DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY,
FACULTY OF SCIENCE,
UNIVERSITY OF MALAYA.

INFLUENCE OF MINING ACTIVITIES ON GROUNDWATER

HYDROCHEMISTRY, SOURCE IDENTIFICATION, AND POLLUTION RISK
ASSESSMENT

(SII3008: SPECIAL TOPICS IN APPLIED GEOLOGY)

 
NAME: NURUL AIN NABIHA BINTI MAT ROZALI 
MATRIC NO: SII180020/17086332
LECTURER: DR AHMAD FARID BIN ABU BAKAR
EMAIL: sii180020@siswa.um.edu.mine
Contents
1.0 Introduction...................................................................................................................................1
2.0 Influence of mining activities on groundwater hydrochemistry................................................2
2.1 Water-Rock Interaction............................................................................................................2
2.1.1 Precipitation and Dissolution reaction..............................................................................3
2.1.2 Adsorption and Ion exchange reaction..............................................................................3
2.1.3 Acid-Base Reaction.............................................................................................................3
2.1.4 Oxidation-Reduction Reaction...........................................................................................4
2.2 Formation of Acid Mine Drainage............................................................................................5
3.0 Effects of acid mine drainage into groundwater hydrochemistry..............................................6
3.1 Lowered pH value......................................................................................................................6
3.2 Increase Hardness value............................................................................................................6
3.3 Increase Conductivity................................................................................................................7
3.4 Increase total dissolved solids (TDS)........................................................................................7
3.5 Increase metal concentration....................................................................................................7
3.6 Decrease dissolved oxygen.........................................................................................................8
3.7 Alkalinity....................................................................................................................................8
4.0 Source identification......................................................................................................................9
4.1 Waste rock..................................................................................................................................9
4.2 Tailings.....................................................................................................................................10
5.0 Pollution risk assessment............................................................................................................12
5.1 Effects on Human Health........................................................................................................12
5.2 Effects on plants.......................................................................................................................13
5.3 Effects on aquatic environments.............................................................................................14
6.0 Mitigation method.......................................................................................................................14
6.1 Mine water treatment..............................................................................................................14
6.1.1 Active mine water treatment............................................................................................15
6.1.2 Passive mine water treatment..........................................................................................15
6.2 Regulatory & Planning Considerations.................................................................................16
6.3 Assessment & Monitoring Requirements..............................................................................16
7.0 Case studies..................................................................................................................................17
7.1 Case study 1 (Influence of mining activities on groundwater hydrochemistry and heavy
metal migration using a self-organizing map (SOM)).................................................................17
7.2 Case study 2 (Hydrochemical characteristics and evolution processes of karst
groundwater in Carboniferous Taiyuan formation in the Pingdingshan coalfield).................22
7.3 Case study 3 (Assessment of Groundwater Quality for Drinking Purpose in Rural Areas
Surrounding a Defunct Copper Mine).........................................................................................27
8.0 References....................................................................................................................................33
1.0 Introduction 

The method of extracting metals and minerals from the earth is known as mining
(Hudson,2012). The mining industry is responsible for extracting the metals and minerals that
are needed for our society for agriculture, housing, music, telecommunications, construction,
medicine, and more. Today, we could not imagine living without minerals. The mining
industry not only offers convenience in our everyday lives but also provides numerous job
opportunities (Jhariya, Khan & Thakur, 2016).

Every element, it is well understood, has two effects, one positive and the other
negative. Many developing countries depend heavily on mining as a source of revenue.
Mining operations, whether small or large-scale, are highly disruptive to the environment,
creating massive amounts of waste that can have long-term consequences (Sumi et al., 2001;
Kitula, 2005). The environmental damage caused by mining is primarily due to inappropriate
and unsustainable working practices and restoration measures (Jhariya, Khan & Thakur,
2016).

One of the most serious consequences of mining is groundwater pollution (Hudson,

2012). Water supplies are crucial for the long-term survival of human life. Water is essential
to all forms of life, including forest, wildlife, and aquatic life. Water quality and quantity are
deteriorating day by day because of mining activities. As a result, ensuring water quality at
mining and mineral processing sites is a top priority environmental problem (Jhariya, Khan &
Thakur, 2016).

This report is produced to study the comprehension effects of mining activities on

groundwater hydrochemistry. The source of identification and pollution risk assessment also
will be discussed in detail. Surface drainage from overburden dumps, spills/leaks of effluent
containing hazardous chemicals, or discharge of leachate from mine waste, all result in water
quality deterioration (Jhariya, Khan & Thakur, 2016).

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2.0 Influence of mining activities on groundwater hydrochemistry
Water that forms inside the subsurface geological environment is commonly referred
to as groundwater. Mine water is another sort of groundwater that goes through the same
geochemical processes as "regular" groundwater. Each groundwater has a distinct
hydrochemical characteristic. The interaction of many processes at various phases along the
groundwater flow gives rise to different hydrochemical characteristics. Water is transported
downwards from surface water to groundwater in a hydrologic process known as
groundwater recharge. Recharge is the most common way for water to enter an aquifer. This
process generally occurs below plant roots in the vadose zone and is generally described as a
flux to the water table surface. Water flowing out from the water table and into the saturated
zone is also referred to as groundwater recharge. Rainwater and reclaimed water are
transported to the subsurface in both natural (via the water cycle) and human (i.e., "artificial
groundwater recharge") activities (Banks, 2003).

Groundwater often preserves some of the features of the water that recharged it
(rainfall, snowmelt, or infiltrating river water). For example, newly recharged groundwater
frequently has an isotopic signature reflecting the rainfall, atmospheric chloride
concentration, high concentration of pollutants or contaminants from industry or mining, such
as nitrate, sulphate, and chloride, as well as a high concentration of dissolved oxygen. The
soil zone is an active microbial environment. CO2 is produced by respiration inside the soil
zone. As a result, dissolved CO2 concentrations in groundwater exiting the soil zone are
frequently high (with an isotopic 13C signature reflecting soil zone processes). The dissolved
CO2 is also known as carbonic acid (H2CO3). By raising the concentration of carbonic acid in
the soil water, this action lowers the ph. Carbonic acid synthesis initiates a series of mineral-
weathering events, resulting in bicarbonate (HCO3-) becoming the most prevalent anion in the
water (Banks, 2003).

2.1 Water-Rock Interaction

The term "water-rock interaction" refers to a wide variety of geochemical processes
that describe the ways groundwater interacts with minerals in the subsurface. The
consumption of dissolved O2 and CO2, the adjustment of pH, development of alkalinity, and
the release of base cations are all common outcomes of water-rock interaction processes in
“normal” groundwater. The type of minerals present in the formation, as well as the amount
of time that groundwater is in touch with those minerals, are two of the most important
influences on groundwater hydrochemistry. Dissolution reaction, ion exchange reaction, acid-

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base reaction, an oxidation-reduction reaction are the main chemical processes that alter the
geochemical properties of groundwater due to mining activities (Banks, 2003).

