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Chapter 03 Atomic Structure

INTRODUCTION
The theory that matter was made fram small indivisible particles called atoms
Dates back to some five centuries B.C. to democritus and centur B.C. to a roman Poet leukiphos thes theory was put
forward on a sound scientific basis by john dalton in 1808.
Atoms are complex organization of matter and energy.many particles have been discovred with in the Atom among
these particles are electrons,protons and neutrons .they are called FUNDAMENT AL PARTICLES OF ATOM. These
particles determine chemical properties of matter.

EXPERIMENTS:
The following experiments show the presence of electron , proton and neutron .
1) FARADAY EXPERIMENT: this experiment gives clue about electrons.
2) CROOK,S EXPERIMENT: It confirms the presence of electrons and protons.
3) RADIOACTIVITY: It proves the presence of electrons and protons.
4) CHADWICK,S EXPERIMENT : this reveals the presence of neutrons.
5) SPECTROSCOPIC EXPERIMENTS: they elucidate the structure of atom.

FARADAY,S EXPERIMENT (Clue About Electron)

( The passage of electricity through solution)
Electrolytes are the chemical solutions through which electricity con be passed in the presence of two electrodes .
On passing current, the electrolytes dissociates into positive ions and negative ions. The positive ions move towards
cathode while negative ions move towards anode. Here they gain or lose electrons and become neutral.
In this experiment, faraday determined:

(1) The charges of different ions and

(2) The amount of element liberated.

Faraday proved thet electricity, gust like matter is atomic in nature and F/N is the unit of electric charge. Far
such unit of electric charge, stoney (1891) gave the name electron.
CROOK,S DICHARGE TUBE EXPERIMENT
(passage of electricity through a gas at low pressure)
DISCOVERY OF ELECTRON:
Electrons were discovered by crook, while performing his experiment in discharge tube.
DISCHARE TUBE :
It is tube made up of a glass .it is about 30 CM IN LENGTH AND 4 cm in diameter. It is closed it both ends. Both
ends are provided metallic rods. The electrode connected to megative terminal of battery is called cathode while
othar is called anode. Side tube is meant far connecting the tube to high vacuum pump to reduce the pressure
WORKIG:
When very high voltage (10,000volts) of electricity is applied between two electrodes. The following phenomena
occur.
(1) AT NORMAL PRESSURE:
Gases are poor conductor of electricity. At normal pressure (760 torr) when current (10,000 volts) is passed through
gas no electric discharge is observed.
(2) AT REDUCED PRESSURE:
The pressure is reduced by pumping out the gas from tube, then above voltage (10,000) is passed, discharge begins to
ocuu. Thet is the gas begines to conduct electricity.
(a) At 10 TORR: At this reduced pressure, a uniform glow inside the tube is produced.
(b) At 0.1 TORR PRESSURE: when pressure inside the tube is further reduced to 0.1 torr,
A dark space in the neighbourhood of cathode is produced. It is called crook,s dark Space and the thread
like lines (striations) are observ in the rest of tube.
(c) At 0.01 TORR PRESSURE: Atthis reduced crook,s dark space increases in size and fill the whole tube.
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(D) At 0.001 TORR PRESSURE:
On further decrease in pressure to 0.001 torr no light is given out by residual gas with in the tube but the glass
of tube begins to glow with bluish or greenish light and fill the whole tube illuminating the wall l
of the tube opposite the cathode this is called fluorescence.

CONCLUSION OBTAINED FROM THIS EXPERIMENT:

At appears thet invisible rays of light (fluorescence) were emitted from. Cathode and move toward anode with high
velocity. These rays are called cathode rays which are negatively charged and are called as electroons.
PROPERTIES OF CATHODE RAYS:
(1) The cathode rays travel in staight line. Place an opaque body in the path of cathode rays. A shadow will form
on the opposite wall of vacuum tube, proving thet these rays travel in staight line
(2) When subjected to electric or magnetic field, they show deflection. Their deflection towards positively
charged plate indicates thet they are negatively charged.
(3) When a small paddle wheel is placed in the middle of thei rpath. It causes motion to the wheel showing thet
they are particles and not rays.
(4) The rays are electrons as their e/m ratio resembles with that of electrons.
(5) The rays can produce a mechanical pressure, indicating that they have kinetic energy.
(6) The rays are assential part of all matters. Any gas filled in discharge tube will emit these rays.

