Cementing Manual 2020

INSTITUTE OF DRILLING TECHNOLOGY
CEMENTING
MANUAL
CEMENTING MANUAL
Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Limited

Institute of Drilling Technology
Kaulagarh Road, Dehradun-248195
Uttarakhand, India
2020
For internal circulation only
First edition
April 1991
Second edition
January 2020
Published by
Pradip Kumar Mishra
ED-HOI, IDT
Institute of Drilling Technology
Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Ltd
Kaulagarh Road, Dehradun-248195
Uttarakhand, India
Updated by
Bhaskar De, CGM (D)
Dr. Kishori Lal, GM (Chem.)
Pramod Kumar, Chief Chemist
Parvinder Singh, SE (Cementing)
Lokender Singh, SE (Cementing)
Prashant Faujdar, EE (Cementing)
Abhinav Hazra, Sr. Chemist
Preface
Cementation forms an integral part of successful well

completion. Primary cementing operations involve
many geologic, chemical, and mechanical parameters and rank among the
most important elements of well construction. Quality of primary cementation
job is vital for well integrity and viable production.
Well cementing technology is the application of many scientific and
engineering disciplines.To accomplish the challenges of good cementation, it is
necessary to know the chemistry and the types of cement, cement additives,
various methods of designing a situation specific slurry along with operational
technique and tools available with their merits and demerits. Zonal isolation
for each well must be designed and constructed with regard to its unique
geological environment. There is no single fit-for-purpose design, well
construction, or barrier verification process that is right for all wells. The
barrier system that protects usable water includes surface casing and cement.
Verification of the barriers is typically accomplished by both pressure testing
and by an operational evaluation.
A need was felt to update the manual as advance techniques have been
developed for better cementation. Efforts have been made to include major
aspects of cementation to have an integrated approach to this vital operation
of well completion in line with updated SOP.
I hope that this manual will not only enhance the knowledge but also go a long
way in planning and execution of good cementation jobs and reducing
unwarranted NPT. Cementing best practices have been known for more than
60 years, and these practices have to be used by everyone to protect the
environment and community and increase productivity of wells.
P K Mishra
ED-HOI, IDT
Contents
S. No. Chapter Page
Introduction 1-5
1. Oil Well Cement 6-14
2. Cement Additives 15-25
3. Slurry Design and Testing of Cement 26-44
4. Rheology and Engineered Cementing Programme 45-56
5. Mechanical properties of Set Cement 57-65
6 Special Cements Formulations 66-88
7. Cementing Equipment 89-94
8. Mechanical Aids 95-103
9. Preparation of Wellbore before Casing And Cementation 104-106
10. Preparation For Cementing Operation 107-109
11. Recommended Practices: Dos and Don’ts 110-114
12. Types of Cementation 115-131
13. Secondary Cementation 132-144
14. Annular Gas Leakage 145-149
15. Cementing Calculations 150-159
16. Cement Evaluation 160-179
Annexure-1 180-191
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Introduction
An oil well is a boring in the earth that is designed to bring hydrocarbon to the surface. To
extract hydrocarbon well is drilled to the target depth in stages in telescopic manner to separate
different formations. After the hole is drilled, sections of steel pipe (casing), slightly smaller in
diameter than the borehole, are placed in the hole. Cement may be placed between the outside
of the casing and the borehole known as the annulus. The casing and cementation provides
structural integrity to the newly drilled wellbore, in addition to isolating potentially dangerous
high pressure zones from each other and from the surface.
With these zones safely isolated and the formation protected by the casing, the well can be
drilled deeper (into potentially more-unstable and violent formations) with a smaller bit, and
also cased with a smaller size casing. Modern wells often have two to five sets of subsequently
smaller hole sizes drilled inside one another, each cemented with casing.
Cementing History
A serious problem in drilling wells right from the beginning was water seeping from behind
casing and entering a well via the casing shoe. The casing shoe had some ability to shut off
water, but drillers were nevertheless forced to be creative. A common solution was to wrap
various seeds in heavy canvas or leather around the bottom joint of the casing and wait for
them to swell, and in the best outcome they provided a barrier.
Casing
pipe
Open
Hole
Seeds after
swell make
barrier near
shoe
Figure No-1: Schematic view of Seeds being used in wells

for barrier
The idea of using cement to create a seal between casing and formation was first tried in Russia
by a certain Romanovsky in 1859 in a water well. In the US, the idea can be attributed to John R.
Hill with his 1871 patent “Improved Mode of Closing the Water Courses Encountered in Drilling
Oil Wells.” The patent describes putting cement into a borehole, setting a casing, then waiting
for the cement to set, and eventually, as the patent explains, “The drill cuts out the cement from
1
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Introduction
the bore of the well but leaves the water courses closed with said cement.” Experimenting in
this fashion, Wallace Hardison and Lyman Stewart of Hardison & Stewart Oil Company were the
first drillers to put cement in a well in Pico, California, in 1883. The quality of the cement
obviously wasn’t that good because water soon began entering the well.
By the late 19th century, a new type of cement was coming on the market. Portland cement
was invented and named by John Aspdin, a bricklayer and inventor from Leeds, England. For
some years he had been experimenting with various cement formulations, and in 1824 his
efforts were crowned by a British patent entitled “An Improvement in the Mode of Producing an
Artificial Stone,” in which he coined the term portland cement. He named it thus because the
produced solid resembled a limestone quarried on the Isle of Portland on the south coast of
England.
Unlike earlier cements, portland cement was made by burning a blend of limestone and clay,
and crucially, it could harden in an underwater environment.
Figure No-2: William Aspdin Son of Joseph Aspdin
William Aspdin Son of Joseph Aspdin is regarded as the inventor of "modern" Portland cement
due to his developments in the 1843s.
By 1890, Hardison and Stewart cofounded an oil
company called the Union Oil Company of California,
later to be renamed Unocal, and in 1903 decided to try
the new portland cement. Frank F. Hill, a director of
production for Union Oil, was the first to use the new
cement.
Frustrated with leakage from unconsolidated sands in a
well in the Lompoc region of California, Hill dumped 20
sacks of portland cement mixed with water into the Wallace Libby Lyman Stewart
hole. He then raised the casing 30 feet, capped the top Hardison
and lowered the string back to the bottom. Air
pressure forced most of the cement up the outside of the casing into the annulus. Hill still had to
drill out the cement inside the casing, but the ruse worked. Later, he tried pumping cement
down some tubing with a packer near the bottom. That eliminated most of the re-drilling of
cement set inside the casing, and thus began the era of modern cement jobs.
2
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Introduction
Nevertheless, cementing was still seen as a costly procedure. In 1910, Almond A. Perkins, who
owned The Perkins Oil Well
Cementing Company, made the key
breakthrough. In the Perkins
method, portland cement was mixed
with water to form a slurry. A plug
was then inserted into the casing
and pushed downhole in front of the
slurry. Behind the slurry came
another plug, this time pushed down
by water.
The first plug expelling the mud up
the annulus between the casing and
the formation, while the second did
exactly the same with the cement.
The first plugs used by Perkins were
cast-iron with belting discs, with the
addition of a leather cup on top of
the second plug. Perkins’s two-plug
cementing method eliminated the
need for re-drilling cement that had
set in the borehole. Erle Palmer
Halliburton, joined Perkins Oil Well
Cementing Company in 1918 as a
truck driver. Later on in 1924, he
made his own company called
Halliburton Oil Well Cementing
Company.
Figure No. 3: Cementation job by using Top and

Bottom plug
3
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Introduction
Objective of Cementing:
Cementing is a common term used for the process of placing cement slurry, usually formed by
mixing cementing material with water; into the annulus between outside of casing and the wall
of wellbore. Placement is usually done by pumping. Cementing of oil well casing annuli is
universally practiced for a number of reasons, depending on wellbore requirements. Following
are major objectives:
1. To bond and support the casing.

2. To restrict fluid movement between formations, thereby helping to prevent
contamination of shallow fresh water zones by hydrocarbons or salt water intrusion and
prevents inter-zone communication of fluids.
3. To seal intended production or injection intervals from overlying or underlying
permeable sections (zone isolation).
4. To protect casings from corrosion due to subsurface fluids.
5. To protect the casing from damage or failure. It protects the casing from shock loads
when drilling deeper.
6. To isolate incompetent formations which would cause excessive sloughing unless
supported by casing and cement.
7. To shut off zones of lost circulation.
Another type of cementing operation is usually remedial or secondary cementing. The most
common remedial operation is known as squeeze cementing. In this process, a column of
cement is forced under pressure against the formation (open hole) into channels behind casing
or into perforation channels.
Squeeze cementing is commonly used to help:
1. In segregating hydrocarbon producing zones.

2. In reducing water/oil, water/gas or gas/oil ratios.
3. In repairing casing defects such as point leaks, split or parted casings, corrosion, etc.
4. In sealing off thief zones or lost circulation zones.
5. In supplementing a faulty primary cementing job.
6. In preventing fluid migration from abandoned zones or wells.
The process of cementing has gone through little changes over the years but vast changes have
taken place in cementing technology and its management. The cementing of a well is not
considered in isolation, because the quality of the well available for cementation is as important
as the technology of cementing. And knowledge of various inputs for cementing a well is
essential for job planning, material selection, execution and job evaluation. An attempt has been
made in this manual to cover most of the basic factors involved in cementing of the well and
updating the information.
4
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Introduction
The cementing of casing is one of the most critical operations during drilling and completion of
an oil well. The preparation of the hole, the assembly of the surface and subsurface equipment;
rigging up and running casing are all preliminary to the important stage, which is the period
between the running of the last few joints and the final displacement of the cement slurry.
During this critical period, the success or failure of the entire operation is likely to be
determined.
All efforts are directed to the success of this final operation.
API standards related to Cementing

• Spec 10A (Specification for Cements and Materials for Well Cementing)
• RP 10B-2 (Recommended Practice for Testing Well Cements)
• RP10B-3 (Testing of Well Cements Used in Deepwater Well Construction)
• RP 10B-4 (Preparation and Testing of Foamed Cement Formulations at Atmospheric
Pressure)
• RP 10B-5 (Recommended Practice on Determination of Shrinkage and Expansion of Well
Cement Formulations at Atmospheric Pressure)
• RP 10B-6 (Recommended Practice on Determining the Static Gel Strength of Cement
Formulations)
• Spec 10D (Specification for Bow-Spring Casing Centralizers)
• RP 10D-2 (Recommended Practice for Centralizer Placement and Stop Collar Testing)
• Spec 10F (Cementing Float Equipment Testing)
• TR 10TR1 (Cement Sheath Evaluation)
• TR 10TR2 (Shrinkage and Expansion in Oilwell Cements)
• TR 10TR3 (Technical Report on Temperatures for API Cement Operating Thickening Time
Tests)
• TR 10TR4 (Selection of Centralizers for Primary Cementing Operations)
• TR 10TR5 (Methods for Testing of Solid and Rigid Centralizers)
• TR 10TR6 (Evaluation and Testing of Mechanical Cement Wiper Plugs)
• TR 10TR7 (Mechanical Behavior of Cement)
• RP65-1 (Cementing Shallow-Water Flow Zones in Deepwater Wells)
• Std 65-2 (Isolating Potential Flow Zones During Well Construction)
• Bulletin E3 (Wellbore Plugging and Abandonment Practices)
• Spec 7K (Drilling and Well Servicing Equipment)
5
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
CHAPTER 1
Oil Well Cement

Cement is used for cementing casing strings in oil and gas wells. The cement is mixed with
water, and this suspension is termed as cement slurry. The cements are hydraulic and on
coming in contact with water certain physical changes and chemical reactions get initiated
leading to setting of slurry and subsequent conversion to solid cement stone. This characteristic
behavior of cement with water is utilized in giving support to casing, securing bonding to
formation and casing and zonal isolation.
Many types of cements are available. American petroleum Institution (API) has laid down
specification for six types of oil well cements class A,B,C,D,G & H.
In ONGC, only class ‘G’ High Sulphate Resistance (HSR type) cement is being used for
cementation of casings, squeeze and plug jobs due to better workability.
1.1 Chemistry of Oil Well Cements

Oil well cement used in cementing oil-wells is basically portland cement. The chief components
of finished portland cement are lime, silica, alumina and iron. These components are present in
the form of four major compounds or crystalline phases as follows:
Crystalline Phases
Compound Chemical Formula Standard
Designation
(i) Tri-Calcium Aluminate 3CaO.Al2O3 C3A
(ii) Tri-Calcium Silicate 3CaO.SiO2 C3S
(iii) Di-Calcium Silicate 2CaO.SiO2 C2S
(iv) Tetra-Calcium Alumino ferrite 4CaO. Al2O3.Fe2O3 C4AF
The properties of cement are essentially the properties of these four phases. The percentage of
formation of these compounds, however, depends upon a number of factors e.g. quality of raw-
materials used, temperature in the kiln, retention time in the kiln, rate of quenching of the
clinker, particle size after the grinding, and the percentage of gypsum added.
In addition to above four compounds minor concentrations of sodium and potassium sulphate,
magnesium oxide and free lime are also present. The properties of four major components and
their effect on cement is summarized below:
6
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Oil Well Cement
Crystalline Phases and Their Effect on Cement

Sr. Properties C3A C3S C2S C4AF
No
1 SG 3.00 3.13 3.28 3.77
2 Crystal shape Flecks of spot Hexagonal or Spherical or Matric
angular rounded surrounding
other crystals
3 Rate of Very rapid Rapid Very slow Slow
hydration
4 Heat of 207 120 60 100
hydration
Cals/gm
5 Effect on Negligible Principle Little initial Very little, large
strength of strength effect on concentration
cement producing strength, may promote
material responsible strength
responsible for gradual retrogression.
for early gain n
strength strength
6 Effect on Controls initial Responsible -- --
setting time setting and for final
thickening time setting
of cement
slurry
7 Sulphate Responsible for -- -- Controls the
resistant susceptibility formation of
of cement to C3A in clinker.
sulphate
attack, for high
sulphate
resistance
cement C3A
content is 3%
(max.)
Some of the important properties of cement, which can be achieved either by increasing or
controlling one of the four major components are given below:
Crystalline Phase Composition

Sr. Property How to achieve
No.
1 High early strength By increasing the C3S content; grinding finer.
2 Better retardation By controlling C3A and C3A contents and
grinding coarser.
3 Low heat of hydration By limiting the C3S and C3A contents.
4 Resistance to Sulphate attack By limiting the C3A contents.
7
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Oil Well Cement
Time – Days
Fig-1.1: Compressive strength development with time of different components of Portland
cement.
8
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Oil Well Cement
1.2 Portland Cement Manufacturing process

