1.

Surgical instruments are sterilized by heating them, while alcohol is used as

disinfectant in cleansing the skin prior to an injection. Why are these methods
successful in killing harmful microorganism?
Protein Denaturation inside a harmful microorganism
Protein denaturation requires the disruption and potential destruction of both secondary
and tertiary structures. Because denaturation reactions are not strong enough to break
peptide bonds, the primary structure (amino acid sequence) remains unchanged after a
denaturation process. Denaturation disrupts the normal alpha-helix and beta sheets in a
protein and uncoils it into a random shape.
Denaturation is due to the disruption of bonding interactions responsible for the
secondary structure (hydrogen bonds to amides) and the tertiary structure. In tertiary
structures, the interactions of hydrogen bonding, salt bridges, disulfide bonds, and non
polar hydrophobic interactions are of the four types, which can be disrupted. In the
tertiary structure, there are a variety of reagents and conditions can also lead to
denaturation. Precipitation or coagulation of the protein is the most frequent observation
in the denaturation process.
Heat
Heat can be used to disrupt hydrogen and non-polar hydrophobic interactions. This is
because kinetic energy rises and the molecules vibrate so quickly and violently that the
bonds are disrupted. In the egg denaturation, the proteins and coagulate in the cooking
process. Further foods are cooked to denature proteins to facilitate digestion by
enzymes. Heating to denature proteins in bacteria, thus destroying the bacteria helps
the sterilization of  medical supplies and instruments.
Alcohol
The secondary protein structure occurs hydrogen bondings between amide groups. In a
variety of amino acid combinations, hydrogen bonding is carried out in tertiary protein
structures. The addition of further alcohol disrupts all others.
The disinfectant on the skin, a 70% alcohol solution is used. That alcohol concentration
is capable of penetrating proteins and enzymes within cells into the bacterial cell wall
and denature them. A solution of 95% alcohol coagulates the protein outside the cell
wall and inhibits alcohol entry into the cell. Alcohol denatures proteins through the
disruption of intramolecular bonds of the side chain of hydrogen. Between the new
molecule and protein side chains, instead, new hydrogen bonds are formed.
The Change in Protein Shape
When the protein is subject to temperature changes, pH or exposure to chemical
agents, internal interactions between the amino acids of the protein may be affected,
therefore altering protein shape in turn. The protein's shape can change to such an
extent that it is disorderly (also known as the primary structure of the protein) that the
protein is considered denatured in this case. The enzyme Pepsin, which breaks the
protein down in the stomach, works only with a very low pH. The way the polypeptide
chain is folded into three dimensions starts to change at higher pHs of pepsin
conformation.
2. Explain why egg whites and milk are used as antidotes for heavy metal poisoning.
But how can I get that heavy metal poisoning?
When you are exposed to many certain metal types, heavy metal poisoning may occur.
It hurts you and inhibits the functioning of your body. Heavy metals are all around us,
such as arsenic, plum, mercury and others. We walk on the ground, drink water, and we
use every day products. But heavy metals can cause health issues at high levels.
Poisons may occur by eating, drinking or breathing into contaminated fumes or dust, or
by using heavy metals. In the United States, the true heavy metal toxicity is rare. And
experts say you should be careful about unproven heavy metal tests or “detox”
treatments you find online. 
Coagulation in Egg Whites and Milk
Egg albumin is used as a lead antidote and mercury poisoning because egg albumin is
an alternative to acting on albumin, as proteins coagulate metallic salts/metals rather
than body protein poisoning.
Coagulation is the result of a fluid change to a solid or semi-solid state (gel). The
success of many cooked foods relies on the coagulative characteristics of proteins, in
particular, the coagulative characteristics of egg proteins. The property is one of the
main functional advantages to egg formulators, allowing eggs to bind foods together.
This helps in coagulating heavy metals that a human ingested. The poisoning of heavy
metals will decrease the potential spreading of poisons throughout the body.
Denaturation and coagulation of egg proteins is over a broad range of temperatures.
The natural protein consists of individual molecules complex, folded and coiled
individual molecules. Loose bonds around the folds and coils retain a distinct and close
unit for each protein molecule. These connections may be disturbed when heat or acid
is exposed or if the protein is denatured by physical means such as whipping. When
egg whites is ingested it reacts to the acids that is inside the body like the ones in the
stomach, as the egg whites react with acid it coagulates which helps in coagulating the
heavy metal poisoning that decreases the further spread of the said poison.
Milk is made up of a number of compounds, mostly fat, protein and sugar. The milk
protein is commonly suspended in a colloidal solution, meaning that small molecules of
protein float freely and independently. These floating protein molecules refract light,
contributing to the white appearance of milk (with the suspended fat). In general, these
protein molecules repel and allow them to float without clumping, but they may attract
one another and form clumps when the pH of the solution changes. This occurs when
the pH drops and becomes acidic, when the protein (casein and other) molecules attract
each other and become "curdles," floating in a translucent whey solution. At
warmer temperatures, this clumping reaction occurs more quickly than at cold
temperatures. The Acidic environment of stomach also helps the milk to coagulate
which in turn decrease the spread of heavy metal poisoning in the body. Because the
milk and egg white does not only coagulate itself but also the substances that is with it
inside the body specifically in the stomach which helps the in decreasing the spread of
the unwanted substances like heavy metals
3. Explain why picric acid and tannic acids are used in the treatment of burns.