DISCOVERY OF PROTONS –POSITIVE RAYS:

Goldstein (1866) discovered that in addition to cathode rays, there are other rays traveling in opposite direction. He
named these rays as positive or canal rays. He used the discharge tube having perforated cathode. These rays from
anode pass through holes of cathode to the oppositive side. Further it was found that these rays were also deflected by
electric and magnetic lield. The charge present on these particles was found to be positive.

PROPERTIENS OF CANNAL RAYS :

(1) Positive rays are produced from the ionization of gas and not from anode .
(2) The gas is ionized due to the bombardment of electrons coming from cathode.
(3) Canal rays are deflected in electric and magnetic field in opposite direction than that of electron.
(4) This deflection shows that they are positively charged and are called protons.
(5) Charge and mass ratio (e/m) depends upon the nature of the gas present in the discharge tube.
(6) Proton is 1836 times heavier than electron.
INFORMATIONS OBTAINED FROM DISCHARE TUBE EXPERIMENT ABOUT THE STRUCTURE OF ATOM:
The following information is obtained from the discharge tube experiments: gas discharge tube experiment has
played an importand role in determining the structure of atom. It reveals that,
(1) Electron is the fundamental particle of every atom.
(2) Electron is negatively charged partical.
(3) The central part of atom contains positive charge.
(4) The positively charged particles are called protons.
DISCOVERY OF RADIOACTIVILY:
(Confirmation of Electrons and Protons)
Henry becquerel (1896) working with uranium mineral called as pitch blend, found that invisible radiations were
coming out of this mineral. These radiations affect the photogrphic plate. The pitch blend, when heated or cooled,
compressed or expanded continues to affect the photographic plate. It is only when pitch blend is wrapped in lead
sheet, that whil stop emitting radiation. Later it was found that these radiations were in fact electrons.
Pierre curie and marie curie also worked on pitch blend (it is an oxide of uranium, U O) they found that the
radioactivity of a given mass of pure uranium salt. By chemical methods of separation they separate two radio –active
elements from the ore, namely polonium and radium. The radium was a million times more reactive than uranium in
giving out invisible radiations.
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DEFINITION OF RADIOACTIYITY
Radioactiyity is the spontaneous emission of radiation by an elementdue to the splitting of atomic nuclei.
These radiations are called radioactive rays and the elements that emit these rays are called Radioactive elements.

DISCOVERY OF THESE RAYS:

These are discovered by Mr. and Madam curie who were able to isolate Radium from pitch blend (U O). Radium was
giving out invisible rays.
These invisible rays were examined, they were found to contain three types of rays
TYPES OF RAYS:

1) α-rays 2) β-rays 3) ɤ- rays

SEPARATION OF RAYS:
Rutherford (1903) used simple method for separation of α, β, and ɤ- rays. Uranium salt was pleced in a lead
container. The rays coming out of small opening of lead container were examined under magnetic field. The rays
were split up into three types of rays named as α, β and ɤ – rays.
The rays bend towards negative pole are called as alpha rays, while those which move towards positive pole are
called beta –rays (β). some remain un- deflected and are called as gamma rays (ɤ) .
After giving out radiations the elements break down to more stable elemant. For example , U on emission of
a- particle gives thorium Th as shown in the figure
238 234
U92 Th90 + 4He2