Portland cement, arguably one of mankind’s most important manufactured materials, was
invented and patented by Joseph Aspdin from Leeds in 1824. Aspdin’s cement was improved in
1843 by his son William, by vigorous heating and using better grinding equipment to handle the
hard clinker. Cement is usually manufactured by two processes:
A. Wet Process
B. Dry Process
The two processes are fundamentally similar, except for the fact that in the wet process the raw
materials are ground with water before they are fed into the kiln. All though there was little
difference in efficiency between the two processes, the wet process had the disadvantages of
CO2 emission and more fuel consumption to evaporate the water in the slurry. This made most
cement manufactures prefer the dry process to wet process.
Five stages involved in the manufacturing of Portland cement
1. Crushing and Grinding: The raw materials like limestone and clay, obtained from the
quarry, is crushed to form fine powder.
2. Raw material proportioning: The crushed raw material is blended in correct proportions to
form what is called the “raw feed” or “kiln feed”.
3. Heating the “raw feed” in rotary kiln: The “raw feed” is introduced in the higher end of the
rotary kiln by a conveyor and heated to about 1400 to 1500 degree Celsius.
4. Clinker formation: The new product which is obtained from the rotary kiln is called the
“clinker”. The red-hot clinker discharged from the kiln is allowed to cool and sent to the
cement mill.
5. Grinding the clinker with gypsum: The cement clinker is usually ground in a ball mill to
form fine powder. A small amount of gypsum (5%) is used in this grinding process to
control the setting properties of concrete when mixed with water. The end product of this
process is called “Portland Cement”.
Figure-1.2: Portland cement manufacturing process.
9
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Oil Well Cement
1.3 Classification of Oil Well Cement

American Petroleum Institute (APl) has classified oil-well cements in six classes, for various
temperature/ pressure conditions, early strength, sulphate resistance and adaptability to
modification with accelerators and retarders. The API cements are grounded to different
fineness which varies with the required water cement ratio.
The requirements for well cements are more rigorous than those for construction cements. Well
cements must perform over a wide range of temperatures and pressures and are exposed to
subterranean conditions that construction cements do not encounter.
Following classes of cements exists currently - A, B, C, D, G, H and the grades ordinary (O),
moderate sulfate-resistant (MSR), and high sulfate-resistant (HSR).
Class A: Intended for use when special properties are not required and is obtained by grinding
clinker that consists of hydraulic calcium silicates and contains one or more forms of
CaSO4 as an inter-ground additive.
Class B: Intended for use when conditions require moderate or high sulfate resistance.
Class C: Intended for use when conditions require high early strength.
Class D: is also known as “retarded cements,” intended for use in deeper wells. The retardation
is accomplished by significantly reducing the amount of faster-hydrating phases (C3S and
C3A) and increasing the particle size of the cement grains.
Class G & H: Classes G and H were developed in response to the improved technology in slurry
acceleration and retardation by chemical means. Classes G and H are by far the most
commonly used well cements today.
Note: For Procurement of API Class ‘G’ Cement (HSR) for use in Cement Slurries, as and when
required, Specifications and testing Procedures, as given in “Specifications of API Class ‘G’
Cement (HSR)” - API Specification 10A, shall be followed in to-to.
1.4 Hydration of Cement

 Cement undergoes physico-chemical phenomena of setting and hardening when mixed
with water (Fig-1.3).
 A complex process due to varying rate of hydration of different compounds present.
Setting:
 Cement paste loses its plasticity.
 Becomes more or less friable.
 Plasticity not restored completely when remixed with water.
Hardening:
 Consolidation of semisolid mass and hardness increases until a stony texture.
1.5 Mechanism of Hydration

Cement and water on mixing give a super saturated solution immediately. From a chemical
point of view, Portland cement hydration is a complex dissolution and precipitation process in
which, unlike the hydration of the individual pure phases, the various hydration reactions
proceed simultaneously at differing rates. The phases also influence each other. For example,
the hydration of C3A is modified by the presence of hydrating C3S, because the production of
calcium hydroxide reinforces the retarding action of gypsum. None of the clinker minerals is
pure. Depending upon the composition of the raw materials, each contains alien oxides in solid
10
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Oil Well Cement
solution that alter their reactivity. A typical schematic thermogram of Portland cement
hydration is shown in Fig.1.4.
 C3A and gypsum within cement interact with water and hydration process starts.
 Formation of inhibiting layer of first phase products precipitated at the C3S surface acts as a
barrier that inhibits the migration of water to the unhydrated surface. As a result, the initial
fast hydration of C3S slows and is followed by a period in which the reaction barely
progresses. Precipitation of Calcium Sulphoaluminates (ettringite) slows down further
hydration of C3A. Toward the end of this dormant period, the initial C-S-H layer becomes
more permeable, and the hydration rate accelerates again.
 Development of fibrils of ettringite, eventually interlinking cement grains.
 Strength is obtained principally from the reaction of C3S and C2S (β-form), forming Calcium
Silicate Hydrate (C-S-H).
 C-S-H formed, polymerises from dimeric to pentamer and octamer with passing of time.
 Hydration of β –C2S takes place rapidly at elevated temperatures.
Fig-1.3: Hydration phase of Oil Well Cement
11
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Oil Well Cement
Fig-1.4: Heat liberated during hydration of C3S at different temperature
1.6 Hydration at Elevated Temperatures and Strength Retrogression

The hydration of cement at temperatures below 100°C takes place as described and the CSH gel
formed is responsible for the integrity of cement. However, as the temperature of curing is
increased to about 110° C or above CSH gel converts to another crystalline form of calcium
silicate hydrate, known as alpha dicalcium silicate hydrate (α- C2SH), which has low strength and
high permeability. Formation of α- C2SH at high temperatures results in the loss in strength and
increase in permeability at extended time intervals, and this phenomenon is termed as strength
retrogression.
The chemical reactions which take place during the hydration of principal cement phases at
ordinary and high temperatures are.
Temp 110°C
3CaO.SiO2 + H2O 1 ½CaO.SiO2.2 ½ H2O + Ca(OH)2
CSH Gel
2CaO.SiO2.1 ¼ H2O + Ca(OH)2

α-C2SH
Temp 110°C
Temp 110°C
1 ½CaO.SiO2.2 ½ H2O + Ca(OH)2
CSH Gel
2CaO.SiO2 + H2O
2CaO.SiO2.1 ¼ H2O
α-C2SH
Temp 110°C
12
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Oil Well Cement
1.7 Prevention of Strength Retrogression at High Temperatures

Fine silica or silica flour 30-40% should be used for stabilizing cementing compositions at
temperatures above 110°C. Addition of silica flour results in the conversion of unstable α- C2SH
to more stable high temperature monocalcium silicate hydrates having very low permeability
e.g. tobermorite and xonotlite.
2CaO.SiO2.1 ¼ H2O + 3SiO2 + 11 ¼ H2O 6(CaO.SiO2.2 ½ H2O) Monocalcium Silicate Hydrate.
1.8 Sulphate Resistance

Formation brines containing sodium sulphate, magnesium sulphate and magnesium chloride are
among the most destructive downhole agents. Sulphates (Mg or Na) are generally regarded as
the chemicals most corrosive to cement; they react with lime to form calcium sulphate. This
calcium sulphate reacts with the C3A to form large crystals of calcium sulphoaluminate
(ettringite), which requires more pore space than the set cement can provide, thereby leading
to excessive expansion and eventual disintegration.
Sulphate attack is most pronounced at temperature of 80°F (27°C) to 120°F (50°C). At
temperatures above 82°C the attack is negligible.
The methods to combat sulphate attack are:
(i) Lowering the C3A content in the cement increases the sulphate resistance. For high
sulphate resistance C3A content should be less than 3%, and for moderately sulphate
resistance type cement C3A content should be 3-8%.
(ii) Introduction into the cement of active minerals such as fly ash, tripoli, diatomites or other
pozzolanic materials, which reduce the concentration of calcium hydroxide by forming
additional cementitious materials.
(iii) Addition of sufficient calcium sulphate in the cement, so that C3A present may form
calcium sulphoaluminate before the slurry sets.
API Classification of OWC as per API 10A

Cement Class
A B C D G H
Ordinary grade (O)
Magnesium oxide (MgO), maximum,
6.0 NAa 6.0 NA NA NA
percent
Sulfur trioxide (SO3), maximum,
3.5 NA 4.5 NA NA NA
percentb
Loss on ignition, maximum, percent 3.5c NA 3.5c NA NA NA
Insoluble residue, maximum, percent 1.5 NA 1.5 NA NA NA
Tricalcium aluminate (C3A),
NRd NA 15 NA NA NA
maximum, percente
Moderate sulfate-resistant grade (MSR)
NA 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0
percent
Sulfur trioxide (SO3), maximum, 3.0 3.0 3.0
NA 3.0 3.5
percentb
Loss on ignition, maximum, percent NA 3.0 3.5c 3.0 3.0 3.0
Insoluble residue, maximum, percent NA 0.75 1.5 0.75 0.75 0.75
13
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Oil Well Cement
Tricalcium silicate (C3S), maximum, NA NR NR NR 58 58

percente minimum, percente NA NR NR NR 48 48
NA 8 8 8 8 8
maximum percente
Total alkali content, expressed as
sodium oxide
NA NR NR NR 0.75 0.75
(Na2O) equivalent, maximum,
percentf
High sulfate-resistant grade (HSR)
NA 6 6 6 6 6
percent
Sulfur trioxide (SO3), maximum,
NA 3 3.5 3 3 3
percentb
c
Loss on ignition, maximum, percent NA 3 3.5 3 3 3
Insoluble residue, maximum, percent NA 0.75 1.5 0.75 0.75 0.75
Tricalcium silicate (C3S), maximum, NA NR NR NR 65 65
percente minimum, percente NA NR NR NR 48 48
NA 3 3 3 3 3
maximum, percente
Tetracalcium aluminoferrite (C4AF)
plus twice the tricalcium aluminate NA 24 24 24 24 24
(C3A), maximum, percente
Total alkali content expressed as
sodium oxide (Na2O) equivalent, NA NR NR NR 0.75 0.75
maximum, percentf
14
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
CHAPTER 2
Cement Additives
Cement slurries can be tailored for specific well requirements by using various cement additives.
These can be dry blended with cement or dispersed/dissolved in mixing water at the job site.
The major cement additive classificalions are:
 Accelerators
 Retarders
 Light-weight materials
 Heavy-weight materials
 Dispersants
 Fluid loss additives
 Lost circulation malerials
 Specialty materials
2.1 Accelerators
Accelerators are used in cementing shallow and low temperature wells to shorten the setting
time of cement slurry and to promote rapid early strength development. Various commonly
used accelerators are described below. In addition, cements with dispersant and reduced water
also have short thickening times.
2.1.1 Calcium Chloride

Normally 2-4% by weight of cement is used, depending on well conditions.
Advantages:
 Accelerates thickening time and strength development, reducing WOC time.
 No extra water requirement.
 Increases heat of hydration of cement to aid temperature surveys.
 Economical
Limitations:
 Concentrations above 6.0% may cause flash setting of cement slurry.
 Detrimental to fluid loss additives.
 Hygroscopic, difficult to handle.
Slurries treated with CMHEC (Diacel LWL) should not be accelerated with calcium chloride,
instead sodium silicate should be used.
2.1.2 Sodium Chloride

 Accelerates in low percentages from 3-10% by weight of water.
 Concentration from 10-20% (BWOW) will bring slurry thickening time back in line with
fresh water slurries.
 Concentrations above 20% (BWOW) will retard.
Advantages:
 Accelerates thickening time and strength development, reducing WOC time when used
in concentrations 3-10% (BWOW)
15
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Cement Additives
Fig. 2.1: Effect of salt on thickening time and strength of API Class "G' cement.
8000 ft API Casing Test.
 Facilitates bonding in salt formations.

 Act as dispersant.
Limitations:
 Does not produce degree of acceleration as achieved with calcium chloride, however
may be used when CaCl2 is not available.
2.1.3 Sodium Silicate


Used primarily to accelerate cement slurries containing CMHEC (Diacel LWL) as fluid loss
additive.
Advantages:
 Reliable acceleration of both thickening time and compressive strength.
 No detrimental effect on fluid loss additives.
 No extra water requirement.
Limitations:
 Concentrations above 7% deteriorate fluid loss control.
 More expensive than other accelerators.
 Highly corrosive, can cause skin burns, irritation.
Amount used %
Accelerator How used
BWOC
Calcium Chloride 2-4 Dry or with water
Sodium Chloride 1.5-5 Dry or with water
Semihydrate form of gypsum 20-100 Dry only
Sodium Silicate Na2SiO3 1-75 Dry or with water
Cement with Dispersants and reduced water 0.5-1.0 Dry or with water
16
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Cement Additives
2.2 Retarders
Retarders are the chemicals used to delay cement setting in order to allow enough time for
slurry placement. Besides retardation, most retarders affect cement slurry viscosity to some
extent.
Additives with high water ratios require additional retarder to achieve a desirable thickening
time because (i) materials with large surface areas, which generally have high water
requirements will adsorb part of the retarder, leaving less to retard the cement, and (ii)
additional water dilutes the retarder and reduces its effectiveness.
Retarders function either through surface adsorption (e.g. organic retarders), or the formation
of certain precipitates at the surface (e.g. sugars), thereby making cement particles
impermeable to the extent that hydration does not take place at an appreciable rate.
The chemicals commonly used as retarders are as follows.
2.2.1 Lignin Retarders
Lignin retarders-calcium lignosulphonate and calcium sodium lignosulphonates are used over a
range of 0.1 to 1.5% BWOC, where static bottom hole temperature range from 260°F to 290°F.
Lignin based retarders blended with organic acids can be used in high temperature wells (BHST
300°F and above). Lignosulfonate retarders perform best with low-C3A cements.
2.2.2 Carboxy Methyl Hydroxy Ethyl Cellulose (CMHEC)
Cellulose polymers are polysaccharides derived from wood or other plants. They are stable in
the alkaline environment of cement slurries. Set retardation occurs when the polymer adsorbs
onto the hydrated cement surfaces. The active sites for adsorption are the ethylene-oxide links
and carboxyl groups. Cellulose based CMHEC is a highly effective retarder in concentration
range of 0.1 to 1.5% BWOC and temperature upto 120°C.
Advantage:
 Besides retardation, it offers good fluid loss control.
Limilations:
 High viscosity when used above 0.7%, concentration greater than 0. 7% requires extra
water or dispersant to reduce slurry viscosity.
 Degrades at high temperature.
2.2.3 Organic Acids (e.g. Tartaric and Citric Acid)

