CK COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING &

TECHNOLOGY,CUDDALORE.

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

YEAR: I SEMESTER: II

ENGINEERING PRACTICES
LABORATORY
[GE8261]

LAB MANUAL [Group – B]

 CK COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
&TECHNOLOGY,CUDDALORE

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Class/ Semester : First Year/Second Se mester

Sub & Code : GE 8261 - Engineering Practices Laboratory – [Group – B]

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING PRACTICE



1. Study of Electronic components and Equipments- Resistor, Color coding

Measure ment of AC signal parameter (peak-peak, rms period, frequency)

using CRO.

2. Study of Logic Gates AND, OR, NOT, NAND, EX-OR and NOT.

3. Generation of clock signal.

4. Soldering practice- Components Devices and circuits - Using general

purpose PCB.

5. Measure ment of ripple factor of HWR and FWR.


EX. NO.1 STUDY OF ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS AND
EQUIPMENTS - Resistor, Color coding Measurement of
DATE: AC signal parameter (peak-peak, rms period, frequency)
using CRO.
AIM:
To study the electronic components and equipment and also measure the AC
Signal Parameters using CRO.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.No Components/Instrume nts Type/Range Qty
1 Resistor Various Range 1
2 Capacitor Various Range 1
3 Inductor Various Range 1
4 CRO (0-30)Mhz 1
5 Transformer 12-0-12 V 1
6 Function Generator 0-2Mhz 1

THEORY:
ELECTRONICS:
It is the branch of science, which relates to the conduction of electricity through a)
vacuum, b) gases and c) semiconductors. The electronic devices are fairly complex, they are
made of simple components such as: Resistors, Capacitors, inductors, tube devices and semi-
conductor devices. Resistors, capacitors and inductors come under passive components and
tube devices and semi-conductor devices fall under active components.

PASSIVE COMPONENTS:
RESISTORS:
It is a passive electronic component, which exhibits the property of the
Resistance. Resistance is a physical property of the material, which opposes the flow of
current. Resistors are used in circuits to limit the flow of current or to provide a voltage drop.
TYPES:

Resistors are broadly classified in to two categories as

 Fixed Resistors
 Variable Resistors
Fixed Resistors
Fixed resistors are those whose values cannot be changed after manufacturing.
Variable Resistors
Variable resistors are those whose values can be changed after manufacturing.
RESISTOR COLOUR CODING:
Resistance is coded to indicate the value and the Tolerance. For axial type resistors,
four color bands are used as shown in figure.

The first three color bands indicate the resistance value and the fourth one indicates
the tolerance. The first colour band gives the first significant digit a nd second colour band
gives the second significant digit. Third colour band is the multiplier and gives the number of
zeros that is to be added to the numerical value obtained from the first two bands.

UNIT SYMBOL
Ohms ( )

The following table gives the colour and its numerical value.

COLOUR NUMBER MULTIPLIER

BLACK 0 100
BROWN 1 101
RED 2 102
ORANGE 3 103
YELLOW 4 104
GREEN 5 105
BLUE 6 106
VIOLET 7 107
GREY 8 108
WHITE 9 109
TOLERANCE VALUE:

BROWN COLOUR + 1%
RED COLOUR + 2%
GOLD COLOUR + 5%
SILVER COLOUR + 10 %
NO COLOUR + 20 %

CAPACITORS:
A capacitor is a component that stores electric energy. It consists of two conducting
plates, separated by an insulator. The conducting surfaces are called electrodes and the
insulating medium is called dielectric.
UNIT:
Farads

SYMBOL:

TYPE:
In general capacitors are classified as
 Fixed Capacitors
 Variable Capacitors

Fixed Capacitor:
Fixed Capacitors are classified into several types depending upon the dielectric
material used. Some of them are
 Paper Capacitors
 Film Capacitors
 Mica Capacitors
 Glass Capacitors
 Ceramic Capacitors
 Tantalum Capacitors
Variable Capacitor:
Variable capacitors consist of a set of fixed plates and a set of movable plates with air
as dielectric. The change of capacitance is obtained by changing the position of the moving
plates with respect to fixed plates.
 Trimmer Capacitors
 Ceramic trimmer Capacitors
 Mica trimming Capacitors
INDUCTOR:
Inductor is a component whose construction is simply a coil of wire. The property of a
coil by which it opposes change in the value of current or flux through it due to the
production of self- induced E.M.F. is called inductance. An inductor consists of a numbe r of
turns of wire used to introduce inductance into an electric circuit and produces magnetic flux.