2.1.1 Precipitation and Dissolution reaction

Minerals are generated (precipitated) from ions dissolved in water during precipitation
processes. The precipitation of iron, which is frequent in locations with ground-water seeps
and springs, is an example of this sort of reaction. When iron dissolved in groundwater comes
into touch with oxygen dissolved in surface water at certain places, the solid substance iron
hydroxide is created. In addition, the dissolving minerals release ions into the water in the
reverse process, known as dissolution processes. When calcite (CaCO 3) in limestone is
dissolved, calcium ions (Ca2+) and bicarbonate ions (HCO3-) are released (Banks, 2003). The
examples of dissolution reaction in water:

Halite: NaCl  Na+ + Cl-

Fluorite: CaF2  Ca2+ + 2F-

2.1.2 Adsorption and Ion exchange reaction

Adsorption is the process by which ions or molecules dissolved in water (solutes)
become permanently or temporarily attached to the surfaces (or near-surface regions) of solid
objects. Solutes in groundwater and surface water can be adsorbed to either the solid minerals
that make up an aquifer or a streambed, or to particles floating in the water. Adsorption
involves the attachment of positively charged ions to clays and pesticides to solid surfaces.
Desorption is the process of releasing adsorbed compounds into water (Banks, 2003).

The process of ion exchange occurs when ions adhering to the surface of a solid are
replaced by ions from water. Ion exchange is the process in which ions that contribute to
water hardness are exchanged in water softeners. On the solid's surface, calcium and
magnesium are exchanged for sodium. The quantity of calcium and magnesium in the water
decreases as a result of this process, while the number of sodium increases. When seawater
reaches an aquifer, part of the sodium in the water is swapped for calcium that has been
absorbed by the aquifer's solid material (Banks, 2003).

These often take place on the surface of minerals such as clays:

e.g., Ca-clay + 2Na+  Na2-clay + Ca2+

2.1.3 Acid-Base Reaction

Acid-base reactions include the transfer of hydrogen ions (H +) among dissolved
solutes in water, and they modify the effective concentrations of dissolved compounds by
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changing the H+ concentration in the water. pH, which indicates a negative logarithmic scale
of H+ concentration, is a short notation for H+ concentration (activity). Larger pH values
indicate higher H+ concentrations, whereas smaller pH values indicate lower H+
concentrations. As pH levels are low, many metals remain dissolved; when pH levels rise,
these metals precipitate out of the solution. The most prevalent rock-forming minerals
(carbonates and silicates) are bases that react with groundwater to absorb protons (acid).
Because dissolved carbon dioxide dissociates to release protons, it is considered an acid
(Banks, 2003). The chemical equation of the process is:

CO2 + H2O  H2CO3  H+ + HCO3 –

The chemical equations of weathering of calcite or plagioclase feldspar as examples

of acid-base reactions:

CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O  Ca2+ + 2HCO3 –

2NaAlSi3O8 + 2CO2 + 3H2O  2Na+ + 2HCO3 - + Al2Si2O5(OH)4 + 4SiO2

These sorts of reactions predominate in most “normal” groundwaters, resulting in

neutral to slightly alkaline pH groundwaters dominated by base cations (Ca 2+, Mg2+, Na+) and
bicarbonate. It is worth noting that these reactions tend to consume CO2 while also raising
pH, releasing bicarbonate alkalinity, and releasing base cations (Banks, 2003).

2.1.4 Oxidation-Reduction Reaction

When electrons are transferred between solutes, oxidation-reduction (redox) processes
occur. The oxidation (loss of electrons) of certain elements is followed by the reduction (gain
of electrons) of others in these reactions. When iron dissolved in water that does not contain
dissolved oxygen is mixed with water that does include dissolved oxygen, oxidation and
reduction processes occur, and the iron and oxygen interact. The dissolved iron loses
electrons (it is oxidized) and oxygen acquires electrons because of the reactions (the oxygen
is reduced). The iron is an electron giver in this scenario, whereas the oxygen is an electron
acceptor. As bacteria break down the organic material, they utilize energy generated from the
oxidation-reduction processes. Oxidation-reduction processes mediated by bacteria require a
series of electron acceptors, including oxygen, nitrate, iron, sulphate, and carbon dioxide, to
achieve this. The presence of these processes' products in groundwater can be utilised to
determine which oxidation-reduction processes have occurred in that area. When organic
matter is oxidised to CO2, for example, bacteria can reduce sulphate (SO42-) to sulphide (HS-)
(Banks, 2003). Example of oxidation chemical equation of organic matter:

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 CH2O + O2  CO2 + H2O  HCO3 - + H+

Acid is produced frequently (but not always) during oxidation processes. Acid is
frequently used in reduction processes, which results in the release of alkalinity. The
(bacterially catalysed) oxidation of pyrite, for example, releases protons (acid) (Banks, 2003).

2FeS2 + 2H2O + 7O2  2Fe2+ + 4SO4 2- + 4H+

2.2 Formation of Acid Mine Drainage

The earth's intermediate subsurface serves as a reaction front between the atmosphere
(oxidising and acidic) with the geosphere (generally reducing and basic). The circulating
medium that transports atmospheric reactants (oxygen and carbon dioxide) into the geosphere
is groundwater. Redox and acid-base reactions usually take place in the zone of groundwater
circulation. Acid-base reactions (which use protons) dominant over redox oxidation processes
in typical groundwater settings because the amount of oxidisable minerals (e.g., pyrite) is so
low and availability to oxidising species (e.g., oxygen) is so limited (which may generate
protons). As a result, the pH of typical groundwaters is often neutral to slightly alkaline, with
base cations (Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+) and bicarbonate dominating (Banks, 2003).

During the development of mining, the introduction of fast circulation of oxygen and
water into the deep geosphere occurs with high concentrations of oxidisable minerals such as
sulphides. Similarly, when we generate mine waste dumps, we are introducing deep sulfide-
rich geosphere into the atmosphere, generally with the great circulation of water and oxygen.
As a result, oxidation processes may predominate over acid-base (neutralisation) reactions in
a mine or spoil tip setting, resulting in acid rock drainage (ARD). The mine waters lowered
the pH, increase sulphate and metals concentrations, speeding up the oxidation, acidification
processes, and leaching even more trace metals from the wastes (Banks, 2003). A general
chemical process for the oxidation of pyrites is:

The ferrous iron (Fe2+) is solubilized by the oxidation of the sulphide to sulphate, which is
then oxidised to ferric iron (Fe3+) (Blodau, 2006).

Microorganisms that gain energy from the oxidation reaction can catalyse any of these
processes, which can occur spontaneously or be catalysed by the reactions themselves.

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Additional pyrite can be oxidised and reduced into ferrous ions by the ferric cations (Fe 3+)
generated (Blodau, 2006).

The overall result of these reactions is the release of H+, which lowers the pH and
keeps the ferric ion soluble (Blodau, 2006).

3.0 Effects of acid mine drainage into groundwater hydrochemistry

In terms of mining, acid mine drainage has been a feature of the mining industry
across the world since ancient times, both during and after operations. The problem of acid
mine drainage (AMD) in groundwater might last for decades or perhaps thousands of years.
Reduced pH, high amounts of a variety of heavy metal pollutants, most notably iron, and salts
such as sulphates and chlorides are all common features of these waters (Singh, 1987).
3.1 Lowered pH value

pH values represent the level of acidity or alkalinity in the groundwater system. The
pH of groundwater is altered because of mining. When groundwater ran across mined
regions, the pH changed dramatically from neutral to severely acidic. The production of free
sulphuric acid and the hydrolysis of pyrite oxidation products (iron sulphates) are the main
causes of acidity in mine drainage. The quantity of accessible reactive pyrite in drainage is
represented by the sulphate concentration. Even though sulphate and iron come from the
same source, the acidity produced is determined by the oxidation state of iron. As the iron
oxidises, the acidity rises. (Singh, 1987) Thiobacillus Ferrooxidans, on the other hand,
enhances the rate of iron oxidation at lower pH. The bacteria's work generates an increase in
acid production, which lowers the pH even further. (Singh,1985)
3.2 Increase Hardness value

The overall concentration of cations in water, especially calcium (Ca2+), magnesium

(Mg2+), iron (Fe2+), and manganese (Mn2+), is known as water hardness. The hardness reflects
the geology of the catchment region and may be used to estimate the impact of human
activities on groundwater. Acid mine drainage, for example, frequently releases iron (Fe 2+)
and sulphate (SO42-) into groundwater, resulting in extremely high hardness measurements.
As a result, hardness is a good indication of water quality. The presence of sulphate rather
than bicarbonate as the dominant anion in these mine water samples indicates that these
waters differ from the more frequent kind of hard waters (Singh, 1987).