Davidson and his Tannic Acid
In 1925, Davidson begun to treat burn wounds with tannins, assuming the systemic
reaction was reduced by the absorption of burned skin toxic substances. Tannins are
distributed extensively in plants and categorized into two kinds of tannins, hydrolysable
and condensed. Recent study showed that the tannin has the property of forming
complexes with various biomolecules and thus can be effective in precipitating toxic
matter in burnt tissue.
By inhibition of the formation and removal of reactive Oxygen-substances which leads
to increased wound healing and decreased formation of skin tissue. Tannins also
provide the benefit of pain relief, secondary infection reduction, plasma loss prevention
and promotion of the prolific epithelization. In areas where tea and its by-products are
readily available, the idea of using tannin in treating partial thickness burn wounds may
be beneficial and inexpensive. 
Tannic acid can be regarded in the 20th century as one of the most useful therapeutics
for burn patients. However, its utilization changed considerably over time and a great
deal of positive reactions were made to its effectiveness shortly after Davidson's
introduction in 1925. After several reports concerning hepatotoxicity in the early 1940s,
the tannic acid approach became obsolete. On the pathophysiology of the syndrome of
burns, the involvement of the liver and the investigation into the tannic acid only emerge
in present times with progress in the fields of burn research.
As a consequence, the utility of tannic acid for adjuvant treatment is once again
attracted by the availability of highly purified tannic acid. This increase and drop in
tannic acid popularity has also become evident in reviews of articles written on this
matter over the years.
Picric Acid
In medical literature of the 19th and 20th centuries, the medicinal properties of picric
acid were characterized. An article written in the British Medical Journal from 1896
explains how the picric acid solution soaks the sterilized gauze to soothe patients'
burns, both in hospice and ambulatory conditions.   In an article published in 1920 on
pedal epidermophyton infection, a similar approach was described. The processes for
the benefit of burn relief are twofold: the numbing of pain and coagulation of albumin
that reduces the formation of the pus. 
The role of the picric acid is to slowly penetrate into the tissue and cause coagulation of
proteins by forming salts with basic proteins. This can, however, cause some shrinkage
of the tissue. These may be the reason why the picric acid was being used medically
but this said acid is also used in military applications like boosters, fuses, and rocket
fuels.
4. What does protein do in the human body?
Our bodies consist of thousands of proteins, each of which has a particular function.
They constitute our cells and tissue structural components, as many enzymes,
hormones and active proteins secreted from immune cells. Throughout our lives, our
body proteins are continuously repairing and replacing. A constant supply of amino
acids is a required process (known as "protein synthesis"). Although some amino acids
can be recycled as an old body protein breakdown, this process is incomplete. This
means that we have to consume dietary protein to meet our body's demand for amino
acid.
Since protein is essential to cell and tissue development, the proper intake of protein,
such as childhood, adolescence, pregnancy and pregnancy, is critically valuable during
periods of rapid growth or increased demand. Proteins provide many essential functions
in the body like support the regulation and expression of DNA and RNA, antibodies
support for immune function, digestive enzymes help facilitate chemical reactions,
support muscle contraction and movement, provide support to the body, hormones help
coordinate bodily function, and move essential molecules around the body.
For many body functions, it is vital to eat enough protein to satisfy the needs of our
bodies. However, evidence suggests that increasing the intake of protein above
necessary levels in some circumstances may bring additional health benefits.
Enzymes
Enzymes are proteins that support hundreds of biochemical reactions in and out of your
cells. The enzyme structure allows it to combine with other molecules inside the cell
called substrates, which catalyze the necessary reactions for your metabolism.
Enzymes like lactase and sucrase, which help digest sugar, can also work outside of
the cell.
Messenger
Some proteins are hormones that help communication between your cells, tissue and
organs by means of chemical messengers. It is produced and secreted by endocrine
tissues or glands and transferred into your blood to its tissues or organs, which bind
them to cell-surface protein receptors.
Structure
There are fibrous proteins that give stiffness and rigidity to cells and tissues. Keratin,
collagen and elastin form the connective framework of certain structures in your body,
which are part of these proteins. Keratin is a structural protein found in the skin, hair and
nails of your skin. Collagen is your most abundant of proteins and your bones, tendons,
ligaments and skin's structural protein. Elastin is more flexible than collagen several
hundred times. Its high elasticity allow many tissues in your body, such as your uterus,
lungs or arteries, to return to their original form after stretching or contracting.
Proper pH Scale
Protein plays a crucial role in the regulation of your blood and other body fluid
concentrations of acids and bases. The pH scale is used to measure the balance
between acids and bases. The 0-14 range is the most acidic, seven neutral and 14 most
alkaline. A range of buffer systems would retain normal pH ranges for your body fluids.
Constant pH is needed because even a small change in pH can be dangerous or life-
threatening. Protein is one way how your body controls pH. Hemoglobin, a red blood
cell protein, is an example. Hemoglobin binds small amounts of acid to keep your blood
pH normal. Phosphate and bicarbonate are other buffer structures in your bloodstream.
Balances Fluid
In order to ensure fluid balance, proteins govern the body's processes. Albumin and
globulin are blood proteins that help to keep the fluid balance through water attraction
and retention. You will finally lose the albumin and globulin levels if you don't consume