PROPERTIES OF α-RAYS:
(1) alpha rays are positively doubly charged helium particles.
(2) They deflect towards negative pole when subjected to magnetic field.
(3) Deflection towards negative pole of magnet shows that they are positively charged i.e. they are proton.
(4) Their size is bigger and speed is low.
(5) They penetrating power in air is very small. It is only 1-2 cm.
(6) They ionize air and their ionized power is high.
(7) When they fall on fluorescent screen they give bright flashes.
PROPERTIES OF β₋RAYS :
(1) These rays are deflected in electric and magnetic field.
(2) Their deflection towards positive pole indicates that they are negatively charged.
(3) Velocity of these rays is greater than that of α₋ particles.
(4) They have small size and high speed .
(5) They have greater power to penetrate in the metals.
(6) These rays ionizes gases to lesser extent.
(7) Being relatively heavier particles, they can not pass through solids.
PROPERTIES OF ɤ₋ RAYS:
(1) These rays do not consist of particles.
(2) They carry no charge.
(3) They are not deflected by electric or magnetic field.
(4) Their speed of traveling is equal to that of light.
(5) They are weak ionizer of gases.
(6) Due to high speed and non ₋material nature, they have great power penetration through solids.
DISCOVERY OF NEUTRON:
The discovery of neutron was made during artificial radioactivity experiment. In 1932, chadwick bombarded beryllium
with alpha particles. He observed that highly penetrated particles were produced which carry no charge. These
particles were neutron.
9 4 12 1
4Be ₊ 2He 6C ₊ 0n
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Neutron is a neutral sub-atomic particle present in the nucleus. The protons and neutrons in nucleus are called
nucleos. Its mass is 1.675×10-24gm. Which is nearly equal to the maas of hydrogen. Thus it was concluded that nucleus
consists of proton and neutrons.
PROPERTIES OF NEUTRON:
 Itcarries no charge i.e it is electrically neutral.
 There is no deflection in electric or magnetic field.
 Mass number (A) minus atomic number(Z) equals to number neutron.
 The mass of the neutron is the sum of masses of proton and electron.
Neutron =proton + Electron
SUB- ATOMIC PARTICLES OF ATOM:
These sub –atomic particles are summarised as below:

(1) ELECTRON: a negatively charged particle.

Mass of electron = 9.1 × 10-28gm
Charge of electron = 1.602×10 -19 coulomb
Sympol = 01e
(2) PROTON: A positively charged particle.
Mass of proton = 1.675×10 -24gm

Symbol =1p1 or 1H1

NEUTRON: carries no charge.
Mass of neutron = 1.675×10 -24gm
Charge of electron = zero
Symbol = 10n
ATOMIC MASS NUMBER:
The sum of protons (p) and neutrons (n) in an atom is called mass number.
Thus,
Atomic mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons
= atomic number of neutrons.
TO FIND OUT THE NUMBER OF PROTON, NEUTRONS AND ELECTRON IN EACH OF THE FOLLOWING.
39
I. K19:
Number of neutrons = mass number – No. of protons
= 39 – 19
No. of neutrons = 20
No of protons = 19 , No. of Electrons= 19

16
II. o8
At. Number = 8 , at. Wt. 16
No . of neutrons = mass number _______ no. of protons
= 16 – 8 = 8
No. of electrons = 8 , no of protons = 8
9
III. F19
No. of protons = 9 , No. of electron =9
No. of neutrons = 19 – 9 = 10
Tnus No. of protons = 9 = N0. Of electrons = 9 , N0 of neutrons = 10
9
IV. Li3:
No. of electrons = 3 , No. of protons = 3
No. of neutrons = mass No. – No. of protons
=7 -3 =4
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PLANCKS QUANTUM THEORY
The theory was proposed in 1900 by planck to account for the observed radiations emitted from hot body.
ASSUMPTION
(1) Nature of emission of Energy