These are effective retarders in the temperature range of 100°C to 205°C. These are mild
dispersant and normally compatible with other additives.
2.2.4 Organophosphonates
Alkylene phosphonic acids and their salts are identified as set-retarding additives for well
cements. Such materials have excellent hydrolytic stability and, depending upon the molecular
backbone, are effective to circulating temperatures as high as 450°F (232°C).
Organophosphonates are advantageous for well cementing because of their apparent
insensitivity to subtle variations in cement composition and their tendency to lower the viscosity
of high-density cement slurries. The mechanism of action involves the adsorption of
phosphonate groups onto the nuclei of cement hydrates, thus hindering their growth.
Methylenephosphonic acid derivatives can be used to prepare cement slurries with very long
thickening times. The set can then be activated when needed (e.g., by an aqueous solution of
sodium silicate). They can also be used to retard ultrafine cements at circulating temperatures
up to about 400°F (204°C). Ultrafine cement slurries are used for squeeze cementing and well
repair. At temperatures above about 230°F (110°C), methylene phosphonic acid derivatives are
17
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Cement Additives
poor retarders of the aluminate (C3A) and aluminoferrite (C4AF) phases, but they strongly retard
the silicate phases (C3S and C2S). Adding a borate salt to the retarder formulation solves this
problem.
Fig 2.2: Alkylene Phosphonate Structure
2.2.5 Others
Sodium chloride (20% BWOW), and polyhydroxy organic acid blended with borax (upto
temperature 260°C).
2.3 Fluid Loss Additives

Fluid loss additives are used primarily to maintain a constant water to solid ratio in cement
slurry, thereby improving primary cement jobs.
If fluid loss is not controlled, several serious consequences may result that can lead to cement-
job failure. As the volume of the aqueous phase decreases, the slurry density increases; as a
result, the slurry performance diverges from the original design. If sufficient fluid is lost to the
formation, the slurry becomes unpumpable or causes high ECD during pumping which may lead
to loss scenario if formation devoid of sufficient strength.
The API fluid-loss rate of a neat cement slurry generally exceeds 1,500 mL/30 min. An API fluid-
loss rate less than 100ml/30 min (Far gas well and liner cementation, 50mL/30 min) is often
required to maintain adequate slurry performance. To accomplish such a reduction in the fluid-
loss rate, materials known as fluid-loss control agents are included in the slurry design.
Bentonite, carbonate powder, carbon black, microsilica- Silica Fume, asphaltenes, and
thermoplastic resins may be used as a fluid loss control additives to some extent. The small size
platelets of these additives can enter the filtercake and lodge between the cement particles,
decreasing the permeability of the filtercake.
Latex demonstrate excellent fluid-loss control in oil well cement. Latexes are emulsion
polymers, usually supplied as milky suspensions of very small spherical polymer particles
(generally between 30 and 200 nm in diameter). Most latex dispersions contain about 45%
solids. Like bentonite, such small particles physically plug small pores in the cement filtercake.
Styrene-butadiene latex has been applied at temperatures up to 375°F (191°C).
Recent changes in environmental regulations around the world have encouraged the
development of more environmentally acceptable cement additives. Biopolymers such as
celluloses are very attractive because they pose little or no risk to the environment. Therefore,
work has been performed to extend the useful range of cellulosic fluid-loss additives.
The most common cellulosic fluid-loss control agent is HEC, with a DS (Degree of substitution)
range between 0.25 and 2.5. In 1950, CMHEC was introduced as a fluid-loss additive for cement
slurries. The performance of CMHEC (Fig no-2.3) has been improved by adjusting the DS from
0.1 to 0.7 (carboxymethyl) and the mole ratio of ethylene oxide to anhydroglucose (by
molecular subtition-MS) from about 0.7 to about 2.5.
Fluid-loss additive, based on crosslinked polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) microgels, was introduced by
Audebert et al. in 1997. It provides excellent fluid-loss control at temperatures up to 250°F
(121°C). This additive does not retard cement hydration and is compatible with cement
18
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Cement Additives
accelerators. Thus, it is particularly suitable for low-temperature applications, for which short
waiting-on-cement times are difficult to obtain. Crosslinked polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) can also be
used in combination with polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP). Cement slurries prepared with this
additive combination show excellent gas-tight properties. Such additives can be used in
combination with microcement and other chemicals for squeeze cementing during which a high
degree of fluid-loss control is often required.
Poly saccharides consisting of galactose, fructose and mannose units can be used as fluid loss
control additives with suitable dosage.
Fig 2.3: CMHEC molecular structure and illustration of degree of substitution (DS) and
molecular substitution (MS)
2.3.1 Principal Functions

(i) To form films or micells (e.g. synthetic polymers) which control the flow of water from
cement slurry and prevent rapid dehydration,
(ii) To improve particle size distribution (e.g. dispersant) which determines how liquid is held
or trapped in the slurry and
(iii) To increase the viscosity of interstitial water and also the slurry itself (e.g. cellulose
derivatives)
(iv) Thereby controlling the fluid loss because as per Darcy's law the filtration rate will decrease
with increasing viscosity of filtering medium.
Advantages:
 Minimises formation damage from slurry filtrate.
 Prevents lost circulation and stuck pipe by minimising cement dehydration in the
annulus.
 Minimises gas channeling.
 Prevents changes in slurry rheology.
 Decrease free water of cement slurries.
Limilations:
19
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Cement Additives
 Cellulosic fluid-loss additives are effective water viscosifiers; as a result, they can
increase the difficulty of slurry mixing and ultimately cause undesirable cement-slurry
viscosification.
 At temperatures less than about 150°F [65°C], cellulosic fluid-loss additives are efficient
retarders; thus, care must be taken to avoid slurry over-retardation.
2.4 Dispersants or Friction Reducers

Dispersants are added to cement slurries to improve their flow properties. Substance used as
dispersants are salts of lignosulphonates, modified lignosulfonates, hydroxycarboxylic acids
(such as citric acid, tartaric acid, salicylic acid, gluconic acid, and glucoheptonic acid) and
sulphonated polymers e.g. acrylamides and naphthalene condensation products. In concrete
industry, dispersants are known as plastisizers.
Lignosulfonates containing large quantities of sugars, is very sensitive to cement quality, and
gelation problems are possible. This can be attributed to a dramatic acceleration of interstitial-
phase (C3A and C4AF) hydration. A modified lignosulfonate, with a molecular weight in the range
of 60,000 to 120,000, has been patented as a biodegradable dispersant for offshore
applications.
Polynaphthalene sulfonate (PNS) is by far the most common and cost-effective dispersant for
well cements. However, it can no longer be used in some marine environments owing to its
toxicity to algae, its tendency to bioaccumulate, and its nonbiodegradability in seawater. PNS is
produced from naphthalene by sulfonation followed by polymerization with formaldehyde.
Residual sulfonic acid is neutralized with sodium hydroxide or lime. PNS is available in a wide
variety of molecular weights and degrees of branching. The commercial material is supplied as a
powder or a 40% aqueous solution. For fresh water slurries, 0.2–1.0% active PNS BWOC is
normally required for effective slurry dispersion.
Mechanism of action:- Most of the dispersants are anionic and appear to neutralize the
attractive charges on cement particles by
adsorption from solution (Refer Fig No-2.4).
They inverse the orginally positive charge and
the resulting repulsive charges break up the
aggregates into their individual particles.
Excessive concentration of dispersant may lead
to over dispersion, which can destroy the
microstructure established by electrostatic
Fig No-2.4 :Sulphonated polyanionic
interaction. This results in the particles, no
adsorption on cement particle surface
longer being self supporting, a loss of
homogeneity and phase separation i.e. settling of cement particles and free water separation.
Advantages:
 Reduce slurry viscosity.
 Reduce the yield point (consistency index) and allows slurry in turbulent flow at lower
pump rates.
 Allows heavier slurries with less water and less weighing materials.
 Helps in fluid loss control.
20
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Cement Additives
Limitations:
 Excessive amount causes severe settling.
 Increases viscosity when used with high concentration of salt.
 Slurry setting is retarded, particularly at low temperatures.
 Destroys thixotropic properties.
Factors affecting the response of cement to Additive:
1. Cement fineness: As the particle size decreases, no of adsorption sites gets increases. Hence
consumption of dispersants increases with fineness of cement.
2. C3A content: C3A is much more reactive than C4AF, especially at early hydration times. Thus,
the amount of dispersant required to obtain a given level of dispersion increases with the
C3A content.
3. Nature and amount of soluble alkali Sulphates: The alkali sulfates are very soluble and
readily go into solution when the cement powder is added to water. The solubility and
dissolution rates of the calcium sulfates are much lower (plaster >gypsum > anhydrite) and
can be altered by the presence of organic compounds.
Cement-dispersant efficiency is low when anhydrite is the principal calcium-sulfate phase.
Dispersant is more effective with cements that contain gypsum as the principal calcium-
sulfate phase, rather than plaster or anhydrite.
4. Cement Ageing: carbonation and prehydration of anhydrous cement causes increase in free
water and thickening time (see attached graph in Fig No-2.5).
5. Mixing energy and mixing method, Mix-water temperature, Water-to-cement ratio etc.
Ageing effect on Thickening Time Ageing effect on free water
Fig No2.5:- Effect of ageing of cement sample on slurry properties (Studied in IDT)
2.5 Light Weight Additives or Extenders

Cement slurry extenders are used to decrease slurry density in order to reduce bottom hole
hydrostatic pressure to avoid lost circulation through fracturing zones. They also increase slurry
yield and hence decrease the overall cost.
Extenders or light weight additives can be classified into three main categories, depending on
the actual mechanism of density reduction.
(i) Water based extenders: e.g. clays (bentonite); chemical extenders (sodium silicate). These
materials have very high water requirement which causes the density reduction. Main
drawback of these type of extenders is that compressive strength is reduced and
permeability of set cement is also increased.
(ii) Light weight aggregates: These are low density materials, which are blended with cement
to reduce the density of resultant slurry e.g. pozzolans (volcanic ash, diatomaceous earth
etc.), expanded perlite, gilsonite.
21
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Cement Additives
(iii) Ultra light weight systems: Where extremely low density materials are used to create
exceptionally, light weight slurries e.g. nitrogen or air (foam slurry), high strength
microsphere.
Some commonly used extenders are:

(a) Bentonite:
 Most commonly used clay based extender.
 Can be used in concentrations upto 16% (BWOC) depending on requirement.
 The water requirement for bentonite in cement is 3-5% water for each 1 % bentonite
depending upon the quality of bentonite.
Note: pH of bentonite used for making light weight cement slurries should not be more than 9.5
(Tested as per API RP).
Advantages:
 Light weight slurries upto 1.38 specific gravity is possible.
 Compatible with all additives.
 Economical.
 Provides some fluid loss control and free water separation.
Limitations:
 Low compressive strength and increase in cement permeability.
 At temperatures above 220°F, can promote strength retrogression.
(b) Diatomaceous Earth:

 Naturally occuring pozzolan.
 Can be used upto 40% BWOC.
 Because of its large surface area, it requires high percentage of water for mixing,
thereby reducing the slurry density and increase in yield.
Advantages:
 Does not increase the viscosity of slurry like bentonite, when used in high percentages.
 Slurry of specific gravity from 1.32 to 1.60 can be formulated.
Limitations:
 Low compressive strength.
 Much more expensive than bentonite.
(c) Metasilicate:
 Anhydrous sodium metasilicate is a useful light weight filler slurry additive, used in
concentration of 1% to 3% BWOC.
Advantages:
 Very light weight, high yield slurries possible.
 Early compressive strength.
 Economical considering the high yield.
 Reduces free water content.
22
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Cement Additives
Limitations:
 Low final compressive strengths.
 Limited temperature range upto 150°F BHCT.
 Not compatible with most slurry additives.
 Cannot be used with salt concentration above 5%.
 High permeability.
(d) Ultra-Light Weight System:

 Used where extended slurries fail to control lost circulation.
Foam cement slurry: Using N2 gas as extender and chemicals for foam stabilisation, slurry of
specific gravity less than one can be achieved.
Ceramic microspheres, also called cenospheres, are derived from ash produced by coal-burning
power plants. Ceramic microspheres specific gravity is 0.7. Cement slurry of 1.46 to 1.50 sg can
be designed with suitable %age ceramic microspheres.
2.6 Heavy Weight Additives

These are required to counter high formation pressures. Common high density materials are;
(a) Haematite:
An iron ore (Fe2O3), chemically inert and requires little additional water. It can produce slurry of
specific gravity 2.6
Advantages:
 It has no effect on compressive strength and pumping time.
 Ideal loading material for wells, except H2S gas wells.
(b) Ilmenite:
An inert material (Iron Titanium Oxide) sp. gr. 4.45-4.6.
Advantages:
 No effect on compressive strength and pumping time.
 No additional water required.
 Slurry of sp. gr. more than 2.3 can be achieved.
Disadvantages:
 Sometimes radioactivity is observed.
(c) Barytes:
 A common weighing additive used in oil/gas wells.
Advantages:
 Slurry sp. gr. of 2.2 can be achieved.
 It has large water requirement (20% by weight) which effects compressive strength and
pumping time.
 It is recommended for H2S wells.
(d) Manganese tetraoxide (Mn3O4)

 Commercial name is micromax.
23
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Cement Additives
 It imparts excellent rheological properties to cement slurry due to sphericity of its

particle.
TABLE 2.1
Extender Additives and Their Performance Features
Range of slurry Sp.Gr. Performance features and

Extender
obtainable other benefits
Bentonite 1.38-1.80 Controls fluid loss
Pozzolans 1.60-1.70 Resists corrosive fluids
Low percentage required. Ideal for
Silicates 1.34-1.74
sea water mixing.
HSMS
Good compressive strength, thermal
(High Strength 1.02-1.80
stability and insulating properties.
microspheres)
Excellent strength and low
Foam cement 0.72-1.80
permeability.
Table No 2.2: Cement additive of different service provider

Cement additives Baker Schlumberger Halliburton
Fluid loss FL-52, ULTRA 7L DO60, D167 Halad 322, Halad
413, Halad 447
Dispersant CD-32 DO65 CFR3
Low temperature retarder R-21L D800, DO13, D198 HR4
Mid temp retarder R21L DO28 HR5
High temp retarder R-8L, SR-35L D150, DO28 HR12, HR25, SCR
742, Component-R
Gas block additive BA-90 BO18 (anti gas Gas stop, Gas stop
migration), D600G HT
(high severity)
Antifoam/ Defoamer FP-21L DO47, D206 D Air3000L,
D Air3500L
Weighing additive W-10 D157 FDP C-1229-16
Expanding additive EC-2 D-176 HT Microbond HT
Flexible Additive MPA-1 D-196 HT Well Life 708, Well
Life 734
Multipurpose (reduce MPA-1, MPA-400 D121 --
permeability and enhance
mechanical strength
development)
Anti-settling agent ASA-301L B316, D153 Suspend HT
24
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Cement Additives
Lightweight additive LW-7-6 D124 Cenosphere

Surfactant for SOBM Mud MCS-A (surfactant) F112, U066, F103 Dual spacer
surfactant –A & B,
SEM-8
Spacer Caustic, Ultraflush B250, D182, D190 Tuned spacer-III,
Tuned Spacer-III
HT
25
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
CHAPTER 3
Slurry Design and Testing of Cement

Today, wells in the oil industry cover a wider range of depth and temperature conditions. The
successful primary cementation is our basic objective. The concept and execution of
cementation job should go beyond the present idea of "mixing the slurry, pumping it and
bumping it". Primary cementing field practices must go through a major revolution to achieve
increased cementing successes. It mainly involves application of proven technology and positive
attitude, commitment, dedication and alignment of priorities. If this cementing philosophy is to
work, a team effort is essential. All personnel must apply total engineered concept which starts
with planning, continues through slurry design, blending and mixing, pumping and culminates
with displacement.
(1) Job Planning and Slurry Design
(3) Blending of Material,

(2) Displacement Mixing of Cement
Procedure Slurry and pumping
Fig.3.1: The three major areas in cementing operations.
Successful cementations depend heavily on the good cementing job design, designer's
knowledge of fluids, materials and procedures to be used in given well conditions and on the
strict adherence of the field units to the proposed cementing programme.
3.1 Cement Slurry Design

Cement slurry design is an important aspect of cementing operation. The technology of slurry
design has advanced so much that the cementing compositions can be customized to any well
needs.
Over the years of the evolution of drilling and completion practices, the following major factors
have been found important which need careful consideration in the designing of the cement
slurry.
26
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
 Maximum allowable down-hole density to prevent formation fracturing.