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3.3 Increase Conductivity

The capacity to transmit electricity in one cubic centimetre of groundwater at 25°C is

known as conductivity. The large picture content of cations and anions in the water is
provided by the conductivity parameter. The greater the conductivity value, the more ions are
present in water, and vice versa. Groundwater that has a conductivity value of more than 100
micromhos / cm is classified as high (Nurofiq & Fajar, 2016). The existence of chemical
reactions in the groundwater that create a lot of free ions is indicated by the high electrical
conductivity values. Ions generate acidity, and mineral ions are the main contributors to
electrical conductivity's high value. The total dissolved solids may be connected to the
specific conductivity values, which approximates the chemical activity occurring inside the
aquifer through which water flows. The concentration of total dissolved solids in water is
further confirmed by specific conductivity readings. In general, the poor conductivity and low
pH of these fluids indicate the lack of calcareous material and the inability to offer the
geological regime's inherent buffering capability (Anna, 2018).
3.4 Increase total dissolved solids (TDS)

Total dissolved solids are the levels of mineral elements dissolved in water that
indicate the existence of dissolved mineral elements (TDS). Carbonate, bicarbonate, chloride,
sulphate, phosphate, nitrate, magnesium, sodium, calcium, potassium, and a few more
elements make up dissolved minerals. TDS levels in normal surface and groundwater are
typically less than 500 mg/L. TDS readings of less than 1000 mg/L are acceptable in water
quality regulations. According to water quality statistics for total dissolved solids
characteristics, mining regions often increase TDS values with time and exceed water quality
regulations (Nurofiq, 2016)
3.5 Increase metal concentration

Secondary reactions between iron sulphates, sulphuric acid, and compounds in nearby
clays, sandstones, limestones, sulphides, and various organic substances present in mine
drainages or streams cause heavy metals to become more soluble and enter the solution,
which explains the presence of Ca, Mg, AI, Ne, K, Mn, Zn, Pb, Cu, Cr, Cd, and other metals
in mine drainages or streams (Singh, 1987).

Many common metals' hydrolysis reactions produce precipitates, which produce H+.
These reactions frequently occur when acidic waters with significant dissolved metals

7
combine with cleaner waters, resulting in metal hydroxides precipitating on stream channel
substrates (Nurofiq, 2016).

 Al+3 + 3H2O <–> Al (OH)3(s) + 3H+ 

 Fe +3 + 3H2O <–> Fe (OH)3(s) + 3H +

 Fe+2 + 0.25 O2 + 2.5 H2O <–> Fe (OH)3(s) + 2H + 

 Mn+2 + 0.25 O2 + 2.5 H2O <–> Mn (OH)3(s) + 2H +

3.6 Decrease dissolved oxygen 

Acid mine drainage places direct chemical demands on the water's oxygen supply.
The oxidation-reduction processes of chemical compounds brought into the system, such as
nitrate (NO3-) and ammonia (NH4+), sulphate (SO42-), and sulphite (SO32-), and ferrous (Fe2+)
and ferric (Fe3+) ions, use dissolved oxygen. Fish, invertebrates, plants, and aerobic
microorganisms all need oxygen to breathe. Most aquatic species are stressed by dissolved
oxygen levels below 3 ppm. Fish cannot survive at concentrations of less than 2 or 1 ppm.
Dissolved oxygen levels of 5-6 ppm are normally required for fish development and activity
(Jesuit, 2004).
3.7 Alkalinity

The buffering capability of a solution is measured by alkalinity. Chemical buffering

refers to a solution's ability to withstand pH variations. Alkalinity indicates a solution's
capacity to absorb or take up hydrogen ions, since pH is a measure of the quantity of
hydrogen ions in a solution. Because negatively charged ions link with positively charged
hydrogen ions, hydrogen ions are sucked up by molecules like carbonates and bicarbonates,
eliminating hydrogen from the solution (Jesuit, 2004).

8
 Bicarbonate and carbonate molecules, as indicated in the figure below, operate as
hydrogen ion absorbers. The bicarbonate buffering system's reactions shift left or right as a
result, while the pH of the solution remains largely unaltered. When hydrogen ions are
introduced to a solution, they mix with available bicarbonate or carbonate ions, shifting the
processes to the left and finally releasing carbon dioxide and water molecules. If hydrogen
ions are present, adding carbonate to the solution causes the hydrogen ions to be occupied,
shifting the reaction to the left. Alkalinity in streams is measured by its bicarbonate content.
The greater the alkalinity, the greater the amount of bicarbonate, and thus the greater the
resistance to changes in pH. Alkalinity values of 20-200 ppm are common in freshwater
ecosystems. Alkalinity levels below 10 ppm indicate poorly buffered streams, which are the
least capable of resisting changes in pH. Buffering capacity is quite poor in streams with a pH
of 6 or below. As seen in the picture above, free carbon dioxide is the most common form of
inorganic carbon in the bicarbonate buffering system (Jesuit, 2004).

4.0 Source identification 

There are a lot of causes in mining activities that affect the changes in the
groundwater hydrochemistry. The waste from mining processes such as waste rock, tailings,
mine water gives rise to acid mine drainage. Mining activities generate a significant amount
of waste. From the first exploration drilling project to the last processed material before mine
closure, waste occurs at various stages of the mining process and after the closure of the
mine. A mine generates a variety of waste, but three categories stand out as having the
highest volume which are waste rock, tailings, and mine water. All this waste will contribute
to the change of groundwater hydrochemistry.
4.1 Waste rock

The rock that is excavated to access the ore is referred to as a waste rock. The amount
of waste rock that must be extracted is determined by the ore body's geometry and location,
as well as the mining method employed, the composition and stability of the rocks. The
stripping ratio is the proportion of waste rock to ore output. A stripping ratio usually is 2:1,
which means that 2 tonnes of waste rock must be extracted to extract 1 tonne of ore. The
stripping ratio of an open-pit mine is usually higher than underground mine. The waste rock
is piled or heaped together ("Lecture 4: Mining waste", n.d.).

The waste rock's composition determines which elements can be released into the
atmosphere. Some components, such as mercury and some nitrogen compounds like

9
ammonia, are extremely toxic even at low concentrations, while others, such as zinc and
copper, are less toxic but still pose a hazard at higher concentrations. Inside a mine, there are
many different forms of waste rock, some of which may be more hazardous than others.
Separation of various types of waste rock is one important way to deal with waste rock
management ("Lecture 4: Mining waste", n.d.).

The elements can be released into the atmosphere as water and air begin to break
down the waste rock, which is a process known as weathering. Since a large block of rock
has a low surface area, it weathers slowly, while smaller parts have higher surface areas,
making them more vulnerable to weathering. In the presence of oxygen, sulphide minerals
are readily weathered. Acid water can be produced when sulphide minerals break down.
Chemical weathering accelerates the weathering of the minerals due to the acidic water
("Lecture 4: Mining waste", n.d.). 