UNIT: SYMBOL:
Henrys

TYPE:

 Fixed Inductors
Air-core inductor
Iron-core inductor
Ferrite core inductor
 Variable Inductors

TABULATION:

Resistor Value by Resistor Value

Sl. No.
Colour Coding (Ω)
CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE:
The CRO is a versatile electronic testing and measuring instrument that allows the
amplitude of the signal which may be voltage, current, power etc., to be displayed primarily
as a function of time. It is used for voltage, frequency and phase angle measurement and also
for examining the waveforms, from d.c or very low frequency to very high frequencies.CRO
comprises the main sections of (i) Horizontal and vertical voltage amplifiers, (ii) Power
supply circuits and (iii) Cathode Ray Tube (CRT).
APPLICATIONS:
 Measurement of voltage
 Measurement of current
 Measurement of frequency
 Measurement of phase difference

AC FUNDAMENTALS:
Alte rnating quantity:
A quantity in which the magnitude and direction change with respect to time is
called an alternating quantity.
Example: sinusoidal
Quantity Cycle:
One complete set of changes in magnitude and direction of any alternating quantity is
called a cycle.
Period:
Time taken by an alternating quantity to complete one cycle is called period. Its unit is
seconds.

FREQUENCY:
The number of cycles completed by an alternating quantity per second is called
frequency. Its unit is Hertz.
PEAK VALUE OR AMPLITUDE:
The maximum value that an alternating quantity attains during a cycle is
called peak value or Amplitude. There are positive and negative peak values. The
magnitude between these two peaks is called peak-peak value.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Measure ment of AC Voltage amplitude and frequency:

AFO CRO

MODEL GRAPH:

TABULATION:

S.NO X-axis Y-axis Voltage/Div Time/Div Amplitude Total Period Frequency

(V) (Sec) (Volts) F=1/T(HZ)
PROCEDURE:
1. The circuit connections are given as per the circuit diagram.
2. The sinusoidal voltage is applied with the help of AFO.
3. Readings are taken for different magnitudes and frequencies.

RESULT:
Thus electronic components and equipment and also measure the AC Signal
Parameters using CRO has been studied.
EX. NO: 2
STUDY OF BASIC LOGIC GATES
DATE:

AIM:
To verify the truth table of basic logic gates of AND, OR, NOT, NAND,
NOR, EX-OR gates.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No Components/Instrume nts Type/Range Quantity

1. Digital IC tra iner kit - 1

2. AND gate IC 7408 1

3. OR gate IC 7432 1

4. NOT ga te IC 7404 1

5. NAND gate IC 7400 1

6. NOR gate IC 7402 1

7. E X-OR ga te IC 7486 1

8. Connec ting wires As re quire d

THEORY:
AND gate:
An AND gate is the physical realization of logical multiplication operation. It is
an electronic circuit which generates an output signal of ‘1’ only if all the input signals
are ‘1’.
OR gate:
An OR gate is the physical realization of the logical addition operation. It is an
electronic circuit which generates an output signal of ‘1’ if any of the input signals is
‘1’.
NOT gate:
A NOT gate is the physical realization of the complementation operation. It
is an electronic circuit which generates an output signal which is the reverse of
the input signal. A NOT gate is also known as an inverter because it inverts the
input.

NAND gate:
A NAND gate is a complemented AND gate. The output of the NAND gate
will be ‘0’ if all the input signals are ‘1’ and will be ‘1’ if any one of the input
signal is ‘0’.