enough protein. Thus, the proteins in your blood vessels can no longer retain blood and
the fluid is forced into the space between your cells. As the fluid builds up between your
cells, it becomes swelling or oedema, especially in the stomach area. This is a form of
severe protein malnutrition called kwashiorkor that develops when a person is
consuming enough calories but does not consume enough protein.
Immunity
In order to combat infection, proteins help form immunoglobulins or antibodies.
Antibodies are blood proteins that help protect your body against dangerous invaders
such as viruses and bacteria. If these foreign invaders infiltrate your cells, your body
makes antibodies to eliminate them. Bacteria and viruses will be free to reproduce and
overload your body with the disease they cause without these antibodies. Your cells
never forget how to create them once your body has formed antibodies to a specific
bacterium or virus. The next time a specific disease agent invades your body,
antibodies will react rapidly.
Transport
Proteins transport substances into cells, out of cells or cells within your bloodstream.
Nutrients such as vitamins or minerals, blood sugar, cholesterol and oxygen are all
substances carried by these proteins. Hemoglobin, for example, is a protein which
transports oxygen from your lung to your body. Glucose carriers (GLUT), when
lipoproteins carry cholesterol and other fats in your blood, transfer glucose to your cells.
Protein carriers are particular, which means that they only bind to certain compounds. In
other words, cholesterol will not be moved by a protein carrier that moves glucose.
Body’s Energy
Proteins should provide energy for your body. Protein provides the same quantity of
energy that carbs supply four calories per grams At nine calories per gram, fats provide
most energy. However protein, as the useful nutrient is commonly used all over your
body is the last thing your body needs to use for energy. Carbs and fats should be used
for energy supply, so your body keeps fuel reserves. They are more effectively
metabolized than protein. Protein provides your body with very little energy under
normal conditions.
Weight loss
It has been shown that eating protein-rich foods increases our sense of fullness more
than foods high in fat or carbohydrates (also known as satiety). Short-term studies have
shown that protein-high diets can help decrease calorie overall intake and rapid weight
loss. The long-term weight maintenance evidence is nevertheless less evident. Like all
diets, a high protein diet is only successful if it is adhered to, and some people find that
this is difficult and low adherence may explain in part the limited benefit of maintaining
weight in the long term.
Sarcopenia
Sarcopenia is a disease with a gradual muscle mass loss and physical function typically
seen in the elderly. Increased frailty, risk of falling, functional decline and even early
death are linked with Sarcopenia. Because protein is important for the repair and
maintenance of muscle mass, a low protein intake is not surprisingly associated with an
increased risk of sarcopenia. Increased intake of protein and increased physical activity
will also help to retain muscle mass and strength as we grow older and decrease our
risk of sarcopenia and skeletal disorder.
Athletic performance
Athletic performance is long associated with protein. Protein plays a crucial role in
helping muscle tissue after workouts repair and strengthen. Protein is essential in
building muscles, but it should be taken into account in the whole diets, which contain
the appropriate amount of carbohydrates, fats, vitamins and minerals, to maximize its
advantages. The optimum intake of protein depends on the type, duration and intensity
of exercise, e.g. endurance or strength training; more is not always better. A daily intake
of proteins of 1.4–2.0 g per kilogram body weight is believed to be adequate to meet the
needs of most people. Athletes are expected to attain protein intakes by eating a
balanced diet, while protein supplements are used for people who have to keep their
total intake of calories high but limited.
5. Discuss diseases related to protein deficiency in the human body.
Protein is a macronutrient essential for all cells of your body to evolve, maintain and
repair. Without this supplement, the body can't make it right. Failure to consume
sufficient protein may have some negative symptoms and ultimately cause death. 
Marasmus
Marasmus disease is caused by a significant protein and calorie deficiency, often
leading to weight loss and dehydration, affecting babies and children. Marasmus can
develop to starving and deadly because of the lack of vital nutrients. According to
Food4Africa, people with marasmus look bony with little muscle tissue.
Kwashiorkor
Kwashiorkor is a kind of inadequate protein affecting young people. It has many
symptoms that include an extended liver, a midreak swollen, pedal oedema (swollen
feet), skin depigmentation, aggravation of the skin, decreased hair and tooth discomfort.
Finally, the emotional and physical advancement of a young person may be
suppressed.
Impaired mental health
Long-term protein inadequacy would have a different impact on your psychological well-
being. It can prompt mental hindrance (especially in youngsters) and furthermore cause
tension, surliness, sorrow and crankiness.
Oedema
Not having sufficient protein may cause oedema (liquid maintenance). This would result
in swelling of the feet, hands and stomach in different areas of the body, for example. In
addition to the swelling oedema, stained skin, hypertension and solid joints may also
cause damage in the appendages.
Organ failure
For the development and maintenance of different functions of the body, protein is
needed. Protein deficiency may cause various body organs to function incorrectly.
Wasting and shrinkage of muscle tissues
Our body starts to source protein from somewhere else if you don't get enough protein
in your diet. The muscles are one of the major sources to which your body swings. It
causes the muscles to waste and shrink because the body has no chance of taking
protein from the muscles.
Weak immune system
Protein is fundamental for the production of antibodies that are a vital component. If you
are not sure that your body is not sufficiently in protein, these antibodies will not deliver.
This makes you more defenseless, as your body fights unwanted microbes.