To save transport expenses, waste rock disposal locations are normally positioned as
near to the mine as feasible. Erosion of mineralized waste rock into surface drainages, if not
effectively controlled, can result in metal concentrations in stream sediments. This condition
might be dangerous, especially if the metals are in a chemical state that makes them easily
discharged from sediments into stream waters. Metals are said to be “mobilised” and
“bioavailable” in the environment when this happens ("Lecture 4: Mining waste", n.d.).

Bioavailable metals are sometimes taken by plants and animals, resulting in negative
consequences. Although contemporary mining and reclamation techniques are guided by
environmental rules to reduce or eliminate waste rock erosion into streams, waste rock has
traditionally been dumped in sites where it may erode into surface drainages. Some ancient or
abandoned mines still have these characteristics ("Lecture 4: Mining waste", n.d.).

10
 Figure 1 shows collection of rocks from a waste rock pile ("Lecture 4: Mining waste", n.d.).
4.2 Tailings

Tailings are fine-grained mineral sand that remains as waste after the ore is extracted
and the important minerals are removed. The amount of tailings left is determined by the
ore's grade, which refers to the percentage of valuable minerals in the ore. If an ore's grade is
1% copper, for example, 99 percent of the total ore would be deposited as tailings. Iron ores
have higher grades than sulphide or gold ores, often exceeding 50% or more. As a result, iron
ore projects typically produce fewer tailings ("Lecture 4: Mining waste", n.d.).

Following the separation of the valuable minerals, the tailings are often drained into
pipes in a slurry and stored in a tailings storage facility (TSF) (also called tailings
management facility, TMF). To uniformly disperse the tailings, the pipes are fitted with
spigots in many locations across the TSF. The TSF was developed specifically for the storage
of tailings and is suited to the location and geology. TSFs come in a variety of shapes and
sizes, as well as construction methods. The most popular form of TSF is one that is
constructed on the surface and has high embankments to keep the tailings and water in place.
This form of storage is referred to as conventional impoundment storage ("Lecture 4: Mining
waste", n.d.).

The TSF's embankments are often constructed with mine waste rock. To ensure long-
term stability, the waste rock must be non-acid producing rock (NAG). A coating of
geomembrane, a low-permeability plastic liner or barrier, is often added to the embankments
to prevent fine-grained tailings from seeping into the coarse waste rock ("Lecture 4: Mining
waste", n.d.).

The tailings have a similar composition to the ore. Tailings must be characterised,
much like waste rock, to determine their composition: the minerals are present and in what
ratios. The tailings are fine-grained, which means there is a lot of surface area and a lot of
weathering. This is particularly important when sulphide minerals are present, as chemical
weathering of those minerals would be rapid. The tailings should be held underwater to
prevent the decay of the sulphide minerals ("Lecture 4: Mining waste", n.d.).

A subaqueous deposition occurs when tailings are kept underwater. The technique
aids in the reduction of oxidation of mainly sulphide minerals, but it also affects the way
tailings settle in the TSF, affecting long-term stability. Subaerial deposition (deposition above

11
water) is more common than subaqueous deposition (deposition below water) which more
affects water ("Lecture 4: Mining waste", n.d.). 

The figure 2 shows the tailings storage facility (TSF) ("Lecture 4: Mining waste", n.d.).

5.0 Pollution risk assessment

Most mining activities induce an impact on their environment. Contamination from

abandoned mining waste has an impact on all levels of biological organisation, and each level
has potential indications. Sediment quality guidelines (SQGs), risk assessment code (RAC),
risk index (RI), and WHO standards are some of the indices used to describe environmental
and ecological concerns. AMD releases into the environment via runoff and stream flows,
soils, sediments, and groundwater, which are then consumed by animals. Heavy metals can
be present in small amounts in water sources but are nevertheless extremely poisonous to
people and other organisms, posing major health risks. This is because a metal's toxicity is
determined by variables such as the organisms that are exposed to it, the metal's nature, its
biological role, and the length of time that the organisms are exposed to it. The connections
between organisms are represented by food chains and food webs. As a result, heavy metal
contamination of groundwater has an impact on all creatures. Because heavy metal

12
concentrations in the food chain rise, humans, as an example of creatures eating at the highest
level, are more susceptible to major health issues (Mohapatra & others, 2017).
5.1 Effects on Human Health 

Food-chain implications for humans, as plants absorb large amounts of heavy metals
from soils, might pose a significant health risk. The use of heavy metal-contaminated
agricultural crops is a key food chain pathway for human exposure. Food plants have a high
potential for extracting components from soils. The growing of such plants in polluted soil
poses a concern because heavy metals can accumulate in the vegetal tissues. When heavy
metals are not absorbed by the body and accumulate in the soft tissues, they become toxic
and affect humans and animals (Rehman & others, 2018).

In addition, even in this age of ever-increasing technology, heavy metal

concentrations in drinking water continue to exceed the acceptable limits established by the
regulatory authorities in many nations across the world. Heavy metal contamination in
drinking water, such as arsenic, cadmium, nickel, mercury, chromium, zinc, and lead, is
becoming a serious health issue for the general population and health care providers. The use
of heavy metals in different industrial processes and/or contents, such as colour pigments and
alloys, is known to cause occupational exposure to these metals. Consumption of polluted
drinking water, on the other hand, is the most common cause of human exposure to heavy
metals, with the associated health consequences including cardiovascular diseases,
neurological damage, renal injuries, and an increased risk of cancer and diabetes. As a result
of the use of heavy metal-contaminated water, significant rates of sickness and mortality
increased all over the world (Rehman & others, 2018).
5.2 Effects on plants

Some of these heavy metals, such as As, Cd, Hg, Pb, or Se, are not required for plant
development since they have no physiological role in plants. Others, such as Co, Cu, Fe, Mn,
Mo, Ni, and Zn, are necessary for plant development and metabolism, but their
concentrations can exceed acceptable levels when exposed to acid mine drainage, resulting in
poisoning. Since waste rocks are most commonly used to enhance soils used to plant
vegetables, it usually gives negative impacts and might be a big issue. Given that most
vegetable species have edible parts, the potential of heavy metals being transferred from soil
to humans should be a cause for worry (Singh & Kalamdhad, 2011). 

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 The uptake of heavy metals by plants and their subsequent build-up through the food
chain poses a risk to animal and human health. The absorption of heavy metals by plant roots
is one of the most common mechanisms for heavy metals to enter the food chain.
Temperature, moisture, organic matter, pH, and nutrition availability are all elements that
influence heavy metal absorption and accumulation in plant tissue. Cd, Zn, Cr, and Mn
absorption and accumulation were greater in Beta vulgaris (Spinach) during the summer
season, but Cu, Ni, and Pb accumulated more during the winter season. Probably, the
relatively rapid decomposition rate of organic matter during the summer season may release
heavy metals into the soil solution for probable absorption by plants. The increased intake of
heavy metals such as Cd, Zn, Cr, and Mn during the summer season compared to the winter
season may be owing to increased transpiration rates due to the higher ambient temperature
and lower humidity (Singh & Kalamdhad, 2011).