NOR gate:
A NOR gate is a complemented OR gate. The output of the OR gate will be
‘1’ if all the inputs are ‘0’ and will be ‘0’ if any one of the input signal is ‘1’.

EX-OR gate:
An Ex-OR gate performs the following Boolean function,
A B = ( A . B’ ) + ( A’ . B )
It is similar to OR gate but excludes the combination o f both A and B being
equal to one. The exclusive OR is a function that give an output signal ‘0’ when
the two input signals are equal either ‘0’ or ‘1’.
AND GATE: IC7408
LOGIC DIAGRAM: PIN DIAGRAM:

Circuit diagram:

Boolean expression for AND GATE Y = A.B

Truth table:

OR GATE: IC 7432

LOGIC DIAGRAM: PIN DIAGRAM:

 Circuit diagram: Truth Table:

Boolean expression for OR GATE Y = A+B

NOT GATE: IC7404

LOGIC DIAGRAM: PIN DIAGRAM:

Circuit diagram: Truth table:

Boolean expression for NOT GATE Y = Ā

NAND GATE: IC 7400
LOGIC DIAGRAM: PIN DIAGRAM:

Circuit diagram: Truth Table:

470 Ω
B

Boolean expression for OR GATE Y = A.B

NOR GATE: IC 7402

LOGIC DIAGRAM: PIN DIAGRAM:

Circuit Diagram: Truth table:
A

B 470 Ω

Boolean expression for OR GATE Y = A+B

EX-OR GATE: IC 7486

LOGIC DIAGRAM: PIN DIAGRAM:

Circuit Diagram: Truth Table:

INPUT OUTPUT
A B A B
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

Boolean expression for EX-OR GATE Y = A B

PROCEDURE:
 Connections are given as per the circuit diagram
 For all the ICs 7th pin is grounded and 14th pin is given +5 V supply.
 Apply the inputs and verify the truth table for all gates

RESULT:
Thus the truth table of basic logic gates of AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, EX-
OR gates are verified.
.
EX. NO: 3
GENERATION OF CLOCK SIGNAL
DATE:

AIM
To generate the clock signal using op-amp
APPARATUS REQUIRED
S.no Components/Instrume nts Range/type Quantity
1. Op-Amp IC 741 1
100K Ω 2
2. Resistor
10 K Ω 1
3. Capacitor 0.1 µF 1
4. CRO 30MHz 1
5. Bread Board Bread Board 1
6. Connecting wires - Req

THEORY:
A multivibrator is an electronic circuit used to implement a variety of simple two states
systems such as oscillators, timers and flip flops.
An astable multivibrator has two states neither one stable. The circuit therefore behaves
as an oscillator with the time spent in each state controlled by the charging or discharging of a
capacitor through a resistor.
The astable multivibrator may be created directly with transistors or with use of
integrated circuits such as operational amplifiers or the 555 timer.
Most operational amplifiers are powered by a positive and negative rail voltage,
The output never able to exceed these rail voltages.
Depending upon initial conditions the op amp output will drive to either positive or
negative rail. Upon this occurrence the capacitor will either charge or discharge through the
resistor R2, its voltage slowly rising or or falling
As soon as the voltage at the op amp inverting terminal reaches that at the non inverting
terminal (the op amp output voltage divided by R1 and R2) the output will drive to the opposing
rail and this process will repeat with the capacitor discharging if it had previously charged and
vice versa. Once the inverting terminal reaches the voltage of the no-inverting terminal the
output again drives to the opposing rail voltage and the cycle begins again. Thus the astable
multivibrator creates a square wave with no inputs.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Pin Diagram
TABULATION:
S.No Ton (sec) T off (sec) Time pe riod (sec)

OUTPUT WAVEFORM
PROCEDURE:
 Connections are give as per circuit diagram
 Pin.4 is connected to the -15v of power supply.
 Pin.7 is connected to the +15v of power supply.
 Pin.6 is connected to the CRO for observing the output signal.
 ON and OFF times are measured from CRO. Time period and frequency are then
calculated.