The energy is absorbed or emitted by a body not continuously but discontinuously in the form of small packets of
energy.
(2) PACKET OF ENERGY- QUANTUM
Each packet of Energy is called quantum. A quantum is defined as
The amallest unit of radiation energy which can exist indeoendently.
(3) PHOTON AND ITS NATURE
A quantum of energy in the form of light is called a photon.
(4) ENERGY OF PHOTON
The energy of photon is not fixed . it is directly proportional to the frequency of light ( Ʋ- neu ) of radiation
E=hƲ (h=planks constant = 6.627 × 10 -34js)

(5) ABSORPTION OR EMISSION OF ENERGY

a body can emit or absorb one photon of energy or some whole number multiply
of it I. e. hƲ,2hƲ,3hƲ
E=3HƲ ( WHERE N= 1,2,3)
(6) Energy of less then a photon can neither be emitted nor be absorbed.
This theory is called theory of photon.
SPECTRA
when a beam of light is allowed to pass through a glass prism, it splits into several colours. This phenomenon is called
dispersion and the band of colour is called as spectrum. Since the atoms are the source of spectra, these are called
atomic spectra.
TYPES OF ATOMIC SPECTRA:
(1) Emission spectra and
(2) Absorption apectra.
Emission apectra are further divided into,
(a) Continuous spectra and
(b) Line- spectra.
EMISSION SPECTRA
These are produced by the emission of radiant energy by the excited atom.
(a) CONTINUOUS SPECTRUM:
When whith sunlight is allowed to pass through the prism, it deviates and split into seven colours.
At one end of the spectrum is red while on the other end is violet colour.in between these two, the other colours are
orange, yellow, green, blue and indigo. Violet has the shortest wave length of about 4000A owhile red has the longest
wave length I. e. 7000AO.
The coloured bands of spectrum are arranged one after the other in a manner that there is no sharp line of
demarcation between different colours. Such apectrum is called as continuonus spectrum. Light of single wave length
is called monochromatic.

(b) LINE-SPECTRUM:
When light from a gaseous source in the excited state, passes through the prism, a discontinuous specta is
obtained. A gas con be excited.
I. By heating it very strongly.
II. By passing electric discharge through the gas at low pressure (crook,s experiment)
The discontinuous spectrum (line- spectrum) consists of a series of several colour bands separated by dark
areas. This spectrum is also known as finger prints of elements because,
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I. Each line has its separate characteristic line spectrum.
II. Each line in the spectrum represents a particular wave length.
THE FOLLOWING INFORMATION IS OBTAINED FROM THE LINE SPECTRUM ABOUT THE
STRUCTURE OF ATOM:
the above characteristics lead to conclusion that electrons are presen at different energy levels around the nucleus.
In excited state, they go to higher energy level from E1 to E2. The difference E2 –E1= ∆E is the same far a given
transition. It is therefore obvious that energies emitted by a given excited element always have the same wave
length.
ABSORPTION SPECTRUM:
When white light is passed through the gaseouns sample of an element and then through the prism the radiation
which is emitted has certain wave length missing because it is absorbed by the element. The spectrum formed after
missing radiation is called as the absorption epectrum. The wave length of the radiation that has been absorbed by
the atoms results and appears as lines on the continuous spectrum.
DISTINCTION BETWEEN CONTINOUS AND LINE SPECTRUM:
CONTINUOUS SPECTRUM: LINE SPECTRUM(DISCONTINUOUS)
1) it is produced when light is passed through 1) It is produced when light from a gaseous
prism. source in excited state is passed through the
2) There are no sharp lines between the different prism.
colours. 2) It is in the from of definite lines.
3) It has no dark spaces between the colours. 3) It has dark spaces between the colours.
4) The spectrum of any white light is the same 4) It is different for different elements і.e.it
depends upon the nature of element.

RUTHERFORD΄S MODEL OF AN ATOM

EVIDENCE FOR NUCLEUS AND ARRANGEMENT OF PARTICLEC

RUTHERFORD΄S EXPERIMENT:
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