Heavy metal accumulation in plants is determined by plant species, and the

effectiveness of various plants in absorbing metals is determined by plant absorption or metal
transfer factors from soil to plant. Pb levels in soils that are too high may reduce soil
productivity, while Pb levels that are too low may inhibit vital plant processes like
photosynthesis, mitosis, and water absorption, resulting in toxic symptoms like dark green
leaves, wilting of older leaves, stunted foliage, and brown short roots. Heavy metals are
potentially harmful and phytotoxic to plants, resulting in chlorosis, sluggish plant
development, yield depression, and may even be accompanied by decreased nutrient
absorption, metabolic problems, and the capacity to fix molecular nitrogen in leguminous
plants. Seed germination was gradually delayed in the presence of increasing concentrations
of lead (Pb). This could be due to the seeds' prolonged incubation, which must have resulted
in the neutralisation of the toxic effects of lead through various mechanisms such as leaching,
chelation, metal binding, or microorganism accumulation (Singh & Kalamdhad, 2011).
5.3 Effects on aquatic environments

Heavy metals are extremely persistent, hazardous even in small concentrations, and
can cause severe oxidative stress on aquatic species. Groundwater will eventually flow to
rivers and the ocean, affecting aquatic lives. As a result, these pollutants are extremely
important in terms of ecotoxicology. Furthermore, metals are not degraded by microbes and
hence persist in the marine environment indefinitely. Pollution of groundwater with heavy
metals may have disastrous consequences for the aquatic environment's biological balance, as

14
the diversity of aquatic creatures decreases as contamination increases (Singh & Kalamdhad,
2011).

Heavy metals introduced into aquatic systems are usually coupled to particulate
matter, which settles and becomes integrated into sediments over time. Rooted aquatic
macrophytes and other aquatic organisms can absorb sediment-bound contaminants. Because
a large proportion of trace metals introduced into the aquatic environment eventually become
associated with the bottom sediments, metal-induced environmental degradation can occur in
areas where water quality criteria are not exceeded but organisms in or near the sediments are
adversely affected (Singh & Kalamdhad, 2011). 

High quantities of micropollutants, particularly metals, which are commonly present

in rivers, can have an impact on diatom community structure. Once heavy metals have been
collected by an aquatic creature, they can be passed up the food chain through the higher
classes. Carnivores at the top of the food chain, such as humans, get the majority of their
heavy metal burden from the aquatic ecosystem through their diet. Heavy metals and other
contaminants in aquatic systems increase the development of reactive oxygen species (ROS),
which can harm fish and other aquatic creatures (Singh & Kalamdhad, 2011).

6.0 Mitigation method

With the implementation of systematic environmental risk assessment and

management, high-efficiency water usage, and adequate treatment of mine-water drainage,
the situation in current mining operations has vastly improved. 
6.1 Mine water treatment

Many of the processes in the mine and processing plant depend on water. Huge
amounts of water are used in certain operations, such as milling, and this water may be
contaminated with metals and other harmful elements. Water is precious, and it is often
recycled and reused in various processes. The water is eventually collected and released into
the atmosphere. Until the water can be released, it can need to be handled in a variety of
ways. There are two types of water treatment: active and passive. A choice between active
and passive treatment and an appropriate selection of systems within each category is critical
for treatment success. Active treatment is more usually employed in active mines, whereas
passive treatment is more usually utilised in closed and abandoned mines. It is necessary to
treat mine water before it contaminates groundwater or surface water to preserve the

15
ecosystem and end-users, as well as to raise public awareness about the consequences of
mining water ("Lecture 4: Mining waste", n.d.).
6.1.1 Active mine water treatment

The term "active water treatment" refers to the treatment of water in a water treatment
plant. Active treatment may take a variety of forms, but it usually involves raising the pH of
the water with the addition of limestone or caustic soda, which causes metals to precipitate
and settle. Certain settling or sedimentation ponds may be used for this. To speed up the
operation, flocculants are often used. Other tools, such as filter systems, may be used to
supplement the procedure. For active treatment systems, power is essential. Pumps are
frequently used to transport water to the plant and between various system components.
Electricity is often required to meet water additives such as neutralising chemicals,
flocculants, and coagulants; and power is required for mixing and oxidation of the water
("Lecture 4: Mining waste", n.d.).

Their key benefits include excellent removal of pollutants from mine drainage (e.g.,
acidity and metals), precise process control that allows them to be constructed and operated
to generate specified water chemistry, and applicability in places with limited land area. The
high capital cost of active treatment, as well as the high continuous operating and
maintenance expenditures, are the key drawbacks. Active treatment is better suited to
operating mining sites, which often have a limited amount of land accessible for clean-up
systems. It also needs to change drainage chemistry and flow rate and have the necessary
power and staff to control the treatment system ("Lecture 4: Mining waste", n.d.). The six
chemicals that are commonly used to treat AMD are limestone, lime, quicklime, soda ash,
caustic soda, and ammonia (Skousen, Ziemkiewicz, Mcdonals, 2018).
6.1.2 Passive mine water treatment

Passive water treatment, also known as a "walk-away solution," is when water is

treated without human intervention, usually by natural physical, chemical, or biological
processes. Passive systems rely on natural physical, geochemical, and biological processes,
but if not properly chosen and built, they can fail (Skousen et al. 2000). Unlike active
treatment systems, which introduce neutralising material regularly to neutralise the acidity in
AMD permanently, passive treatment systems are often built with a neutralising material
lifespan (25 years) that eliminates the need for new inputs ("Lecture 4: Mining waste", n.d.). 

16
 Most passive treatment methods rely on the dissolution of a neutralising substance
(typically limestone) to neutralise the acidity in AMD, and this dissolution requires adequate
time in the system. Passive systems, as a result, often need a considerable amount of land and
are better suited to complement active systems or closed mine sites. Plants that absorb
contaminants or soils that filter contaminants and deposit them in a protected area are two
popular passive water treatment techniques. Passive water treatment is less expensive than
active water treatment, which is typically a high cost in mine operations. However, using
passive methods to handle highly acidic waters is still difficult. To save prices, a mixture of
active and passive treatment methods may be used ("Lecture 4: Mining waste", n.d.).
Examples of passive mine water treatment are constructed wetlands, vertical flow wetlands,
anoxic limestone drains, open limestone channels, and alkaline leach beds (Skousen,
Ziemkiewicz, Mcdonals, 2018).
6.2 Regulatory & Planning Considerations

Groundwater management and conservation considerations can be incorporated into

mining legislation in a variety of ways, particularly where they affect groundwater
geohydrology, relate to critical drinking water supplies and aquatic ecosystem preservation.
The government should improve the condition of licensing, requiring a ‘cradle-to-grave'
approach to obtain legal obligation and financial provision for groundwater management.
This makes the mining industries needing more comprehensive studies and better mitigation
plans until mining permits are granted. We also should declare a moratorium on mining
operations in hydrogeological fragile areas. This to ensure less effect of mining on
groundwater until the issues that lead to the moratorium have been resolved. Next, enforcing
tighter licensing requirements for mine water extraction and discharge. In addition,
prioritising the evaluation of closure plans before the start of mining, so that long-term
impact mitigation needs can be identified (Foster & Tyson, 2018).
6.3 Assessment & Monitoring Requirements

The scope and detail of Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) required before
the approval of mining projects has greatly improved in recent years, and it is now necessary
to evaluate current baseline groundwater flow, quality, and use conditions, as well as all
possible impacts/risks and their management, before mine construction. Systematic
hydrogeologic assessment using modern techniques such as groundwater geophysical
surveys, stable and radioactive isotopes, tracer checking, trace element analyses, and

17
numerical system modelling is now used rigorously and systematically in EIAs (Foster &
Tyson, 2018).