 Thickening time to provide adequate mixing, pumping and placement time with the
safety margin.
 Fluid loss control to prevent formation of annular rings against permeable zones and
loss of hydrostatic pressure with consequent fluid migration problems.
 Rheological control to facilitate pumping of cement slurry and control of displacement
mechanism.
 Compatibility with all other fluids in the bore hole. (Mud, pre-flush/ spacer etc.)
 Strength, reliability, strength retrogression and permeability.
3.2 Conditions Parameters for Slurry Design under Simulated Conditions

To design the cement slurry for any job application, experiments have to be carried out under
well simulated temperature and pressure conditions. The design parameters are:
 Bottom hole static temperature (BHST).
 Bottom hole circulating temperature (BHCT).
 Mud density.
 Well depth, diameter and casing size.
 Samples of cement, cement additives and water that will be used in the actual job.
Bottom hole Static Temperature

Knowing the bottom hole static temperature (BHST) is important for designing and assessing
long term stability or rate of compressive strength development of a cement slurry. Determining
BHST is especially important in deep well cementing—where the temperature differential
between the top and bottom of the cement can be high and cement slurries that are designed
for safe placement at times may be over retarded at top-of-cement (TOC) temperatures,
resulting in poor compressive strength development. Generally, if the BHST at the top of the
cement column exceeds the BHCT, over retardation is not expected.
Maximum recorded bottom hole log temperature (BHLT) after suitable correction (as shown in
table no-3.1) should be considered for bottom hole static temperature (BHST).
Table No- 3.1: BHST Correction Factor
Time period Correction formula
3 to 4 hrs BHLT X 1.08 = BHST
49 hrs onwards BHLT X 1.00 = BHST
However, if temperature data is recorded at same depth after different time of stop circulation,
Horner’s plot method is more suitable to evaluate formation static temperature (BHST). The
thermal and pressure conditions existing in the bore hole are of fundamental importance to the
planning, designing and execution of cementing operations. Also, the quality of cement, cement
additives and mixing water affects the properties of cement slurry. Slurry design should be
carried out under well simulated conditions with the cementing materials and water which are
to be used at site. For evaluating temperature gradient, surface temperature is considered as
27°C as per API.
27
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Table No- 3.2: API Temperature table (BHCT) for Casing and Liner primary cementing job
Table No- 3.3: API Temperature table (BHCT) for squeeze job
Bottom hole circulating temperature

Bottom Hole Circulating Temperature (BHCT) is the temperature that influences the thickening
time or pumpability of the cement slurry. For vertical and shallow wells, BHCT can be estimated
by using API temperature data table (table 3.2 and 3.3). For HPHT, Highly deviated, deep sea,
and loss prone wells, use of thermal simulator for accurate temperature prediction is
recommended.
However, for cementing deep wells, temperatures should be verified by log data.
3.3 Slurry preparation

The equipment specification and operational procedures for the preparation of well-cement
slurries in the laboratory are contained in API RP 10B. The mixing device is a two-speed,
propeller-type mixer, shown in Fig. 3.2. Specifications are given for the propeller speeds, mixer
28
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
blade wear, batch size, and mixing time. Usually, 600 mL of slurry are prepared. The mixer is
operated at 4,000 rpm for 15 sec (during which all of the cement solids should be added to the
mix water), followed by 35 sec at 12,000 rpm. Cement slurries are very abrasive; therefore,
careful monitoring of the mixer blade condition is essential. With this method, dry materials are
uniformly blended with the cement before addition to the mixing fluid (mix water plus any liquid
additives). If liquid additives are present, they should be thoroughly dispersed in the mix water
before the cement is added. In certain cases, the order of liquid-additive addition to the mix
water may be critical. Such special mixing procedures and mixing times should be documented.
If the slurry is going to be batch mixed during the cementing operation, it should be transferred
to a consistometer and stirred in a manner consistent with the expected wellsite conditions of
time and temperature. The slurry mixing procedure specified by the API is not suitable for
ultralow-density systems containing microspheres or nitrogen as extenders. Hollow
microspheres are easily broken under high shear; consequently, the mixer is typically operated
at or below 4,000 rpm. A typical mixing procedure for slurries containing microspheres involves
adding the solids to the mix fluid within 30 sec at 4,000 rpm, followed by an additional 300 sec
of mixing at 4,000 rpm.
Fig.3.2: Propeller-type mixing device (photos courtesy Chandler Engineering)
3.4 Cement Slurry Properties
3.4.1 Specific gravity:

Density of cement slurry is adjusted to:
i. Balance the formation pressure.
ii. To control the loss of slurry in weak zones.
iii. Facilitate the effective mud removal by maintaining density hierarchy between mud,
spacer and Cement slurry.
Normally slurry specific gravity is kept higher than spacer and specific gravity of spacer is kept
higher than mud for efficient well cleaning. The density difference of 10% specific gravity is
normally recommended between consecutive fluids. However, formation to be cemented shall
decide the extent of increase over mud specific gravity.
29
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
For large vertical holes, the focus is on density hierarchy. For highly deviated holes, the viscosity
ratio becomes the major requirement. A spacer combining high density and viscosity, together
with pipe rotation/reciprocation, remains the ultimate solution to clean and transport solids. An
operational procedure for determining slurry density is found in API RP 10B.
To some extent specific gravity of slurry can be adjusted by varying water-cement ratio. The
minimum quantity of water is adjusted to ensure its consistency less than 30 Bc and maximum
quantity of water is adjusted to keep the water separation of cement slurry less than 1.4%. By
keeping these two limitations in view, the water-cement ratio can be adjusted to achieve
cement slurries of sp. Gr. Between 1.8-1.9.
Bentonite when using as an extender, the way it reacts additional water is required. Bentonite
can be mixed in two ways. It can be directly mixed with cement (dry-blended) and later the
blend is mixed with mix water or it can be mixed in mix water (pre-hydrated) and later cement is
added in the mixed fluid. Table 3.4 represents a typical data of bentonite type extenders.
It should be kept in mind the following parameters:
1. 1% BWOC pre-hydrated bentonite = 4% BWOC Dry Blend bentonite,
2. The lower the bentonite extended cement slurry density is, cement compressive
strength will be poor.
3. The addition of bentonite to cement slurry requires additional mix water. A rule of
thumb is for each 1 % bentonite additional 5.3 % of water is required.
TABLE 3.4: Comparison of Prehydrated and Dry Blended Bentonite Slurry Properties
Percentage Percentage Dry- Fresh Slurry Density
prehydrated blended water/cement
Prehydrated Dry blended
Bentonite Bentonite Ratio
0 0 44 -- 1.90
0.5 2 54 1.78 1.78
1.0 4 64 1.69 1.70
1.5 6 74 1.62 1.64
2.0 8 84 1.57 1.59
2.5 10 94 1.52 1.55
3.0 12 102 1.49 1.51
4.0 16 124 1.43 1.47
5.0 18 144 1.38 1.42
Ref.: Dowell-Schlumberger Cementing Technology.
Chemical silicate based extender in the presence of water, react with lime in the cement or with
the calcium chloride to form a gel. It is this gel structure which allows the use of large quantities
of water without excessive free water separation, thereby, reducing specific gravity of slurry.
This is totally a distinct process from that exhibited by extenders like bentonite, which absorb
water themselves. Chemical extenders are used in relatively small amounts (0.1-3.0% BWOC).
These are ideal for sea water, also.
However, the premixing of silicates extenders in fresh water must be preceded by the addition
of calcium chloride. Table 3.5 represents a typical data of silicate type extenders.
30
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
TABLE 3.5: Properties of Silicate Type of Extenders

Typical Class G + Meta Silicates
Compressive strength
Extender % Slurry Sp. W/C Water Thickening time
(psi)
BWOC Gravity Ratio Separation % Hrs : min.
24 hrs 60°C
0 1.90 44 0 5310 3 : 10
0. 15 1.74 60 4.5 2248 2 : 37
0.25 1.68 68 6.5 1510 -
0.50 1.62 78 4.2 1278 3 : 30
0.50 1.56 90 8.0 927 -
2.00 1.56 90 0 1080 -
0.75 1.50 104 4.0 625 + 5 : 00
2.00 1.50 104 0 653 1 : 43
1.50 1.38 147 5.5 230 + 5 : 00
3.00 1.38 147 0 289 1 : 27
2.00 1.32 180 5.0 175 -
3.00 1.32 180 0.5 205 -
With the use of cement extenders the specific gravity can be cut down to 1.30. Using the normal
range of extenders to cut down specific gravity below 1.40, exhibits excessive free water, high
permeability and low compressive strength.
Ultra-light weight systems are desired where extended slurries fail to control loss of circulation
to formation. Ultra-light weight slurries of specific gravity below 1.30 can be achieved with the
use of high strength microspheres (HSMS) or foam slurries.
3.4.2 Thickening Time

Thickening time of a cement slurry is the time when cement slurry attains a consistency of 100
Bc at a specific temperature and pressure. Thickening time is a parameter which is
tremendously effected by temperature and pressure. Effect of temperature on thickening time
varies throughout the temperature range. Thus, the thickening time of a cement slurry should
be determined at well simulated conditions. Bottom hole circulating temperature is
recommended for determining thickening time.
Thickening-time tests are designed to determine the length of time a cement slurry remains in a
pumpable, fluid state under simulated wellbore conditions of temperature and pressure. The
operational procedures for determining the thickening time are contained in API RP 10B. The
test slurry is evaluated in a pressurized consistometer, shown in Fig. 3.3, which measures the
consistency of the test slurry contained in a rotating cup while under simulated wellbore
conditions. Most apparatuses are capable of exposing cement slurries to a maximum
temperature and pressure of 400°F and 25,000 psi [204°C and 175 MPa]; however, special units
capable of 600°F and 40,000 psi [315°C and 280 MPa] are available for simulating very high-
temperature, very high-pressure applications.
31
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Fig.3.3: Pressurized consistometer
The consistency of the slurry is measured in Bearden units (Bc), a dimensionless quantity with
no direct conversion factor to more common units of viscosity, such as Pa-s or poise. The end of
a thickening-time test occurs when the cement slurry reaches a consistency of 100 Bc; however,
30 Bc is generally considered to be the maximum pumpable consistency. Figure 3.4 shows the
output from a typical thickening-time test. Thickening time consistency profiles often begin with
a flat, low-consistency period that lasts a few hours. Then, as the slurry begins to set, the
consistency rises with an ever-increasing slope until 100 Bc is attained. The time at which the
consistency begins to increase is called the point of departure.
Fig.3.4: Typical thickening-time test output.
Thickening time of cement slurry should be sufficient. It should enable the operator to mix and
place the slurry to the predetermined depth safely. Some margin of safety is also included so as
to cover up the time of break down while pumping slurry. However, excess thickening time
should be avoided as excessive thickening time causes:
32
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
 Annular rings against permeable zones to cause gas migration.