RESULT:

Thus the clock signal using the operational amplifier

EX. NO: 4
SOLDERING PRACTICE COMPONENT DEVICES
DATE: AND CIRCUITS USING GENERAL PURPOSE PCB

AIM:
To practice Soldering for the given electronic circuit by assembling and de
assembling the resistor R1 and R2 and capacitor C1 in the given printed circuit board (PCB).
MATERIAL REQUIRED:

S.NO Components/Instrume nts Type/Range QTY

1 PCB Board for given circuit __ 1
2 Soldering Iron 10W to 35 W 1
3 Solder 60/40 Grade 1
4 Nose pliers __ 1
5 Resistor Various range 4

THEORY:
Soldering With Soldering Iron:
A soldering iron is the most commonly used tool to solder components on PCBs.
Generally, the iron is heated to a temperature of about 420 degrees Celsius, which is enough
to quickly melt the solder flux. The component is then positioned on the PCB such that its
pins are aligned with their corresponding pads on the board. In the next step, the solder wire
is brought into contact with the interface between the first pin and its pad. Briefly touching
this wire at the interface with the heated soldering iron tip melts the solder. The molten solder
flows on the pad and covers the component pin. After solidifying, it creates a strong bond
between the pin and the pad. Since the solidification of the solder happens fairly quickly,
within two to three seconds, one can move to the next pin immediately after soldering one.
De-soldering with Copper Braid
Copper braid is commonly used to de-solder electronic components. This technique
involves melting the solder flux and then allowing the copper braid to absorb it. The braid is
placed on the solid solder and gently pressed with a heated soldering iron tip. The tip melts
the solder, which is quickly absorbed by the braid. This is an efficient but slow method of
De-soldering components since each soldered joint must be worked on individually.
De-soldering with Solder Sucker
Solder sucker is basically a small tube connected to a vacuum pump. Its purpose is to
suck the molten flux off of pads. A heated soldering iron tip is first placed on the solid solder
until it melts. The solder sucker is then placed directly on the molten flux and a button on its
side is pushed that quickly sucks the flux.
De-soldering with Heat Gun
De-soldering with a heat gun is generally used to de-solder SMD components, though
it can also be employed for through-hole components. In this method, the board is placed on a
perfectly flat place and a heat gun is pointed directly at the components to be de-soldered for
a few seconds. This quickly melts the solder and on the pads, loosening the components.
They are then immediately lifted with the help of tweezers. The downside of this method is
that it is very difficult to use for small, individual components since the heat can melt the
solder on nearby pads, which can dislodge components that are not be de-soldered. Also, the
molten flux can flow to nearby traces and pads, causing electrical shorts. It is therefore very
important to keep the board as flat as possible during this process.
PROCEDURE:
SOLDERING:
Study the given electronic circuit
 Clean the given PCB board
 Clean the tip of the soldering iron before heating and also clean the resistor,
capacitor which are to be soldered.
 Heat the soldering iron and apply solder to the tip as soon as it is hot to melt
on it.
 Bend the resistor (R1) leads to fit into the holes on the board.
 Insert resistor (R1) as per the circuit shown in the figure and bent the leads.
 Apply the hot tip to the joints and apply solder.
 Remove the soldering tip and hold the resistor tightly until the solder has
cooled and set.
 Trim excess component lead with side cutter.
 Repeat the above steps to fix other resistor R2, R3, and R4 as shown in the
circuit.
 DE-SOLDERING:
 Hold the resistor R1 to be unsoldered by a hose pliers.
 Place the tip of the soldering iron on the joint until the solder is melt.
 When the solder is melted removes the resistor R1 with a tweezers and brush
away the molten solder.
 Repeat the above steps to remove resistor R2 and capacitor C1.
 Clean the resistors and capacitors so that they can be used other circuits.