It's also critical to provide a provision for an "independent expert study" of EIAs to
advise the government before mining and mining expansion approvals. Improved mine water
monitoring and reporting would follow the EIA, with protocols identifying "action trigger
points," specifying the accounting process, and encouraging better "mine water efficiency"
(through recovery, treatment, and recycling), as well as frameworks to promote "public
reporting" of potential external impacts (Foster & Tyson, 2018).

7.0 Case studies

7.1 Case study 1 (Influence of mining activities on groundwater hydrochemistry and
heavy metal migration using a self-organizing map (SOM))

In the Yangtze Metallogenic Region, Tongling is a typical metal ore concentration

region. Years of mining have impacted negatively on the region's groundwater supply. As a
result, a thorough investigation of the effects of mining activities on local groundwater is
crucial. This work makes use of self-organizing map (SOM) computations, and
hydrochemical multivariate statistical analysis. The following are the aims of this paper to
produce the SOMs including regional hydrogeological conditions which created based on the
test findings of 92 water samples to evaluate the hydrochemical zoning. The SOM
hydrochemical zoning is used to identify mining operations that affect the hydrogeochemical
properties and evolution of groundwater and the SOM computation is also used to assess the
effects of mining operations and hydrogeological conditions on heavy metal migration (Zhu,
Wu & Ge, 2020).

18
 Figure 3 shows the SOM matrix map of the region.

D and R denote dry and rainy season water samples, respectively in the water sample
label matrix. The label matrix's Group 1 is positioned in the upper left corner. TDS, Ca 2+,
SO42-, and Mg2+ are the hydrochemical characteristic indices at low pH. Mining activity and
AMD in the research region may have influenced water samples in Group 1. K +, NO3, and
HCO3 are the typical indices of Group 2, which are placed on the right side of Group 1 in the
middle of the matrix. The topological distance between Group 2 and Group 1 is very small
and the samples contain significant quantities of HCO 3, so the samples in Group 2 might be
influenced by both mining and carbonate strata in the research region. The distinctive indices
for Group 3 are Na+ and Cl, which are placed on the right side of the matrix. As a result,
evaporation must be considered while addressing the hydrochemical features of Group 3
samples. The contents of each component index of the water samples in this group are low,
indicating that the samples have relatively good hydrochemistry environments. Group 4 is
located in the lower-left corner of the matrix, and the contents of each component index of
the water samples in this group are low, indicating that the samples have relatively good
hydrochemistry environments (Zhu, Wu & Ge, 2020). 

19
 Furthermore, only five sample locations (W70, W78, W79, W80, W114) indicate
minor changes in the matrix as the seasons' change, indicating that the chemical
characteristics of the groundwater in the research region are largely stable and will not vary
dramatically when the seasons change. From the SOM matrix map, the hydrological map, and
the geographical distributions of the respective groups in the study area is produced (Zhu, Wu
& Ge, 2020).

Figure 4 shows the hydrogeological map and geographical distributions of the respective
groups from SOM in the study area.

The sample locations and mean ion concentrations of each group in the research
region are shown in Fig. 4 and Table 1. The mining waste locations were all within walking
distance of the samples in Group 1. As a result, mine wastes have a direct impact on the water
samples in Group 1 with the greatest TDS and SO 42-, as well as the lowest pH. Group 2 is
mostly found in the Shizishan mining region. The leaching of carbonate reduces the effects of
AMD and mining wastes on groundwater. As a result, HCO 3 becomes the distinctive ion in
Group 2 groundwater. Group 4 water samples are dispersed across the groundwater runoff
region. This area's groundwater has a comparatively high drainage rate and more recharge
sources. In addition, the effects of water-rock interactions and mining wastes are diminishing.
As a result, the concentrations of different constituents in groundwater are typically modest.
The discharge area, which is in the centre portion of the syncline plain and the northern half

20
of the piedmont plain, is where most Group 3 samples are found. With the elevation of the
water table in this location, the runoff speed slows. The pace of runoff in this area slows as
the water table rises. Meanwhile, evaporation and concentration, human activities, and
surface water recharge all have an impact on groundwater. As a result, the content of each
component steadily increases, with Na+ and Cl having the largest concentrations (Zhu, Wu &
Ge, 2020). 

Table 1 shows the mean values of the main parameters for the four groups and the overall
data.

In general, the SOM-derived zoning regularity of groundwater hydrochemistry in the

research region is rather clear, which matches the description of the SOM maps. This type of
hydrochemical grouping can help with a preliminary understanding of the groundwater
recharging and discharging process. Hydrochemical analysis and the isotope technique are
used to further show the hydrochemistry and heavy metal migration of the groundwater in the
research region, based on groundwater hydrochemistry zoning. In this work, the piper
diagram is utilised to depict the overall hydrochemical facies and processes as shows in
Figure _. The piper diagram of the groundwater reveals that the primary ions are Ca 2+, HCO3,
and SO42, based on the hydrochemical types, SOM zonality, and significant ions, as the
sample points are primarily situated in the regions of A, E, and F. The sample points in the
diamond part are mostly in regions 1 and 4, indicating that the primary hydrochemical types
are HCO3–Ca and SO4– Ca. Following the development of AMD, the groundwater undergoes
carbonate leaching from Group 1 to Group 2, and subsequently, Group 4 from the piedmont
area mixes with Group 3. Finally, evaporation-concentration causes the groundwater to
progressively convert to Group 3 in the plain's discharge region, resulting in relatively high
Na+ and Cl, and the related sample locations tend to be closer to area 5 (Zhu, Wu & Ge,
2020).

21
 Figure 5 shows the spatial distribution and Piper diagram.

The Gibbs diagram revealed that evaporation, water-rock interactions, and

atmospheric precipitation all play a role in the development of groundwater chemical
composition. The water samples in this investigation were generally found within the Gibbs
diagram's zones of water-rock interactions and evaporation dominance, suggesting that the
groundwater has gone through a period of water-rock interactions with minimal
hydrochemical features of precipitation. In the Gibbs diagram, Group 3 is spread in the
recharge region and is closer to the evaporation area, demonstrating the impact of evaporation
concentration on Group 3. The Gibbs diagram showed that groups 1 and 2, which are mostly
located in the mining region, diverged from the distribution region of water samples under
normal conditions, indicating that mining operations had a major impact on groundwater
hydrochemistry (Zhu, Wu & Ge, 2020).

22
 Figure 6 shows the Gibbs Diagram.

As a conclusion, to categorise the hydrochemical zonality of the research region, a

SOM computation was used. The findings demonstrate that the SOM was beneficial in
gaining a better knowledge of the impact of mining on groundwater hydrochemistry. SO 4–
Ca-type groundwater with high TDS and low pH values is mostly distributed in mining sites,
as a result of mining activities and AMD. The pH and HCO 3 of the groundwater are rising,
and the concentrations of other components are gradually decreasing, as the groundwater
flow speed increases and carbonate neutralised. The content of each component in the
groundwater tends to rise again in the plain's discharge region due to growing groundwater
levels, evaporation, and surface water supply. The hydrochemistry of the groundwater in the
studied region is primarily influenced by mining operations and water-rock interactions.
AMD, which is generated by the oxidation and acidification of pyrite, has a high sulphate
concentration. Calcium, magnesium, bicarbonate, and sodium, on the other hand, are mostly
derived through carbonate and silicate weathering and dissolution. Heavy metals may be
deposited in groundwater around the mining region due to the AMD and the original
environment. Heavy metals are easily coprecipitated with iron and manganese from the
groundwater or absorbed by secondary minerals such as ferrihydrite and birnessite due to the
effects of the redox conditions in the study area and the influence of variable-valency metals
such as Fe and Mn. As a result, the amount of heavy metals in the groundwater is quite low.
As a consequence, this study contributes to the long-term development and conservation of