 Causes water pockets and hence severely affects the quality of cementation.
To extend the thickening time, various retarders are available under various commercial trade
names. Each retarder is suitable for specific temperature range and accordingly it should be
used. In shallow, low temperature wells unnecessarily long thickening time can be shortened by
the use of set-accelerating additives. Common accelerators are calcium chloride, sodium
chloride, gypsum and sea water.
3.4.3 Rheology
Rheology of cement slurry governs.
 Mud displacement in the annulus.
 Frictional pressure drop in the annulus and ultimately ECD.
 Hydraulic horse power required to place the cement.
Rheology of cement slurry is governed by power law model which states:
Shear stress = k' (Shear rate} n’
Where n' = Flow behavior index
k' = Consistency index
A laboratory test is performed by using Fann Viscometer and plotting the corresponding reading
at various rpm on log-log paper,Slope of curve determines n' while intercept of shear stress is
value of k' in lb-sec/ft2.
Power Law Plot for Non-Newtoniun cement slurry
From the values of n' and k' various flow equations are calculated to design cement slurry. For
turbulent flow the value of NR, Reynolds Number, is substituted by 3000, while for plug flow NR,
is 100.
33
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
3.4.4 Flow equations
1. Critical velocity (Vc) =
2. Frictional Pressure Drop (Pf) =
Where NRe = Reynolds Number

v = Velocity ft. /sec
VC = Critical velocity ft./sec
= Slurry density ppg
n' = flow behavior index
k' = Consistency index lb-sec/sq ft.
Dp = Inside diameter of pipe
De = DH – Dp for annulus
Pf = Frictional pressure drop (psi)
L = Length of pipe (ft)
f = Frictional factor
DH = Hole diameter
Depending upon the casing size and hole size including wash outs, slurry is designed for
turbulent flow or plug flow. Wells with low annular clearance turbulent flow is desirable for
good mud displacement. While, in wells with high annular clearance plug flow pattern provides
efficient displacement.
By adding dispersants to cement slurry, turbulent flow can be induced at lower annular
velocities. However, while using dispersants care should be taken so that excess of additive is
not used because this can result in an undesirable relationship between the viscosity of mud and
cement, resulting in channeling. For good mud removal, the cement gel strength should exceed
the mud gel strength by at least 20 lb/100 sq.ft. Excess of turbulence inducers also increase the
thickening time, causes settling of cement particles, excessive free water separation and reduce
the strength of the set cement.
3.4.5 Filtration Loss

Filtration loss is another parameter which is taken care of in slurry design because if the filtrate
from the slurry invades or enters in the formation, it can be harmful in number of ways:
 It causes premature dehydration of slurry which can lead to annulus plugging,
incomplete displacement, annular leakage etc. It changes slurry rheology and
consequent decrease in mud removal efficiency.
 It can damage the production zones by cement filtrate.
 It can also change the other parameters of the cement slurry, viz slurry yield, thickening
time etc.
Fluid-loss tests measure the slurry dehydration during and immediately following a cement job.
API RP 10B offers operational test procedures for determining the fluid-loss rate. After
conditioning at simulated wellbore conditions, the test slurry is placed in a heated cell and
subjected to 1,000 psi [6.9 MPa] of differential pressure. The filtrate loss is measured across a
34
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
standard filtration medium (45-μm *325-mesh] screen supported on a 250-μm *60-mesh]

screen). After 30 min, the collected filtrate volume is noted. The reported fluid-loss value is
equal to the collected filtrate volume multiplied by two. If all of the filtrate passes through the
screen in less than 30 min, the following equation is used to calculate the API fluid loss.
QAPI= 2Vt (5.477/√t )

Where Vt = volume of filtrate (mL) collected at time t (min).
The test is performed either in a static heated filter press cell or in a stirred fluid-loss cell, shown
in Fig. 3.5. Whatever the equipment—static filter press or stirred fluid loss—the actual filtration
test always takes place with slurry in a static state. Before the filtration test, slurry conditioning
may be performed in a pressurized consistometer, in a stirred fluid-loss cell, or, if the
temperature is less than 194°F [90°C], in an atmospheric consistometer.
Fig.3.5: Filter-press cell / Stirred fluid-loss testing apparatuses.
Filtration loss controlling agents are generally high molecular weight compounds blended with
cement slurry dispersants. Combination of these two components is very effective in controlling
filtration loss.
3.4.6 Free Fluid and slurry sedimentation

It indicates that the quantity of water separated from the cement slurry in 2 hours. It is
expressed in percentage of the slurry volume. The maximum permissible limits of water
separation is 1.4%. In case, the water separation of cement slurry is very high it can form the
35
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
water pockets in the annulus leading to the formation of micro channels in the set cement. This
separation can impair zonal isolation, particularly in a highly deviated wellbore.
The free-fluid test measures this separation tendency in the laboratory, using a graduated
cylinder as a simulated wellbore. The procedure permits slurry conditioning at elevated
temperatures and pressures. The duration of the test is 2 hr, measured from the moment the
slurry is poured into the graduated cylinder, shown in Fig. 3.6. For temperatures less than 176°F
[80°C], the graduated tube is placed in a preheated water bath. For higher temperatures, the
graduated tube is placed in a curing chamber. The test procedure is documented in API RP 10B.
Normally all the fluid loss reducing agents reduce the water separation of the cement slurries,
sometimes, the treatment of 1-2% bentonite is also given to reduce the water separation of the
cement slurry.
Fig.3.6: Slurry sedimentation test apparatus.
3.4.7 Rheological measurements

Coaxial cylinder rotational viscometers are the most common apparatuses to make rheological
measurements with cement slurries. As shown in Fig. 3.7, rotational viscometers are designed
with a rotating outer cylinder (couette type, covered by API RP 10B). API RP 10B provides
detailed guidelines concerning slurry preparation and conditioning before rheological
measurements. The slurry is prepared in a blade-type mixer according to the guidelines
presented in API Specification 10A.
Immediately after mixing, the slurry is poured into the slurry container of an atmospheric or
pressurized consistometer for preconditioning. The container temperature must be initially
ambient to avoid thermally shocking temperature-sensitive additives. The slurry is then heated
to the test temperature and stirred for a period of 20 min. If preconditioning was performed in a
pressurized consistometer at an elevated temperature and pressure, the slurry must be cooled
as quickly as possible to 190°F [88°C] before the slurry container is opened.
36
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Fig.3.7: Rotational viscometer (photograph courtesy Chandler Engineering)
After preconditioning, the slurry is immediately poured into a preheated couette-viscometer

cup to the fill line. With the sleeve rotating at the lowest speed, the cup is raised until the liquid
level reaches the inscribed line on the sleeve. This operation minimizes slurry gelation and
ensures uniform distribution of the slurry. After the slurry temperature is noted, dial readings
are recorded at various rotational speeds. Readings must be taken first in ascending order and
then in descending order. Rheological measurements are reported as an average of the ramp-up
and ramp-down readings.
3.4.8 Static gel strength

The Multiple Analysis Cement System (MACS) II (Fig 3.8) is a device that performs static gel
strength tests on cement slurry samples to analyze the gas-tight property of cement slurry
during transition phase.
The MACS II conducts these tests under simulated down-hole pressure and temperature
conditions to determine the Transition time of cement.
• Maximum Temperature for the MACS II is 600˚F.
• Maximum Pressure for the MACS II is 30,000 psi.
This test determines the gel strength development of cement slurry after it has been placed in a
well and allowed to remain static. Rapid static gel development (short transition time) indicates
good gas migration control.
Experimental data has shown that gas cannot freely percolate through cement that has a static
gel strength ranging from 250 to 500 lbf/100 ft2 or more. The industry has conservatively
adopted the upper end of the range as the accepted limit. A CSGS that is considerably lower
than the 500 lbf/100 ft2 limit indicates a situation with a relatively high potential for formation
fluid to enter the wellbore during cement hydration. A CSGS value that approaches 500 lbf/100
ft2 indicates a situation where there is a relatively low probability of fluid influx during cement
hydration. It is important to note that, with the exception of density, slurry properties do not
affect the CSGS. The CSGS can only be increased by increasing the hydrostatic overbalance on
the potential flow zone (e.g. increase the density of the drilling fluid, spacer or cement),
37
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
decreasing the length of the cement column above the top of the flow zone, increasing the open
hole size or decreasing the casing size.
The CGSP is the time period starting when laboratory measurements indicate the slurry has
developed CSGS and ending when they show it has developed 500 lbf/100 ft2. If insufficient
information is available to confidently calculate the CSGS, a value of 100 lbf/ft2 can be
substituted as the starting point for determining the CGSP.
When flow potential is deemed severe, the cement slurry should be designed with the CGSP
minimized to the extent possible. A CGSP of 45 minutes or less (measured at the temperature of
the potential flow zone) has proven effective but for less severe flow potentials a longer period
is acceptable.
The Results Graph is comprises variable indicators and status indicator. During a test, the XY
Graph displays the temperature, pressure, SGS, and consistency that compose the test results.
Fig.3.8: SGSA and result Graph
38
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
3.4.9 Loss of Circulation

It indicates the partial or complete loss of cement slurry in the natural or induced fractures. The
main reasons of loss of slurry during pumping are:
i. The high density cement slurries.
ii. Excessive pumping pressure.
Best remedy to prevent loss of circulation is to diagnose fractures during drilling when high
concentration of bridging material can be used. During cementation the best remedy of this
complication is to reduce the density of cement slurry and, to use properly dispersed slurry to
cut down excessive pumping pressure.
Recent approach is to reduce the hydrostatic fluid column pressure by injecting a carefully
calculated volume of Nitrogen gas into a portion of mud column just before the cement is mixed
and pumped into the casing. Otherwise, use certain bridging and plugging materials such as rice
husk, mica Oakes etc. to combat the loss of circulation of cement slurries.
3.4.10 Heat of Hydration

Cement hydration reactions are exothermic in nature. Heat of hydration indicates the amount of
heat liberated during the setting reactions of the cement slurry and is determined by different
calorimeters.
High heat of hydration of cement slurry causes the formations of micro channels in the casing
cement bonds, special care should be taken in high temperature wells where setting reactions
become fast and tremendous heat is liberated during setting reactions.
C3A phase of cement has highest heat of hydration viz, 207 cal/gm. To control heat of hydration,
obviously the cement with low C3A content should be used. Also Pozzolan and silica are used as
additives to reduce the heat of hydration of cement slurries.
3.5 Properties of set cement sheath

3.5.1 Compressive Strength
The strength developed by cement depends on various factors such as, water cement ratio,
temperature, humidity, time and foreign additives. For testing purpose it is necessary to define
all these conditions.
Compressive strength of set stone is determined by curing the moulds of cement under well
conditions of temperature and pressure and then breaking them by strength testing machine. It
is expressed in 'psi' units.
The minimum compressive strength required to hold the casing and to seal the formation is 500
psi. Compressive strength of cement stone increases with time and temperature. API
recommends a maximum pressure of 3000 psi, probably because higher pressures are having
very little effect on compressive strength of cement stone. For the increase of compressive
strength, the water cement ratio of cement slurry is reduced or accelerators, like CaCl2 are used
at low temperature and silica flour above 110°C.
A non-destructive method is used for compressive strength evaluation under downhole
condition through Ultra-sonic Cement Analyser (UCA) –Figure no 3.9. UCA is used for
interpreting real time compressive strength under bottom hole simulated conditions of
temperature & pressure. An ultrasonic signal is transmitted through the sample as it hardens.
Variation in the ultrasonic signal’s transit time through the sample is measured by a
microprocessor and correlated with the strength development. UCA is very useful in optimizing
WOC time.
39
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Fig.3.9: UCA and result Graph
3.5.2 Controlled Expansion

The property of controlled expansion is desirable for obtaining better cement bonds with the
casings and with the formations. As per Carter el al, "Even under most ideal conditions micro
flow channels may result from pressure differentials between completion and production fluids
in the casings during the setting of cement. In such instances, there is probability that the
formation fluid or gas migration in the annulus may take place. It can be reduced by the use of
expanding cements.
If the expansion of cement slurry can be controlled in a manner so that it takes place when the
cement has developed some strength but it is still expanded i.e. while the cement is in position
to accommodate expansion without cracking, it might be termed as controlled expansion.
Expansion after the cement is hard set is dangerous and not desired. With the use of cement
having controlled expansion, as expansion occurs, the cement is restrained by the formation and
by the casings so that expansion produces a self-stress in the cement. As the casing diameter is
reduced by temperature and pressure reduction the restraint is removed and the self-stress
relieved. The cement, thus maintains a shrink fit around the casing and an expanded fit against
the formation, so that superior bonding is obtained.
Of the various ways of introducing expansion, chemically compensated cements generally show
the best expansive properties from 5 percent to saturation, also exhibit expansion but to a
lesser degree. Cement containing 5 to 10% of the semi-hydrate form of gypsum also exhibit
expansion. Expansion characteristics of class 'H' cement containing gypsum or sodium chloride
are compared in Table 3.6.
TABLE 3.6
Linear Expansion (percent) with Sodium Chloride and Gypsum
API Class H Cement Linear Expansion of Cement

Salt( NaCI) Curing time
containing CaSO4. ½ H2O
% BWOC
% BWOC 1 day 7 days 28 days
0 0 0.041 0.059 0.077
3 0 0.060 0.108 0.128
5 0 0.080 0.145 0. 170
0 18 0.099 0.167 0. 191
40
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
3.5.4 Measurement of Expansion of Cement

The annular expansion ring test measures linear expansion under conditions of free access to
water. Free access to water is defined as an open system. The annular expansion mold (Fig 3.10)
simulates the annulus of a well. The cement slurry is poured into the annular space in the mold,
and the mold is placed into a water bath or pressurized curing vessel. Because the slurry is in
contact with water during the entire test, water entry will compensate for internal shrinkage as
long as the cement matrix is permeable. The outer ring has a vertical slit; therefore, if the
cement expands during the hydration period, the diameter of the ring will increase. Conversely,
if the cement shrinks, the diameter of the ring will decrease. The change in ring diameter is
determined by measuring the distance between the two pins mounted on the outside of the
mold with a micrometer. Measurements are taken before and after curing, and special care is
required to ensure that both measurements are taken at the same temperature. The percent
dimensional change (shrinkage or expansion) is calculated as follows:
ΔV= 0.358(Lf-Li)
where
Li = initial distance measurement between pins (mm)
Lf = final distance measurement between pins (mm)
ΔV = dimensional change of the cement sample (%).
Fig.3.10: Annular Expansion Mould
The cylindrical sleeve test is also an open-system bulk-expansion measurement with free access
to water. As shown in Fig. 3.11, three sets of pins are mounted on the outside of the sleeve,
each located on opposite sides of the slit and secured with a spring. The sleeve is closed when
the slurry is first introduced, and a zero reading of the distance between the three sets of pins is
taken with a micrometer. If the set cement expands during the curing period, the diameter of
the sleeve increases and the longitudinal slit opens. After the mold is removed from the curing
chamber, the distances between the pins are measured again, and the amount of expansion is
calculated according to the following equation.
41
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
ΔV=*ri+L/ri X{L2/L1-1}]
where
L1 = average distance between the pins when the sleeve is empty
L2 = average distance between the pins when the sleeve is expanded
ri = inside radius of sleeve
ri + L = plus the length of the pin.
Fig.3.11: Curing sleeve for measurement of cement expansion
3.5.5 Strength Retrogression