RESULT:
Thus the soldering and de-soldering practice is done for the given electronic circuit.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
EX. NO: 5
MEASUREMENT OF RIPPLE FACTOR OF HALF
DATE: WAVE RECTIFIER AND FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

AIM:
To measure the ripple factor of half wave rectifier and full wave rectifier
APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No Components/Instrume nts Type/Range Quantity

1 Diode IN 4007 4
2 Resistor 1KΩ 1
3 Capacitor 100µF 1
4 Transformer 12-0-12)V 1
5 CRO 30MHz 1
6 Bread board - 1
7 Connecting wires and probe - -

THEORY:
Rectifier is an electronic device which converts the alternating current to
unidirectional current, in other words rectifier converts the AC voltage to DC voltage. We use
rectifier in almost all the electronic devices mostly in the power supply section to convert the
main voltage into DC voltage. Every electronic device will work on the DC voltage supply
only.
HALF WAVE RECTIFIER:
During positive half-cycle of the input voltage, the diode D1 is in forward bias and
Conducts through the load resistor R1. Hence the current produces an output voltage across
the load resistor R1, which has the same shape as the +ve half cycle of t he input voltage.
During the negative half-cycle of the input voltage, the diode is reverse biased and There is
no current through the circuit. i.e, the voltage across R1 is zero. The net result is that only the
+ve half cycle of the input voltage appears across the load. The average value of the half
wave rectified o/p voltage is the value measured on dc voltmeter. For practical circuits,
transformer coupling is usually provided for two reasons.
 The voltage can be stepped- up or stepped-down, as needed.
 The ac source is electrically isolated from the rectifier. Thus preventing shock
Hazards in the secondary circuit.
Ripple factor:
It is defined as the amount of AC content in the output DC. It nothing but amount of
AC noise in the output DC. Less the ripple factor, performance of the rectifier is more. The
ripple factor of half wave rectifier is about 1.21
Without filte r:

With filter:
Model Graph:

TABULATION:
HALF WAVE RECTIFIER:

Without filte r With filter

Vm (V) T (mS) Vm (V) T (mS)

Charging Discharging
PROCEDURE:
 The positive terminal (anode) of the diode is connected to the secondary side of the
transformer.
 The diode should be connected in the forward direction.
 The load resistance RL Should be connected across the diode and the other end of the
transformer
 Connect the CRO across the load and observe the output

THEORY
FULL WAVE RECTIFIER
The circuit of a center-tapped full wave rectifier uses two diodes D1&D2.
During positive half cycle of secondary voltage (input voltage), the diode D1 is forward
biased and D2is reverse biased. The diode D1 conducts and current flows through load
resistor RL. During negative half cycle, diode D2 becomes forward biased and D1 reverse
biased. Now, D2 conducts and current flows through the load resistor RL in the same
direction. There is a continuous current flow through the load resistor RL, during both the half
cycles and will get unidirectional current as show in the model graph. The difference between
full wave and half wave rectification is that a full wave rectifier allows unidirectional (one
way) current to the load during the entire 360 degrees of the input signal and half- wave
rectifier allows this only during one half cycle (180 Degrees ).
Without filte r:

With filter:
 Model Graph:

TABULATION:
FULL WAVE RECTIFIER:

Without filte r With filter

Vm (V) T (mS) Vm (V) T (mS)

Charging Discharging
PROCEDURE:
 The positive terminal (anode) of the two diode is connected to the secondary side of
the transformer.
 The diode should be connected in the forward direction.
 The load resistance RL Should be connected across the two diodes and the other end
is grounded
 Connect the CRO across the load and observe the output

RIPPLE FACTOR:
It is defined as the amount of AC content in the output DC. It nothing but amount of
AC noise in the output DC. Less the ripple factor, performance of the rectifier is more. The
ripple factor of half wave rectifier is about 0.48
HALFWAVE RECTIFIER:

FULLWAVE RECTIFIER:

RESULT:

Thus the output of half wave and Full wave rectifiers were obtained

and the curves were plotted.