23
groundwater resources, as well as the prevention of heavy metal contamination in the
examined region and neighbouring Yangtze Metallogenic Region metal mines (Zhu, Wu &
Ge, 2020).
7.2 Case study 2 (Hydrochemical characteristics and evolution processes of karst
groundwater in Carboniferous Taiyuan formation in the Pingdingshan coalfield)

Groundwater's hydrochemical features are generated as a result of long-term

interactions with its surroundings (Gan et al. 2018). Hydrochemical properties, to some
extent, record information on groundwater recharge sources, migration, and circulation (Sefe
et al. 2018). As a result, understanding the hydrochemical properties and evolution processes
of groundwater has become critical in determining the quality of groundwater and its
recharging processes (Wang et al. 2017). To identify the hydrochemical features and
evolution processes of groundwater, traditional hydrogeological methods such as the Piper
trilinear diagram (Piper 1944) and the Gibbs diagram (Gibbs 1970) have been frequently
used. A considerable number of research in recent years have revealed that combining
statistical approaches with traditional approaches to detect the hydrochemical features and
evolution processes of groundwater is more efficient. The origin of main ions and evolution
processes of shallow groundwater in Pengyang county and the Dongsheng Coalfield of China
were determined using the Piper trilinear diagram, Gibbs’s diagram, and correlation analysis
which the combination of conventional and statistical approaches in this study. Such
information is required for the long-term use of groundwater resources, as well as the
development of suitable mining water disaster prevention and control procedures (Liu, Wang,
Jin, Xu & Zhao, 2020).

Study Area

The research area (113°00–114°00′ E, 33°30′–34°00′ N) lies in Henan Province's

central and western regions, stretching 40 kilometers east to west and 10–20 kilometres north
to south. The low hilly terrain between the southern half of the Ruhe River and the northern
section of the Shahe River is home to the Pingdingshan Coalfield. The Guodishan fault
divides the study into two parts: western and eastern (Liu, Wang, Jin, Xu & Zhao, 2020).

24
 Figure 7 shows the location of the study area.

Hydrological Background

The Upper Carboniferous Taiyuan Formation strata, which comprises of upper

limestone with an average thickness of 22.5 m, middle sandstone with an average thickness
of 20.6 m, and lower limestone with an average thickness of 19.5 m, is the principal coal-
bearing strata in this area (Wang et al. 2016; Zhang et al. 2019). Carbonate, gypsum, and
silicate minerals are the most common minerals found in the formation (Wang et al. 1998).
The major aquifer is a limestone aquifer that incorporates albite from the middle Taiyuan
Formation strata's sandstone aquifer. The water inflow per unit of the Taiyuan formation
karst aquifer is 0.002–1.989 L/s m, and the permeability coefficient is 0.00134–32.5 m/day,
suggesting poor-to-good water yield and permeability, according to the findings of the
borehole pumping test. The limestone is exposed in the western study region, where
atmospheric rainfall recharges limestone groundwater, which then flows east via the
Guodishan faults (Guo and Ji 2012; Ma and Zhao 2009). Because of its high quality, karst
groundwater is the primary supply of drinking water in the Pingdingshan mining region.
Meanwhile, to avoid mining water inrush, vast amounts of karst water have been artificially
pumped out. The karst aquifer's water level has been declining in various locations (Liu,
Wang, Jin, Xu & Zhao, 2020).

Results and discussion

Table 2 shows the statistics for the key hydrochemical parameters in the 55 karst
groundwater samples. According to TDS classification (Freeze and Cherry 1979; Li et al.
2018a), all karst groundwater samples in the research region were fresh water (TDS 1000
mg/L), indicating that the groundwater was safe to drink. The karst groundwater pH ranged
from slightly acidic (6.5) to slightly alkaline (6.5). (8.3). Different geological circumstances
and hydrochemical evolution processes might be to blame for this phenomenon (Singh et al.
25
2010). Ca2+ and Na+ were the most abundant cations in the karst groundwater samples. Ca2+
and Mg2+ can be found in groundwater due to the breakdown of carbonate minerals like
calcite and dolomite (Li et al. 2018a). HCO 3- and SO42- were the most abundant anions in the
karst groundwater. The breakdown of albite and carbonate minerals in groundwater can
produce HCO3-. The breakdown of gypsum and anhydrite can produce SO 42-. Cl can come
through the dissolution of halite or from air precipitation (Mahato et al. 2018; Liu et al.
2019). Eleven groundwater samples revealed NO3 concentrations greater than 10 mg/L,
suggesting that some areas of the groundwater were contaminated and unsafe to drink
without treatment. The extensive usage of fertilisers in agricultural regions may be to blame
for high NO3 concentrations in groundwater (Liu, Wang, Jin, Xu & Zhao, 2020).

Table 2 shows all the parameters with minimum, maximum, average and standard deviation.

Figure 8 illustrates hydrochemical parameter comparisons between the eastern and

western sectors. The eastern region has greater concentrations of all hydrochemical
parameters (except pH and NO3) than the western area. The cause for this was that the karst
aquifer in the western area was refilled by air precipitation, and groundwater flowed eastward
over the Guodishan faults. The components of the surrounding rock constantly enter the
groundwater during groundwater runoff, and the concentration of these corresponding
groundwater components rises (Liu, Wang, Jin, Xu & Zhao, 2020).

26
Figure 8 shows the hydrochemical concentration comparison between West and East region.

The Ca–HCO3 facies was the most prevalent facies, with 31 groundwater samples, as
indicated in the Piper Trilinear diagram. The CaNa–HCO 3SO4 facies, which includes eight
groundwater samples, come next. The hydrochemical kinds in the western area were nearly
equivalent to those in the recharging area. Seventeen karst groundwater samples from the
western region showed the Ca–HCO3 facies. The eastern part was in the runoff area, where
long-term water-rock interaction with adjacent rocks occurred, and the hydrochemical kinds
were diversified. Eight samples of CaNa–HCO3SO4 and four samples of CaMg–HCO3 were
found among 36 karst groundwater samples in the eastern region (Liu, Wang, Jin, Xu &
Zhao, 2020).

27
 Figure 9 shows the Piper plot.

The modified Piper plot was used to better comprehend the key hydrogeochemical
processes. Most of the karst groundwater samples in the research region were in field 5,
where alkaline earths (Ca2+, Mg2+) and weak acidic anions (CO 32, HCO3) were found to be
more abundant than alkali metals (Na+, K+) and strong acidic anions (Cl, SO42). This also
suggested that the hydrogeochemistry of karst groundwater was primarily controlled by the
dissolution of carbonate minerals and ion exchange, with the dissolution of silicate (such as
albite) and evaporite minerals (such as halite and gypsum) being a subsequent process (Liu,
Wang, Jin, Xu & Zhao, 2020).

28
 Figure 9 shows the modified Piper plot.

In a conclusion, freshwater with a mild acidic-to-alkaline pH was found in the karst

groundwater. Ca2+ and Na+ were the most common cations, whereas HCO3 and SO42 were the
most common anions. The Ca–HCO3 facies was most prevalent, followed by the CaNa–
HCO3SO4 facies. In addition, multiple signs suggested that the generation of Na +, Mg2+, Ca2+,
SO42, and HCO3 was regulated by the dissolution of silicate minerals, gypsum, and carbonate
minerals. Another key mechanism in groundwater development was ion exchange.
Furthermore, the high amounts of SO42 and NO3 show that anthropogenic activities such as
agriculture and mining have had an impact on the karst groundwater in the studied region. As
a result, the Guodishan faults inside the mining region should be grouted to block off the link
between limestone aquifers in the eastern and western sections, preventing water inrush and
keeping the mines safe and functioning in the eastern region. In addition, to prevent
groundwater from contamination, scientific research on nitrogen plant fertilisers must be
strengthened, and the amount of fertiliser used must be controlled (Liu, Wang, Jin, Xu &
Zhao, 2020).