The compressive strength of the cement stone above 105°C starts decreasing and as a result
permeability of the cement stone increases. The wells, where the bottom hole temperature is
expected to be higher than 100°C, normally 35-40% silica flour is added to the cement slurry to
combat the strength retrogression of the cement. In fact, above 100°c, the morphology of
certain hydrates of cement undergoes changes with the release of free lime. Silica combines
with free lime, thus generated and forms another cementitious material and arrests strength
retrogression. Silica flour addition also reduces permeability of set cement.
3.5.6 Durability
It is desirable that the cement stone behind the casing should retain its integrity for years even
in corrosive water. Hydrates of C3A in the set cementstone are known to react with sulphates
present in the formation waters to give a voluminous compound C3A.3CaSO4.31H2O (Calcium
Sulphoaluminate) which eventually damages the set cementstone. For these reasons, the
formations known for their sulphate waters are to be cemented with high sulphate resistant
cements having C3A content below 3% i.e. Class 'G' HSR type cement.
3.5.7 Resilience
Sometimes synthetic nylon fibers, latex and bentonite are added to improve the shatter
resistance and resilience of the set cement stone which in certain conditions may be prone to
damage by the vibrations produced by drilling or fracturing operations.
3.6 Preflushes
Preflushes are categorized into
1. Chemical washes & Surfactants.
2. Spacers
3.6.1 Chemical Washes- Washes are thin, usually water based fluids containing surfactants &
mud thinners, designed to thin and disperse the mud so that it can be efficiently removed from
the hole. Eg- Sodium Acid Pyrophosphate (SAPP)
42
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
3.6.2 Spacers- Spacers are preflushes with carefully designed densities and rheological
properties. Spacers are more complicated chemically than washes. Below is a description of the
most common ingredients.
a. Viscosifiers are necessary to suspend the weighting agent(s) and control the rheological
properties. They can be subdivided into two classes, water soluble polymers and clays.
 Polyacrylamides
 Guar and guar derivatives
 Cellulose derivatives (carboxymethylcellulose, hydroxyethylcellulose,
hydroxymethylcellulose, and hydroxypropylcellulose)
 Various biopolymers like
 Scleroglucan
 Welan gum.
 Diutan gum.
 Nonpyruvylated xanthan gum.
 Clays, such as bentonite, attapulgite, kaolinite, and sepiolite
 Bentonite and sepiolite are often used in combination with biopolymers
b. Dispersants enhance the compatibility of the spacer with WBMs and cement slurries
and disperse the weighting agent in the spacer. The most common dispersant is
polynaphthalene sulfonate.
c. Fluid-loss control agents are usually water-soluble polymers. Sometimes the same
polymer functions as both a viscosifier and fluid-loss control agent
d. Weighting agent(s) are used to obtain the desired spacer density—silica flour, fly ash,
calcium carbonate, barite, hematite, ilmenite, and manganese tetra-oxide.
e. Surfactants increase the compatibility of spacers with OBMs and leave the casing
water-wet.
Because of their relatively high viscosity, spacers are most often flowing in the laminar flow
regime during mud displacement. However, their composition can be optimized to decrease
their viscosity without compromising stability, allowing turbulent-flow placement. The rheology
of spacer depends on many factors, including the concentration of viscosifying polymer and
weighting agent, temperature, and the base-fluid composition (fresh water, seawater, or
concentrated salt solution).
Cementing in oil and synthetic muds requires the use of specially designed spacer fluids to
prevent mixing of the cement and oil or synthetic mud. Some of the properties that are required
are
 These spacers are designed to be compatible with both the cement and the mud while
providing other necessary functions for cementing.
 Spacers also need to contain surfactants that will return the oil- or synthetic-wet
surfaces back to a water-wet condition so that an effective cement bond can be
achieved. Water-wetting the casing and borehole will lead to proper bonding of the
cement.
The formulation of spacers varies widely. The formulation used is dependent on the personal
preference of whoever is specifying or designing the spacer and cement job. However, there is
one philosophy or technique common to all spacer design — the fluid being displaced should be
as thin as possible, while the displacing fluid should be as thick as possible. This approach
43
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
promotes thinning of the fluid in the hole so that it does not channel, improves filter-cake
removal and generates a “piston-type” action of the displacing fluid, forcing the displaced
displaced fluid out of the hole in the most efficient manner.
3.6.3 Key Design Requirement of WBM Spacers:-

 Thermal Stability at designed BHCT & BHP
 Mud-Spacer-Cement Density Hierarchy, each fluid being at least 10% heavier than its
preceding fluid. (For Eg. Spacer should be at least 10% heavier than that of cement)
 Mud-Spacer-Cement Frictional pressure drop rheological Hierarchy of each displacing
fluid should be at least 20% higher than the fluid being displaced at circulating
temperature.
 Mud-Spacer & Cement-Spacer should be compatible at surface & BHCT
 There should not be significant increase in thickening time of cement slurry by 10%
contamination of designed spacer
 There should not be significant decrease in compressive strength of cement slurry by
10% contamination of cement slurry
3.6.4 Key Design Requirement of SOBM

Spacers:-
In addition to WBM, the wash for OBM must
contain a sufficient amount of surfactants to
ensure a smooth transition to the water-base
spacer. (For this one need to carry out SSST
(Spacer Surfactant screening Test) using
wettability Tester.)
Fig No.-3.12: Wettability Tester
3.6.5 Cleaning-fluid sequence—current practices

The three key objectives of mud displacement applying to cementing are
a. Remove the mud from the annulus.
b. Keep incompatible fluids apart, or at least minimize their mixing.
c. Remove all solids from the walls.
To achieve these goals, different pills are used, each designed to perform a specific function. In
short, viscous spacers separate incompatible fluids, and chemical washes clean the pipe walls.
From there, various combinations are possible, depending on the well requirements.
Once the mud has been conditioned, the following fluid sequences are recommended.
■ For a WBM: viscous spacer is alone sufficient with desired properties as listed above
■ For an OBM: Base oil →→Sacrificial water based mud →→Viscous spacer including surfactant
44
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
CHAPTER 4
Rheology and Engineered Cementing Programme
4.0 What is Rheology?
Rheology is the study of the flow & deformation of fluids and behavior/ response of internal
attractive forces (Viscosity) with flow rate. It describes the relationship between the flow rate
(shear rate) and the pressure (shear stress) that causes movement. It enables one to deter-
mine the flow regime needed for optimum cement slurry placement and to calculate value for
friction pressure within the pipe and annulus.
Rheological behavior of cement slurries depends on many different factors:

 Water-to-cement ratio.
 Specific surface area of the cement powder, and mores specifically the size and shape of
the grains.
 Chemical composition of the cement and the relative distribution of the components at
the grain surfaces.
 Presence of additives.
 Mixing and testing procedures.
A common cause of failure in primary cementing is the incomplete displacement of drilling

muds. The resulting mud filled channels may then be opened during well production; permitting
the vertical migration of oil and gas behind the casing.
4.1 Types of Flow

There are mainly two flow pattern a fluid exhibits
1. Laminar Flow:
When fluid particles moves forward in straight lines parallel to pipe axis, flow is called
laminar flow. Particle in the center of pipe moves with highest velocity whereas particle in
proximity of pipe wall has least to negligible velocity. Hence a parabolic fluid front is formed
(Fig no-4.1).
In the laminar flow (plastic flow), the cement slurry tends to pass through the mud being
displaced. A great deal of intermingling of cement and mud can take place at their interface.
In some fluids, central part moves as a solid plug with similar particle velocity of fluid front
and zero velocity along pipe wall - it is called plug flow. Plug flow is not a true flow regime,
though can be considered in laminar flow to some extent. In the plug flow, the slurry moves
intact (just as tooth-paste flowing from the tube) and the flow front is flat so that very little
intermingling of fluids takes place at the cement mud interface.
2. Turbulent Flow:
When fluid particles swirls within pipe in a rolling motion and any particle can move
anywhere inside flow area transferring momentum with each other, flow is called turbulent
flow. In turbulent flow there is a chaotic and tumbling movement of flu id particles but the
flow front is flat (Fig no-4.1) with the result that very little intermingling of cement and mud
can take place at the interface. As compared to laminar flow, turbulent flow need more
discharge rate through same pipe.
45
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
In between laminar and turbulent flow, flow regime exhibits transition phase.
Laminar flow pattern Turbulent flow pattern

Fig No-4.1: Flow pattern
4.2 Basic Definition

In laminar flow regime, flow pattern may be considered of large number of platelets moving
parallel to one another with varying velocities. As shown in Fig no-4.2, velocity gradient or Shear
Rate and shear stress can be explained as
------Eq1, Unit of shear rate is Sec-1
------Eq2, Unit of shear Stress is Pascal or lbf/100ft2
The viscosity of a fluid is the ratio of the shear stress (τ) to the shear rate ( , The symbol for
viscosity is µ.
------Eq3, Unit of Viscosity is Pascal-Sec (Pa.s), or centipoise (cp).
Fig No-4.2: Flow between platelets

4.3 Rheological Models
The relationship between shear stress and shear rate defines Newtonian and non-Newtonian
fluids. In Newtonian fluids this relationship is linear and slop of the line represents viscosity.
Hence viscosity remains same with change in shear rate or in another words discharge rate.
46
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
In non-Newtonian fluids, slope of the line either increases (Shear Thickening fluids) or decreases
(Shear thinning fluids) with rate. There are three basic rheological model exits for non-
Newtonian fluids viz. Bingham Plastic Model, Power Law Model and Hurschel Bulkley Model
(Modified to Generalized Hurschel Bulkley Model). Characteristics and other details of these
fluids are given in table no-4.1.
Table No-4.1: Fluidic Models for Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids

Newtonian Non- Newtonian (Oil Field Fluids)
Bingham Fluid Power Law Fluid Herschel-Bulkley law fluid
 Shear stress v/s  Shear stress v/s shear  Shear stress v/s shear
 Shear stress(τ)
shear rate graph is rate graph is non- rate graph is non-
versus shear
linear but does not linear and passes linear and does not
rate (ϒ) graph is
pass through origin. through origin. Stress pass through origin.
linear and
It starts from an increases with a Stress increases with a
passes through
initial threshold reduced rate v/s shear reduced rate v/s shear
origin
level shear stress rate if power index or rate if power index or
 Viscosity (µ)= τ/
which is known as flow behavior index flow behaviour index
ϒ
Yield Strength (τo) (n) < 1. (n) < 1.
 Fluid
 Slope of Shear  No fixed viscosity with  Combination of Power
characteristics is
stress(τ) v/s shear flow rate hence a new and Bingham fluidic
only Viscosity
rate (ϒ) is constant term consistency model.
measured in cp.
and known as index (k) replaces the  k’ & n’ are having the
Plastic Viscosity (µp) fluid viscosity here. same meaning and
 τ = τo + µp* ϒ or  n<1 implies that fluid significance.
µ= µp + τo/ ϒ is shear thinning, most  τ = τo + k* ϒn or
 µ= ∞ if ϒ is ‘0’ of the drilling fluids, µ=( τo + k* ϒn)/ ϒ
cement slurries and  µ= ∞ if ϒ is ‘0’ and
µ= τo if ϒ is ’∞’. thick oils are shear
 Fluid characteristics thinning fluids. µ= 0 if ϒ is ’∞’.
are Plastic Viscosity  τ = k* ϒn or µ=k* ϒn-1  Fluid characteristics
(Pv in cp) and Yield are Flow behavior
 µ= ∞ if ϒ is ‘0’ and
Point (Yp in lbf/100 index (n’ – unit-less),
ft2). µ= 0 if ϒ is ’∞’. Consistency Index (k’
 Fluid characteristics in lbf.sec^n/ft2) and
are Flow behavior Yield Point (τo in
index (n’-unitless) and lbf/100 ft2)
Consistency Index (k’
in lbf.sec^n/ft2).
 Graph:  Graph:
 Graph: τ
τ τ
ϒ ϒ
ϒ
47
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
The instrument which is used in field or laboratory for finding rheological parameters is
Rotational Viscometer Meter' (Fig no 4.3) and is designed to operate at different rotational
speeds (Generally 600, 300, 200, 100, 6 and 3 rpm). For this instrument the shear stress (in
pounds per square foot) may be expressed as follows:
Fig No-4.3: Rotational Viscometer
Factor of 1.066 may vary, depending on the combination of rotor and BOB.
2
(Shear stress (dyne/cm ) = k1 X k2 X Ɵ
Where,
K1 = Torsion spring constant (unitless)
-2
K2 = Shear stress constant for effective bob surface (cm )
Ɵ = Dial reading
K1 and k2 may vary, depending on the combination of rotor and BOB.
-2
For R1B1 configuration, k2 = 0.01323 cm
For torsion spring assembly F1, k1 = 386
Hence Shear Stress = 0.01323 * 386 * Ɵ
2
= 5.1067 Ɵ dyne/cm
2
= 0.51067 Ɵ N/m (Pa)
2
= 1.066 Ɵ lbf/100ft )
The shear rate is a function of the speed of rotation and the dimensions of the rotor and BOB.
For the standard instrument:
48
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Shear rate ϒ (Sec-1) = k3 x rpm
(for R1B1 configuration, k3 = 1.7023 sec-1 per rpm
and
where
Rb = radius of inner cylinder (bob), m (1.7247 cm);
Rc = radius of outer cylinder (cup), m; (1.8415 cm)
κ = ratio of radius of inner cylinder to outer cylinder and
Ω0 = angular velocity of outer cylinder.)
Pv-Plastic Viscocity & Yp-Yield Point are Fluid characteristics of Bingham Plastic Model where by
conventional calculations Pv and Yp can be calculated as;
Pv= (600 Dial Reading- 300 Dial Reading),
Yp= (300 Dial reading – Pv)
(Plastic Viscosity(Pv)
= (Ʈ2 – Ʈ1) / (ϒ 2 - ϒ 1)
= 5.11* (Ɵ 2 – Ɵ 1) / 1.703 (Ω2 - Ω1) poise
=3 (Ɵ 2 – Ɵ 1) / (Ω2 - Ω1) poise
2 -1
= 300 (Ɵ 2 – Ɵ 1) / (Ω2 - Ω1) Centi poise (1 poise=1 Dyne/(cm .sec )= 100 cP)
=300 (Ɵ 2 – Ɵ 1) / (600 – 300) Centi poise (Considering Ɵ 2 = 600 & Ɵ 1=300 RPM)
Pv= (Ɵ 2 – Ɵ 1) Centi poise)
Example 1: Calculate Pv & Yp of the following mud system, whose fann Viscometer dial reading
are given as follows:
RPM (Ω) 3 6 30 60 100 200 300 600
Dial Reading (Ɵ) 10 19 -- -- 53 72 80 116
Conventional Calculation of Pv, Yp:

Pv= 116-80 = 36 cP
Yp= 80-36 = 44 lbf/100 ft2
49
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Many times Pv/ Yp calculation by conventional method does not match with results evaluated
by cementing software. Therefore for more accurate Pv/ Yp calculation, Linest method may be
adopted by excluding 3 & 6 RPM readings. Linest method (By using MS excel) with this
procedure give more accurate values as compared to convenetional method (See a comparison
of convenetional and Linest method wrt software evaluated values at table No-4.2
Table No-4.2: Comparison of Pv/Yp values evaluated by different methods