Reference:

Coagulation/Thickening. American Egg Board. (2020, December 2).

https://www.incredibleegg.org/professionals/manufacturers/real-egg-
functionality/coagulation-thickening.

Denaturation protein. (n.d). http://chemistry.elmhurst.edu/vchembook/568denaturation.html.

Libretexts. (2021, January 3). 7.7B: Denaturation and Protein Folding. Biology LibreTexts.
https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Book
%3A_Microbiology_(Boundless)/7%3A_Microbial_Genetics/7.07%3A_Protein_Modificat
ion%2C_Folding%2C_Secretion%2C_and_Degradation/7.7B
%3A_Denaturation_and_Protein_Folding.

Paul, W. by C. (2020, January 16). Histology Fixatives: What Do They Actually Do To Your
Samples? Bitesize Bio. https://bitesizebio.com/13444/histology-fixatives-what-do-they-
actually-do-to-your-samples/.

Picric Acid: The Flammable Chemical Once Used for Medicinal Properties. Pharmacy Times.
(n.d). https://www.pharmacytimes.com/view/picric-acid-the-flammable-chemical-once-
used-for-medicinal-properties.

The Use of Tannic Acid in the Local Treatment of Burn Wounds. (n.d).
https://taninos.tripod.com/usotaninos.htm.

Walle, G. V. D. (2018, June 20). 9 Important Functions of Protein in Your Body. Healthline.
https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/functions-of-protein#TOC_TITLE_HDR_11.

WebMD. (n.d). Heavy Metal Poisoning & Toxicity: Symptoms, Causes, and Treatment. WebMD.
https://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/what-is-heavy-metal-poisoning.

What are Proteins and What is Their Function in the Body? (n.d).
https://www.eufic.org/en/whats-in-food/article/what-are-proteins-and-what-is-their-
function-in-the-body.

Why does Milk Curdle? (n.d). https://www.scienceofcooking.com/why-does-milk-curdle.html.