7.3 Case study 3 (Assessment of Groundwater Quality for Drinking Purpose in Rural
Areas Surrounding a Defunct Copper Mine)

29
Objectives
This article discusses the evaluation of water quality for drinking purposes, which
includes determining the chemical composition of groundwater and identifying potential
causes of groundwater pollution in Ingaldhal which is a small village of Chitradurga town of
Karnataka state, India. Many researchers have used spatial technology to analyse
groundwater quality in their studies. In a GIS setting, mapping the geographic distributions of
main elements and interpolating them with geology and land use/land cover maps has helped
to a better knowledge of water chemistry processes and acquisition strategies. The purpose of
this study is to assess the physio-chemical features of groundwater in and around a deceased
copper mine in a semi-arid environment where the local population is completely reliant on
groundwater for their daily needs. In addition, the article assesses the groundwater's
appropriateness for drinking purposes (Annapoorna & Janardhana, 2015).

Figure 10 shows the study area of Ingaldhal.

Materials and method

In the month of October 2013, groundwater samples from 22 bore wells (Fig. 1b) in
the unconfined aquifer were collected in pre-cleaned polypropylene bottles (1L capacity)
(post-monsoon season). Water was blasted out of borewells for around 10 minutes before
collecting water samples to eliminate stagnant groundwater. Water was filtered with 0.45
Millipore membranes before sampling. Color, taste, smell, temperature, EC (using
conductivity meter), and pH are the physical characteristics measured and recorded in the
field (using pH meter). The groundwater samples collected were colourless and odourless, yet

30
they tasted awful. Except for a few samples where the temperature ranged between 2 and 4
degrees Celsius, there was little change in temperature between the groundwater and the
atmosphere. The pH of water samples used for cation measurement was reduced to 2 by
adding 1 percent HNO3. H2SO4 was used to acidify water samples for NO 3 measurement,
lowering the pH to 2. All of the samples were kept at 4 degrees Celsius (Annapoorna &
Janardhana, 2015).

Volumetric titration methods were used to determine calcium (Ca2+), magnesium

(Mg2+), carbonate (CO32-), bicarbonate (HCO3), and chloride (Cl), whereas, sodium (Na+) and
potassium (K+) were measured using a flame photometer, and sulphate (SO 42-), nitrate (NO3),
and fluoride (F-) were determined using a spectrophotometric technique as described by the
American Public Health Association (APHA 1995). The tests were completed within a week
of the water samples being collected at the Mines and Geology Department of the
Government of Karnataka's chemical laboratory. Table 1 shows the physico-chemical
characteristics of the 22 groundwater samples used in this investigation. The results of the
analysis were input into a GIS platform. For the selected factors that display considerable
variance, spatial distribution maps were created in GIS (Annapoorna & Janardhana, 2015).

Figure 11 shows the pysico-chemical characteristic of the grounwater for all borewells.

31
Table 3 shows the statistics of Physio-Chemical parameters

32
Figure 12 shows spatial distribution maps with grey color indicate the presence of chemical
composition.
33
7.3.3 Results and discussion

Gibb’s ratios of groundwater samples shown on Gibbs diagrams (Gibbs 1970) can
reveal the relative relevance of three primary natural water chemistry controls: (1)
atmospheric precipitation (2) mineral weathering (3) evaporation and fractional
crystallisation. Groundwater samples (n = 15) plot either in rock dominance or extremely
near to the border line between rock dominance and evaporation dominance fields on the
bivariate TDS versus Gibbs ratio [weight ratio of (Na ++K+)/(Na+ + K+ + Ca2+)] diagram
(Gibbs diagram). Two samples plot outside the three designated areas and four samples plot
in the evaporation dominance field. The Gibbs diagrams show the weathering of rocks, and
the evaporation of solutes is dominance. Furthermore, samples collected outside of the
specified fields may reveal the impact of anthropogenic activities on groundwater chemistry.

Hydrochemical data suggest that the study region's groundwater is composed of three
hydrochemical facies: CaMgHCO3, CaMgSO4, and NaCl (Annapoorna & Janardhana, 2015).
The principal cations and anions such as Ca 2+, Mg2+, Na+, K+, CO32, HCO3, SO42, and Cl (in
me/l) can be plotted on Piper's trilinear diagram to determine the hydrochemical facies of
groundwater (Piper 1944, 1953). The figure _ demonstrates the complete superiority of
alkaline earth metals (Ca2+, Mg2+) over alkalis (Na+, K+) and the dominance of strong acids
(SO42, Cl) over weak acids (CO32, HCO3) on the diamond-shaped Piper diagram. Alkaline
earth outnumbers alkalis (n = 21) in all groundwater samples (n = 22), while strong acids
(SO42- and Cl-) outnumber weak acids (HCO3) (n = 13). The result shows that the chemistry
of the groundwater is mostly CaMgHCO 3 (n = 9), CaMgSO4 (n = 6), and NaCl (n = 1).
Groundwater from five bore wells has a mixed type hydrochemical facies signature
(Annapoorna & Janardhana, 2015).

Figure 13 shows the Gibbs diagram and Piper trilinear diagram.

34
 The analytical results of physical and chemical characteristics in groundwater were
compared to the World Health Organization's (WHO, 2011) standard guideline levels for
drinking water. TDS, Mg2+, and HCO3 concentrations are greater in groundwater, whereas
Ca+, Na+, and Cl- concentrations are moderate, and K+, SO42-, F, and NO3- concentrations are
lower. The quality of groundwater from 22 bore wells was determined to be in the hard to the
very hard category, indicating that the groundwater from the majority of bore wells in the
study region is unsuitable for drinking. Mineralization, chemical weathering of rock, mine
tailings, sewage pollution, and intensive agricultural operations may have all contributed to
the high concentrations of cations and anions in the groundwater. The primary constituents of
groundwater have been extensively influenced by the chemical weathering of the rocks, open
sanitation, and agricultural return flow. This preliminary study recommends that the quality
of groundwater in the region need to be continuously monitored, as further exploitation of
groundwater could raise the values of some parameters such as EC, TDS, Mg 2+, NO3-, and F,
deteriorating water quality in the near future, which would be disastrous for the region's
entire living beings. In determining the optimum groundwater quality zone in the research
region, a spatial distribution map of specific parameters created from hydrochemical data in a
GIS context is beneficial (Annapoorna & Janardhana, 2015).

35
8.0 References
Anna F R. (2018). IOP Conf Ser: Earth Environ. Sci. 118 012019

Annapoorna, H., & Janardhana, M. R. (2015). Assessment of Groundwater Quality for

Drinking Purpose in Rural Areas Surrounding a Defunct Copper Mine. Aquatic
Procedia, 4, 685–692. doi: 10.1016/j.aqpro.2015.02.088

Blodau C. (2006). A review of acidity generation and consumption in acidic coal mine lakes
and their watersheds. Sci Total Environ. 2006 Oct 1;369(1-3):307-32. doi:
10.1016/j.scitotenv.2006.05.004.

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