S.No Parameters Conventional Linest Software
(3,6 rpm not
considered)
1 Pv 213 232 234
Yp 40 29.5 26.59
2 Pv 38 45 45.5
Yp 22 11.4 10.3
3 Pv 180 192.2 193
Yp 30 22.9 21
4 Pv 187.5 202.8 203.8
Yp 34.5 24.8 22.96
5 Pv 72 72.5 72.5
Yp 8 7.6 7.24
6 Pv 174.75 190.1 191.9
Yp 30.25 20.8 18.64
7 Pv 210 223 224.3
Yp 34 27.6 25.15
8 Pv 126 128 128.5
Yp 32 29.7 28.34
9 Pv 14 14 14.1
Yp 5 4.9 4.65
10 Pv 76 86 86.7
Yp 48 33.6 30.35
Next to Bingham model, is power fluidic model, but here n (flow behaviour index) & k
(consistency Index) are the index for rheology, therefore the general manual procedure to
calculate n & k on graph paper is explained hereunder:
1. Calculate shear stress (τ) & Shear rate (ϒ) from Rotational viscometer dial
readings as
τ = 1.065* Dial Reading
ϒ = 1.7023*RPM
2. Find Log (τ) and Log (ϒ).
3. n= (300 rpm Log (τ) - 100 rpm Log (τ))/ (300 rpm Log (ϒ) - 100 rpm Log (ϒ)).
4. Now divide stress (τ) values by 100. Let the new value is stress (τ1)
5. K = τ1/ 511^n.
50
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Alternative Plotting method for k.

i. Draw stress (τ1) & Shear rate (ϒ) values on log-log graph (Either on paper or in excel).
ii. Draw a straight line coinciding 300, 200, 100, 60 & 30 rpm readings and extend it upto the
Y-axis (where ϒ=1), the point of intersection of the extended line and Y-axis will give the
value of k in lb.sec^n/ft2 (See fig no 4.4).
Note:
 Interpretation for k value on log graph paper must be carried out carefully.
 Due to chances of slip factor affecting the end result, leave the readings of 3 & 6 rpm.
Fig No-4.4: Evaluation of consistency index on Log paper or in MS Excel

Above procedure is tested for following 10 nos. of cement slurry samples, where the values are
verified with cementing software and found in very close vicinity as shown below in table no-4.3.
Table No-4.3: Comparison of n’, k’ values with software

RPM Ø3 Ø 6 Ø30 Ø60 Ø100 Ø200 Ø300 n n K K
(Calculated) (Software) (Calculated) (Software)
1 3, 5, 18, 30, 45, 78, 106, 0.821 0.81 0.007 0.007
2 4 16 29 41 76 106
2 5, 8, 28, 49, 74, 124, 164, 0.756 0.764 0.0156 0.0148
4 7 26 46 69 119 164
3 5, 6, 28, 50, 74, 125, 165, 0.780 0.782 0.013 0.013
4 6 25 44 66 117 165
4 4, 6, 22, 39, 58, 100, 133, 0.779 0.783 0.010 0.010
4 5 21 36 55 97 133
51
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
5 5, 9, 34, 60, 91, 154, 205, 0.765 0.778 0.018 0.017

5 8 31 55 86 150 205
6 4, 5, 15, 25, 34, 55, 80, 0.834 0.818 0.005 0.005
2 3 12 20 30 55 80
7 7, 11, 45, 80, 121, 215, 290, 0.799 0.799 0.021 0.021
6 10 42 79 120 215 290
8 6, 11, 45, 75, 112, 189, 253, 0.750 0.753 0.0025 0.0024
5 10 41 74 110 194 253
9 5, 9, 35, 61, 90, 154, 210, 0.771 0.772 0.018 0.018
5 9 34 61 90 154 210
10 8, 11, 39, 67, 100, 165, 222, 0.754 0.764 0.021 0.0199
9 10 35 62 94 161 222
4.4 Rheological hierarchy for frictional pressure drop:

In many cases the ability to achieve turbulent flow of the spacer and cement, or a density
hierarchy between the spacer and the drilling fluid is compromised, due to the small difference
between pore and fracture pressures. In such cases optimizing the rheology of fluids and pipe
movement will be the only available methods for achieving good mud displacement.
To optimize fluid rheologies, it should be determined at simulated down-hole temperatures to
ensure effective mud displacement. Rheologies should be designed in such a way that frictional
pressure drop due to displacing fluid should be at least 20% more than that of displaced fluid.
Hence, Frictional pressure drop due to cement should be at least 20% more than that of due to
spacer and frictional pressure drop due to spacer should be at least 20% more than that of mud.
Surface rheology measurement should also be taken to provide a quality control step at rig site.
Cementing engineer should also plan for a range of discharge rate for which at least 20%
difference in rheological hierarchy is achieved.
Dial readings of FANN viscometer is the initial indication of this frictional rheological hierarchy
where generally cement overcomes at higher shear rate (At low shear rate, dial readings of
cement may be even less than mud). However for spacer and mud we have to manage this to
avoid any contamination. Accountable factors in rheological hierarchy:
a) Discharge rate
b) Hole size
c) Centralization of casing.
d) Rheological parameters of fluids ( n, k, Yp value).
Therefore for a particular set of well fluids rheological hierarchy, we can either plan for a range
of discharge rate or redesign spacer/ cement slurry if necessary. Let us see few examples for
further illustration purpose.
EXP.1 Rotational viscometer data at BHCT for a set of fluid system is given here below.
RPM 3 6 30 60 100 200 300 600
Mud 4 6 12 18 26 44 60 98
Spacer 12 15 27 35 43 59 69 --
C/ Slurry 5 7 39 58 79 130 165 --
52
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Fig No-4.5: Shear Stress /Shear Rate graph & software evaluated frictional
hierarchy for exp-1
Exp-1 is showing a properly designed fluid systems for a well, but sometimes it is not possible to
design the fluids as in exp-1 where fluids are having proper rheology from start of flow rate to
maximum limit (fig no 4.5 may be considered as ideal case). Therefore in this case if higher
discharge rate is limited to formation strength, cementer may plan with lower displacement rate
also.
Example-2: Rotational viscometer data at BHCT for a set of fluid system is given
here below.
RPM 3 6 30 60 100 200 300 600
Mud 8 11 -- -- 31 43 55 89
Spacer 18 23 -- -- 52 69 81 118
C/ Slurry 3 5 21 28 56 101 146 --
53
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Fig No-4.6: Shear Stress /Shear Rate graph & software evaluated frictional
hierarchy for exp-2
In exp-2 (fig no 4.6), for maintaining 20% higher rheological hierarchy criteria, minimum
discharge rate should be planned for more than 1.37 m3/min.
Example-3: Rotational viscometer data at BHCT for a set of fluid system is given
here below.
RPM 3 6 30 60 100 200 300 600
Mud 5 7 9 11 12 31 46 73
Spacer 10 12 18 22 28 34 40 --
C/ Slurry 5 7 24 40 59 95 134 --
In exp-3 (Fig no 4.7), for maintaining 20%

higher rheological hierarchy criteria,
maximum discharge rate should be
limited to 1.50 m3/min.
Shear stress versus shear rate graph can

be plotted from rotational viscometer
RPM and dial readings after conversion.
Frictional hierarchy graph can be
obtained from cementing software.
Fig No-4.7: Software evaluated frictional hierarchy

for exp-3
54
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
However, for better mud displacement efficiency and good cementation job, following criteria
should be followed:
I. Density hierarchy: Displacing fluid should be at least 10% heavier than the fluid it is
displacing.
II. Friction pressure hierarchy: Friction pressure of the displacing fluid should be greater by
at least 20% than the fluid it is displacing. This prevents by-passing of the fluid being
displaced.
III. Minimum pressure gradient: Each displacing fluid should be able to break the gel
strength of the fluid it is directly displacing to prevent leaving any gelled, un-displaced
layer in all side of annulus.
IV. Velocity profile: velocity of the displacing fluid in wider side should not exceed the
velocity of the fluid being displaced in narrow side of the same annulus in order to
effectively remove mud from narrow side of the annulus.
4.5 Engineering fluid calculation:
The formula for calculating the velocity of slurry in the annulus is as follows:
V2-n’ =
Where;
V = Velocity of skurry (ft/sec)
NRe = Reynold’s number (dimensionless)
n’ = Flow behaviour index (dimensionless)
k’ = Consistency index (lb-secn’/ft2)
De = Equivalent diameter (dia. Of hole – outer dia. of casing) (inches)
ρ = Slurry density (ppg)
With given discharge rate, pipe and annular velocity can be calculated which can be used to
further calculate Reynold number. Another important expression involved in the
hydraulic of non-Newtonian fluids is the relationship between Reynolds number and Fanning
Friction Factor (f), is as follows:
f = 0.00454 + 0.645(NRe)0.7 ... (For turbulent flow for Slurries containing bentonite)
f = 0.0303/(NRe)0.1612 ... (For turbulent flow for Slurries containing no bentonite)
f =16/NRe (For pipe flow) and f =24/NRe (For annular flow) ... (For Plug and Laminar flow)
55
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
f (Fanning friction factor) and NRe can also be obtained from graph given ahead. Determination
of f (Fanning friction factor) is useful for calculating friction pressure drop.
As shown in graph for n’=1, minimum Reynold no for critical velocity in laminar region is 2100.
Minimum Reynold no for start of turbulent flow is 3000. However, in general, for given flow
behavior index n’, following table may be referred for corresponding Reynold no. in turbulent
regime (Values are evaluated from graph).
Friction pressure drop can be calculated by the formula:
Table No-4.4: For given corresponding value

Pf = of NRe
n’ NRe
where, 0.95 - 1.0 3000
Pf = frictional pressure drop (psi) 0.85 – 0.94 3100
L = length of pipe in feet 0.75 – 0.84 3200
0.65 – 0.74 3300
ρ = is density in ppg 0.55 – 0.64 3400
V = velocity in ft/sec. 0.45 – 0.54 3500
f = fanning friction factor (dimensionless)

De = equivalent diameter (inches)
56
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
CHAPTER 5
Mechanical properties of Set Cement

Mechanical properties of set cement stone plays vital role in long term well integrity. Generally
cement quality is considered in terms of its uniaxial compressive strength and is used to
estimate its ability to support casing and zonal isolation also. However, a good initial cement
bond may become compromised due to changes in stress caused by fluctuation of temperature,
pressure, formation compaction & creep during well testing and production period. Therefore it
becomes important to understand elastic properties of set cement viz. tensile strength, Young’s
Modulus, Poisson’s ratio etc. and its behavior under changing stress environment.
Analysis of mechanical properties of set cement enables designing a cement system that can
withstand the thermal and mechanical stresses the cement sheath may have to endure during
its useful life.
5.1 Basic Definition

Stress: An applied pressure or system of pressures that strains or deforms a body.
Axial Stress(𝜎a ): For a cylindrical test specimen subjected to uniaxial load along its axis, the
axial stress (𝜎a ) can be represented as:
The axial compressive force (𝐹) is applied normal to the flat surface (area 𝐴0) of the cement test
specimen (see Figure no 5.1)
Figure No. 5.1: Cylindrical Test Specimen
Strain: The measure of the relative deformation that results from applied stress.
Axial Strain: For the cylindrical specimen (see Figure 5.1), the amount of axial dimensional
change (Δ𝐿) relative to the original length (𝐿0) in the direction of primary axial stress is defined
as the axial strain (𝜀a) and is shown by:
57
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Mechanical Properties of Set Cement
Radial) Strain: For the cylindrical specimen (see Figure 5.1), the amount of diametrical
dimensional change (Δ𝐷) relative to the original diameter (𝐷0) in a direction perpendicular to
the primary axial stress is defined as the transverse (or radial) strain (𝜀t) and is shown by:
Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS): The maximum stress a material can withstand before
failing, while being compressed without confining pressure.
Tensile strength (𝝈𝐓): The maximum stress a material can withstand before failing, while being
stretched
Young’s modulus (Y): Property of a linear elastic solid material that represents the material’s
stiffness, which can be further described as the ratio of stress to strain. Young’s modulus (Y) is
defined below by the ratio of axial stress (𝜎a) to the resulting axial strain (𝜀a) during an
unconfined compressive test:
Young’s modulus is expressed in Giga Pascal (pounds-force per square inch or Mega PSI).
Poisson’s ratio (𝝂): A measure of a material’s tendency to expand when it experiences

compression in a perpendicular direction and can be further described as the negative ratio of
transverse strain to axial strain. When a material is compressed in one direction, it usually tends
to expand in directions perpendicular to the direction of compression. To characterize such
behavior of a cylinder using previously defined normal strains, Poisson’s ratio (𝜈) is defined as
the ratio of radial strain (𝜀t) to axial strain (𝜀a):
Poisson’s ratio is dimensionless. Minus sign for the Poisson‘s ratio formula is required because
the two strain values in above Equation are of opposite sign.
Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS): UCS is the stress at which the cement specimen fails
in a compression test without confining pressure. It is determined experimentally by
destructively testing the cement sample. The maximum stress recorded during the test is the
UCS and is described as:
𝑈C𝑆 = 𝑀AX{𝜎a(unconfined)}
Tensile Strength (𝝈𝐓): The tensile strength is the stress at which the cement specimen fails in a
tensile test. It can be determined by either direct method or indirect method. The direct tension
test is performed by applying a direct pull apart force to a dog bone shape (Briquette’s molds)
specimen, which gives the direct tensile strength (𝜎TD) of the specimen.
58
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
The indirect tension test (also called Brazilian test) can be performed by applying a diametrical
compressive force along the length of a cylindrical specimen (Generally ϴ2’’X L1’’), which gives
the splitting tensile strength (𝜎TS) of the specimen.
Elastic Limit: The elastic limit is the stress or deformation limit where the material transitions
from elastic behavior to non-elastic behavior.
5.2 Curing procedure for cement sample

Curing conditions can have a strong effect on the mechanical property development of a cement
system. Therefore, standard curing procedures as per API guidelines should be followed.
Pressurized curing chamber suitable for curing samples at the appropriate final test temperature
and a pressure of at least 20,700 kPa (3000 psi) can be used to simulate downhole conditions.
Temperature schedule evaluated by thermal simulator replicates more accurate well condition.
To evaluate mechanical properties, different shape/ size of molds are used for curing cement
samples to get desired shape of sample (See Table no 5.1)
Table No 5.1: Different types of Molds for curing cement slurry

Mold Sample Purpose
Cubical molds to
cure 2’’X2’’ sample
for evaluating
compressive
strength
Briquette Mold to
cure sample for
evaluating tensile
strength
Cylindrical mold
and sample to
evaluate Tensile
strength (By
Brazilian Test
method), Young’s
Modulus, Poisson’s
Ratio and
compressive
strength.
59
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Concentric molds
with shaft to
evaluate shear
strength of cement
5.3 Procedure to measure mechanical properties

