a sedimentation tank.
The amount of lime and soda required for the softening depends up on the chemical quality of the water and
the extent of hardness removal desired. Many of the hard waters may primarily contain the carbonate
hardness and very low amount of non-carbonate hardness. Hence, for treating the all such waters, lime is
often the only chemical required.
The equipment required for the lime-soda treatment is similar to that required for chemical coagulation. The
lime and soda ash are added to the raw water, either separately or together, and are well mixed with water.
Flocculation and sedimentation will then follow. The feeding, mixing and settling devices used, are similar
to those which are used in process of coagulation-cum-sedimentation. However, for obtaining good results
the detention time for settling basin may be kept slightly more than that required in an ordinary coagulation-
sedimentation basin, and may vary between 2 to 4 hours. The water coming out of the sedimentation tank
after lime soda treatment is recarbonated by passing carbon dioxide gas, through it, to remove insoluble
carbonates and magnesium hydroxide precipitates which do not settles out in sedimentation.
29
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
After the water has been properly treated and made safe and wholesome, it has to be supplied to the
consumers in their individual homes. The water has, therefore, to be taken from the treatment plant to the
roads and streets in the city, and finally to the individual houses. This function of carrying the water from
the treatment plant to the individual homes is accomplished through a well planned distribution system. A
distribution system may therefore, consists of pipe line of varies sizes of carrying the water to the streets;
valves for controlling the flow of pipes, hydrants for providing connections with the water mains for
releasing water during fires; meters for measuring discharges; service connections (called services) to the
individual home; pumps for lifting and forcing the water into the distribution pipes, distribution or service
reservoirs for storing the treated water to be fed into the distribution pipes etc. further, the water may be
supplied into the public either continuously for all 24hrs of the day, or it may be supplied intermittently
during certain fixed hours of the day. Also, the water may either be pumped directly into the distribution
pipes, or it may first be stored in a distribution reservoir and then fed into the distribution pipes.
Requirements of good distribution system:

The various requirements for proper functioning of a distribution system are:
1. It should be capable of supplying water to all the intended places within the city with a reasonably
sufficient pressure head.
2. It should be capable of supplying the required amount of water for fire fighting during such needs.
3. It should be cheap with the least capital construction cost. The distribution system is the most costly
in the entire water supply scheme, it consumes up to 70% of the total cost of the scheme.
4. It should be simply and easy to operate and repair there by keeping the operating cost and
maintenance troubles minimum.
5. It should be safe and against of any future pollution of water. This aim may be achieved by keeping
the water pipe lines above and away from the sewage and drainage lines by sufficient amounts.
6. It should be safe as not to cause the failure of the pipe lines by bursting etc.
7. It should be fairly water-tight, as to keep the “looses due to leakage” to the minimum.
Arrangement of distribution pipes and other accessories:

The distribution pipe system consists of supply mains. Sub-mains, branches and laterals. These water
mains and sub-mains are usually laid sloping from the high level to the low level areas, so as to achieve the
maximum advantage of the available head, and thus to keep their sizes in minimum. In small cities and
towns, the distribution mains generally take off from the treatment plant it self and distribute the water into
the different branches and laterals. However, large cities are generally divided into various zones and each
zone may be served with a separate distribution reservoir. In such cases, the distribution mains will take off
from these service reservoirs, and carry the water to the different localities of the zone.
The distribution pipes are generally laid on one side of the roads and the streets, usually below the
foot paths, and at about 2m above (vertically) and 3m away (horizontally) from the sewage, so as to avoid
any future contamination of water through a leaky joints. In wider streets however, a subsidiary lateral may
also be provided on the other side of the street, which is cross-connected to the main lateral at the suitable
intervals. Sizes of the distribution pipes mainly depend upon the amount of flow to be carried and the
permissible lose in the head.
30
Layouts of distribution networks:
There are four different types of pipe networks, any one of which either singly or combinations can
be used at a particular place, depending upon the local conditions and orientation of roads. These systems
are:
1. Dead-End System
2. Grid-Iron System
3. Ring System
4. Radial System
Dead-End System: This system is also called as Tree System, there is a main supply pipe, from which
originates (generally at right angles) a number of sub-main pipes. Each sub-main, then divided into several
branch pipes called laterals. From the laterals, service connects are given to the consumer. This type of
layout may have to be adopted for older towns which have developed in a haphazard manner, without
properly planned roads.
Advantages are:
 The distribution network can be solved easily and it is possible to easily and accurately calculate the
discharges and pressures at different point in the system.
 Lesser number of cut-off valves (sluice valves) are required in this system
 Shorter pipe lengths are needed and laying of pipes are easier.
 It is cheap and simple, and can be extended or expanded easily.
Disadvantages are:
 In this method water can reached a particular point only through one route, any damage or repair
with any pipe line will completely stop the water in the area being fed by that pipe.
 There are numerous dead ends in this system, which prevent the free circulation of water. This
stagnation of water may lead to the degradation in its quality.
 This system, the discharge is reaching a point from only one direction; the supplies during fire
fighting can not be increased by diverting any other supplies from any other side.
31
Grid-Iron System: This system is also known as interlaced system or Reticulation system, the
mains, sub-mains and branches are inter-connected with each other. In a well planned city or town, the roads
are generally developed in a grid-iron pattern, and the pipe lines in such places can follow them easily. This
system more suitable for well planned towns and cities and has been use din Chandigarh.
Advantages are:
 Since the water reaches at different places through more than one route, the discharge to be carried
by each pipe, the friction loss and the size of the pipe get reduced.
 In case of repairs very small area will be devoid of complete supply as at least some supply will be
reaching at the point from some other route.
 Because of the different inter-connection the dead ends are completely eliminated, and therefore
water remains in continuous circulation and not liable to pollution due to stagnation.
 During fire more water can be diverted to effected point from various directions from closing and
directing the various cut-off valves.
Disadvantages are:
 This system requires more length of pipes and larger number of sluice valves.
 Its construction is costlier.
 This design is difficult and costlier, the calculation for determine accurately the sizes of pipe and the
pressures at various key point is a real tedious job, and may require the services of experts and even
computers.
Ring System: This system is also known as circular system. In this system, a closed ring, either circular
or rectangular of the main pipes, is formed around the area to be served. The distribution area is divided into
circular or rectangular blocks and the main water pipes are laid on the periphery of these blocks. The
advantages and disadvantages of this system are the same as of grid-iron system.
Radial System: if a city or town id having a system of radial roads emerging from different centres, the
pipelines can be best laid in a radial method by placing the distribution reservoirs at these centres. In this
system water id therefore, taken from the water mains and pumped into the distribution reservoirs placed at
different centres. The water is then supplied through radially laid distribution pipes. This method ensures
high pressure and efficient water distribution. The calculation for design and sizes are simple.
32
Methods of Distribution:
The main object of distribution is to develop adequate water pressures at various points of the
consumer’s taps. Depending upon the level of the sources of water and that of the city, topography of the
area and other local condition and considerations, the water may be forced into the distribution system in the
following 3 ways:
1. By Gravitational System
2. By Pumping System
3. By Combined Gravity & Gravity System
Gravitational System: In this system, the water from the high level source is distributed to the
consumer at low levels by the mere action of gravity without any pumping. For proper functioning of this
system the difference of head available between the source and the localities, must be sufficient enough as
to maintain adequate pressure at the consumer door step after allowing the frictional and other looses in the
pipes. This method is the most economical and reliable, since no pumping is involved at nay stage, however,
it needs a lake or a reservoir as a source of supply. It becomes evident that such a system can be adopted for
cities which are situated at the foot hills and the source of supply is available some ever in the hills at
sufficient elevation in the relation to the elevate of the city. This will keep the leakages and wastages to the
minimum, and also reduce the required sizes of the pipes. However, this will necessitate the use of motor
pumps so as to develop sufficient pressures during fires.
Pumping System: The treated water is directly pumped into the distribution mains without storing it
any where. For this reason, this system is also some times called as pumping without storage system. High
lift pumps are required in this system, which have to operate at variable speeds, so as to meet the variable
demand of water. Thus, a continues attendance is needed at pumping station, so as to ensure the desired
flow in the distribution system. If the power supply fails there will be complete stoppage of water supply.
This method is generally not used. The only advantages of this method are that during fire it can forced
large volume of water under high pressure in the required directions.
33
Combined Gravity & Pumping System: In this system, the treated water is pumped at a constant rate
and stored into an elevated distribution reservoir, from where it is distributed to the consumers by the mere
action of gravity. This method thus, combines pumping and gravity flow and is sometimes called pumping
with storage system. This type of system is invariably and almost universally adopted because of its
advantages.
 The balancing reserve of the distribution reservoir can be supplied to the places of fire.
 The pumps are to be worked at uniform rate and there by operating them to their rated capacities,
this increase their efficiency and also reduce the wear and tear of the pumps.
 This method is quite reliable because even during the power failure or pumps failure certain
amount of water can be supplied from the storage or service reservoir.
 This system proves to be over all cheap, efficient and reliable, hence adopted practically every
where.
Appurtenances in Distribution system:

The different devices fixed along the distribution system are known as appurtenances. Following are
the purpose of these appurtenances:
 To control the rate of flow of water
 To release or admit the air into the pipe line
 To detect or prevent the leakages
 To meet the demand during emergencies
 To make the distribution system more efficient
Following are some appurtenances used in distribution system:
i. Valves
ii. Fire hydrants
iii. Water Meters
i. Valves: The different types of valves used in a distribution system are:

a. Sluice valves
b. Reflux or check valve
c. Air valves
d. Drain or blow-off or scour valves
34
Sluice Valves: These are also called as gate valves or stop valves. This valve controls the flow of water
in a pipe line. The entire distribution system is divided into blocks by providing these valves at appropriate
places. These are provided in straight pipes at lengths of 150-250m intervals. When a sluice valve is closed,
it shut off the flow of water in a pipe length to enable repairs to be done in that block
Air-valve: These valves are also called as Air release valves. Generally, the water contains some
quantity of air when it flows the air tries to accumulate at high point of the pipe line, this may cause air lock
by reducing the discharge in the pipe. It consists of a cast iron chamber (circular or rectangular), a lever and
a poppet floating valve. A chamber is fitted to the pipe top and the weighted float and lever in it are so
adjusted that when the chamber is filled with water under pressure from the pipe line below the float and the
lever remain in a raised position and the valve closes but when air goes on accumulating at the top and
builds some pressure the water level gets depressed, the float sinks down along with the water level and thus
opens the valve. The air then escapes out but only to the extent that no water escapes along with air, the
water level in the chamber therefore raises again, the float is lifted, and the valve is closed.
Reflux Valve: It is also called a non-return valve. It is an automatic device used to allow water to
flow in one direction only. It is a swing type reflux valve, when water flows to the left the valve swings to
the upward along a pivot and water is allowed to pass through it. When water flow stops the valve returns to
its original position. There by stopping the flow of water in reverse direction that is it will not allow the
back flow of water. This valve is generally provided in a pipe line which is supported directly by a pump.
When the pump stops, the valve closes itself and prevents the back flow of water.
Blow-off or Drain or Scour Valves: In order to remove the entire water from within the pipe after
closing the supply, small gated off-takes are provided at low points. These valves, are necessary at low level
points for completely empting the pipe or inspection, repairs etc. when opened water comes out of these
valves under gravity and they are made to discharge into some natural drainage channel or into a sump from
which the water can be pumped out.
35
A simple connection of water supply from main is as shown:
Water main pipe line is laid and maintained by local or administrative authority. These pipes are of
not less than 15cm in diameter when used both for domestic and fire demands, if used only for domestic
purposes then should no the less than 10cm diameter. They are laid 750mm-900mm below the roads.
Ferrule it is a right angled sleeve made up of brass or bronze of size1 to 5cm bore and joined to the
water main through a drilled opening. It is screwed with a plug. It controls the flow from the street main to
the service pipe as shown.
Service connection or a Service pipe is one that runs between the distribution main in the street and
the riser. It is used for feeding water from the main to the building. It is generally a galvanised iron pipe of
size less than 50mm diameter. It is laid underground in a trench in which no any sewer or drainage pipe is
laid. The service pipe is connected to the main pipe through goose neck and ferrule.
Stop cock it is a control valve used for regulating the supply of water from the main into the building
premises. It is fixed by the municipal authorities at the end of the communication pipe. It is provided before
the water main enters the water meter in the house. It is usually protected by suitable chamber with a
removable cover and is fixed in the street close to the boundary wall.
Supply pipe is the pipe which extends from stop cock to the entrance of the storage tank. It is used to
supply the water from stop cock to the storage tank through water meter. This is the pipe to which the water
meter is connected.
Distribution pipe connects the storage tank to the various fixtures such as taps and sanitary fittings
for the purpose of distribution of water from the storage tank or sump to the building. This pipe is not
subjected to any water pressure from the main.
36
Water tap is type of valve provided at the end of the service pipes for taping the water at the
consumer’s house. Different types of water taps are available among them a most common one is bib cock.
It consists of a handle with a vertical stem. By rotating the handle of the bib cock, the orifice through which
the water passes can be increased or decreased, thereby controlling the overflow through the sprout. A
standard size of the bib cock is designed according to the pipe outlet to which the tap is to be fitted. They
are available in sizes of 8mm, 10mm, 15mm, 20mm, 25mm, 32mm, 40mm, & 50mm. these bib cock may be
push type, it opens when slight push is given and closes as soon as the push is removed and many other
types are also available in market.
37

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BUILDING SERVICES-I (MODULE-I)

Importance of Health, Hygiene & cleanliness:

Primary functions of Sanitation:

Diseases related to water:

Factors to be considered for water supply scheme:

Per Capita demand and factors affecting the demand:

Following are the factors affecting the per capita demand:

iii) Carbonates and bocarbonates of sodium Alkalinity and softness

8 Total hardness as CaCO3(mg/l) 200 600

SEDIMENTATION WITH COAGULATION

Commonly used Coagulants:

c) Flocculation Tank: Flocculation is done in a flocculation basin or chamber. It consists of a

Rapid Sand Filters:

Comparison between Slow Sand Filters & Rapid Sand Filters:

Thickness of sand bed 80 to 100 cm 60 to 75 cm

Removing Permanent Hardness-

Requirements of good distribution system:

Arrangement of distribution pipes and other accessories:

Appurtenances in Distribution system:

i. Valves: The different types of valves used in a distribution system are:

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