After curing of cement sample as per API procedure, following methods are being used to
evaluate mechanical properties;
a) Unconfined Compressive Strength: Discussed in Chapter No 4 – Testing of cement
b) Tensile Strength: Two methods are being used to evaluate tensile strength of cement
sample; 1) Briquette molds method, 2) Brazilian method.
1. Briquette molds method: Cement sample is tested by direct tension tests by
arrangement of grips/clamps to secure the end of the specimens (see Figure no 5.2).
Figure No. 5.2: Arrangement of Tensile test by Briquettes Mold

Applied maximum load in pound (before sample failure) is to be recorded and divided by
cross-sectional area of mold center which is 1 inch square. Hence applied maximum load
represents tensile strength directly. However due to stress concentration, mold
develops cracks and splits prior to actual tensile strength.
60
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
2. Brazilian method: This method has advantage over previous one as no stress
concentration occurs in sample. In Brazilian test a test specimen disc is prepared with 2’’
in diameter and 1’’ in length. For accurate results, slow loading rate @ 1000 LB/ Minute
(within ASTM standard range) is set on UCS machine. To distribute the load evenly, 10°
contact of machine on circular sample cross-section is recommended for perfect
splitting (Double foam paper adhesive tape can be used to increase the contact area).
For testing tensile strength specimen is placed in UCS machine keeping flat base of
specimen disc in vertical direction (as shown in fig-5.3). Due to round shape of disc
specimen, applied load and its reaction split into two components (right angle with each
other) and their resultant will work at 90 degree to the applied load. As a result,
specimen disc split into two equal half along diameter.
Figure No. 5.3: Brazilian method to measure Tensile strength
To calculate tensile strength following formula is to be used;
Tensile Strength (in PSI)
Here P is applied load in pound (LB)
L is Thickness of Disc specimen in inch

D is Diameter of Disc Specimen in inch
c) Shear strength: In this method cylindrical rod and hollow cylinder of known diameter are
arranged (See fig no 5.4) to create an annulus. Cement slurry is filled in this annulus. Outer
cylinder is capped at both end keeping pressurizing provision on top and cured in curing
chamber for required time period thereafter. After curing time, sample is taken out and rod
is pushed down by using UCS machine. Load required to push down the rod in cement is
used to measure shear strength of set cement.
61
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Here P is applied load in pound (LB)

L is height of set cement in inch
D is Inner diameter of hollow cylinder in inch
Fig-5.4: Shear strength Measurement

d) Young’s Modulus and Poison’s Ratio: Cement sample is cured under well temperature
and 3000 psi pressure condition in curing chamber for predefined interval of time and
then taken out for measuring elastic parameters. Sample is fixed in the attachment shown
in figure no. 5.5 below and an axial load is applied. Experiment is carried out under no
62
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
confinement pressure. Cement sample compresses minutely under applied load and
expands on diameter. These changes in axial and diametrical dimensions are recorded by
micro meters and recorded on computer screen. Elastic properties can be calculated from
the drawn graph. Properties, in this test provides an idea of flexibility at ambient condition
(i.e. without application of pressure and temperature).
Sample fixture Data measured and recorded Stress-strain Graph

Figure No 5.5 : Arrangement to measure Young’s modulus & Poisson’s ratio
Dynamic elastic properties are determined through acoustics measurements. Equipment is
available to allow the determination of the dynamic Young’s modulus (Y) and dynamic Poisson’s
ratio (𝜐) of set cement from the velocity of shear (𝑉S) and compressional (𝑉P) waves through the
set cement. Y and 𝜐 are determined from 𝑉P and 𝑉S and the set cement density (𝜌) using the
following equations:
For porous and heterogeneous media, these values are generally higher than measurements
made under static conditions. It should be noted that no universal correlation exists; all sonic
measurements should be correlated to static measurements. AVS 700 equipment (Available in
KDMIPE rock mechanical lab) can be used to determine shear (𝑉S) and compressional (𝑉P) sonic
velocities under temperature and confinement pressure condition. Shear (𝑉S) and
compressional (𝑉P) sonic velocities further used to get Young’s Modulus and Poisson’s Ratio as
per following relationship;
Where,
is Poison’s Ratio of the cement sample.
Y is Young’s modulus of elasticity of cement sample.
is density of cement sample.
is compressional wave velocity through cement sample.
is shear wave velocity through cement sample.
63
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
5.4 Impact of mechanical properties of set cement on wellbore integrity

Earlier oil well cementing was focused for one principal mechanical property- compressive
strength. Until recent, the ability of zonal isolation, casing support and casing-cement-formation
bond of cement sheath was estimated on the basis of compressive strength only. Good CBL-VDL
recording after WOC was the only criteria for better cement bond. However, impact of well
testing pressure fluctuations, hydro-fracture jobs, impact of squeeze for zonal isolation,
perforation, hermetical testing etc. on cement sheath during life of the well were not given due
consideration.
Now industry is concentrating not only on initial hydraulic annulus sealing but also on waning of
zonal isolation with time. Related studies of mechanical properties are of paramount
importance for wells planned for hydro-fracturing and thermal stimulation jobs which may
shatter cement sheath due to high stresses applied.
During hydro-fracturing as pressure increases inside the casing, it expands. Now due to casing
expansion, cement sheath also expands resulting into stress regime radially, tangentially and
axially (See fig no 5.6). If stresses developed inside cement sheath are more than its mechanical
strength, it fails. Therefore it is essential to find out the mechanical properties of cement sheath
to ensure its ability to sustain various expected pressure fluctuations in advance. Study of
mechanical properties and stress calculations help to optimize the cement slurry design.
Figure No. 5.6: Stresses on set cement sheath due to increase in Pressure (Left) and
decrease in pressure (Right) inside casing
Similarly during hermetical testing procedure, existing drilling fluid is replaced by water, a
negative head inside casing is created which resulted into casing deflation (See fig 5.6). Though
positive pressure during casing integrity testing is quit less in comparison to hydro-fracturing yet
introduction of negative pressure is critical and should be analyzed.
Formation mechanical properties also contributes towards cement sheath failure under high
pressure fluctuation. Soft formation with low Young’s modulus and high poison’s ratio deforms
easily under pressure and does not provide any back up support to cement sheath. Thus cement
may fail in tensile under Hoop stress if devoid of sufficient tensile strength.
On the other side hard formation with high Young’s modulus and low poison’s ratio does not
deforms easily under pressure and provides back up support to cement sheath. But in this case,
cement will face high radial compressive stresses and may fail in compression. As shown in
Graph no 5.1, stress regime shift from high in tensile to high in compression with increase of
formation Young’s Modulus. Hence an optimized cement slurry is required to design which can
fulfil all the condition of stresses and can withstand high pressure fluctuations. Therefore most
suitable cement slurry can be designed for any specific field if elastic properties of formation is
64
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
known. Elastic properties of formation can be evaluated by using Vp and Vs from DSI log.
However for most of the well it has been observed that cement design of normal specific gravity
with Young’s Modulus around 1.0 Mpsi or lower are suitable to withstand stresses induced
during testing/ hydro-fracturing.
Graph No-5.1: Effect of formation Young’s modulus on cement sheath induced stresses
(+ΔPi =6927 psi).
“-ve” =compressive stress and
“+ve”= tensile stress.
Hence, it is clear that cement compressive strength is not the only important mechanical
property, and that the cement’s elastic properties play a significant role in maintaining the
integrity of the cased wellbore. In most configurations, especially when the casing expands
because of pressure increase or temperature increase, elastic cements are the best solution.
Expanding and flexible cement must also have low Young’s moduli to be properly confined by
the rock and to play their role in preventing microannulus formation. To increase cement
flexural strength, addition of fibre, latex and rubberized compounds are added in suitable dose
in cement slurry. One such expanding flexible cement slurry is shown in Chapter no-6 at 6.4.
65
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
CHAPTER 6
Special Cements Formulations

As oil well cementing technology has advanced, special cement systems have been developed to
address specific problems. This chapter presents cement technologies specific to problems such
as thermal recovery well environment, lost circulation, micro-annuli and corrosive well
environments.
6.1 Pozzolanic Cement

Pozzolans are silicious materials, natural or artificial. The pozzolan cement blends can be
modified for use at all depths.
Fly ash, a combustion by-product of coal, is widely used in the oil industry as pozzolan. It has a
specific gravity of 2.3 to 2.7 depending upon the source.
Applications:
 Used primarily for casing jobs.
 May be used for squeezes and lost circulation plugs.
Advantages:
 Wide range of water ratios.
 Compatible with all cement additives. Produced predictable thickening time and
compressive strength.
 Can be used at all depths and temperatures.
 Highly sulphate resistant.
 Resist strength retrogression at high temperatures.
 Economical.
Limitation:
 Lower compressive strength than portland cement.
6.2 Pozzolan Lime Cement

Lime-silica slurries are known to form calcium silicate hydrates at higher temperature possessing
adequate cementation properties for oil well cementations. These type of slurries are easy to
retard, light weight, economical and stable at high temperatures.
6.3 Slag Cement

Finely ground granulated blast furnace slag after blending with oil well cement, can be used for
cementing oil and gas wells.
Slag cement 'G' compositions have been developed at IDT, which can be used for cementing
wells upto 200° C, using slag from Durgapur, Bhilai and Rourkela.
Advantages:
 Slag cement 'G' compositions developed, do not exhibit high temperature strength
retrogression as shown by class 'G' cement alone. This does not require addition of silica
flour.
 Addition of silica flour can further improve the strength, comparable to class 'G' cement
silica compositions.
66
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
 These compositions are compatible with conventional cement additives.

Better retardation is achieved even with low concentrations of retarder, as compared to
cement-silica flour compositions.
 More economical.
6.4 Expanding and Flexible Cement: Cement for long term integrity
Expanding cements are used to improve cement bonding to the pipe and formation during
primary cementing. When cement enters setting phase and hydration process accelerates, a
volumetric shrinkage up to 4.6% occurs in normal Portland cement. Loss of hydraulic seal due to
micro-channel caused by set cement volume shrinkage and cement bond deterioration due to
high stress regime on cement sheath during hydro-fracturing leads to unnecessary well
intervention and secondary cementation jobs. . Hence a cement system is required which does
not shrink during cement hydration phase as well as it should be flexible enough to absorb
pressure fluctuation like hydro-fracturing, pressure squeeze, perforation, hermetical testing etc.
A cement system is designed by blending suitable cement additives with high compressive and
tensile strength, low Young’s Modulus and high Poisson’s ratio (Table no-6.1, 6.2 & Fig No-6.1).
Table no-6.1: Expanding and Flexible Cement slurry compositions
Special Specific Detail of cement slurry design (Additives dose is by

additive* Gravity weight of cement).
(g/cc)
Expanding 1.96 Cement-100% + Water-48.3% + Silica Flour-35% +
agent + Expanding Agent-3.0% + Anti settling agent-0.5% +
Fibre + FM Fiber-0.1% + Fluid loss-0.5% + Friction reducer-0.1% +
Retarder- 1.2%+ Flexible material (FM)- 0.1% +
Defoamer-3.0%
Table No-6.2: Mechanical properties of cement samples
Compressive Expansion Tensile Shear Young’s Poison’s

strength (PSI) (%) Strength Strength Modulus-Y Ratio-
(PSI) (PSI) (MPSI)
4375 2.0 636 294 1.2 0.35
67
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Fig no-6.1: Expanding and Flexible cement system mechanical properties
This cement slurry has been successfully field implemented in well# NDSGA for 9⅝’’ casing
cementation and in well#GNDGP_Z for 7’’ production casing of Ankleshwar Asset (Fig 6.2 & 6.3).
Application:
 Besides primary cementing, it is useful in squeeze operations lo help seal off
perforations or holes in pipe.
Advantages:
 It expands rapidly upon setting, improving bonding.
 An effective tool for eliminating gas migration due to micro annulus.
 Compatible with fluid loss additives.
Limitation:
 Conventional, retarders and elevated temperatures (> 200°F BHCT) have a detrimental
effect on the expansive properties.
68
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Fig no-6.2: Expanding and Flexible cement system Field Implementation in

Well # NDSGA (9⅝’’ Intermediate Casing)
Fig no-6.3: Expanding and Flexible cement system Field Implementation in

Well # GNDGP_Z (7’’ Production casing)
69
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
6.5 Thixotropic Cement

Used primarily for cementing lost circulation zones and squeeze operations. They are usually
blends of portland cement, and suitable sulphates.
Additional Applications:
 Can be used to cement casing to eliminate staging.
 Seal off permeable zones.
 Reduce gas cutting or prevent fall back.
Advantages:
 May be used to 240°F BHCT.
 Wide sp. gravity ranges.
 Self-supporting.
 Gels when pumping stops.
 Early compressive strength.
 Helps solve lost circulation problems.
 Can be accelerated with CaCl2.
Limitations:
 Conventional lignosulphonate retarders destroy the thixotropic properties.
 High fluid loss.
 Gel cannot be broken after excessive shutdown time during cementing operations.
6.6 Cementing Compositions for Geothermal and Thermal Recovery Wells .
High temperature cementing compositions, Lime-magnesia-silica and Lime-alumina-silica
systems, have been reported in use for geothermal and fire flooded wells.
High alumina cement, is widely used because of its greater resistance to thermal shock and can
withstand wide - ranging temperature fluctuations (1200°C)
Advantages:
 Resist strength retrogression with silica flour (upto 300°C); crushed alumino-silicate fire
brick, perlite (temp. > 300°C).
 Rapid compressive strength development with low permeability.
 Resist corrosive water.
 Provide more efficient thermal insulation, with perlite.
Limitations:
 Require larger concentration of retarder.
 More expensive than standard cements.
6.7 Light weight Cementing Compositions for Cyclic Steam Stimulation Thermal
Recovery Wells
“Cyclic steam stimulation”, or “huff n’ puff” is the most widely used steam injection method for
heavy oil recovery; its popularity derives from quick return. There are three stages of CSS - in first
stage steam is injected in the reservoir at a high rate and high pressure for a period of three to
four weeks thereafter in 2nd stage well is closed for few days in soaking of steam for heat
distribution in the reservoir. In third stage well is allowed to flow heated oil and condensed steam
till its production declines to artificial lift (Figure no-6.4). The steam cycles are optimized for
repetition of cycle after a fixed period among the producing wells.
70
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
At present, mainly steam injection process

for heavy oil recovery is applied particularly
in Venezuela, California and Canada.
Recently, Lanwa field of Mehsana (Gujarat-
India) has been proposed for CSS project
wherein a temperature rise upto 350°C is
expected. Proposed field has loss history
during cementation with composition
discussed at 6.6. Light weight and thermally
stable cement system with adequate
compressive strength is the requirement for
these field. One such cement slurry has
been formulated by blending light weight
thermally stable microspheres (shown in
table no-6.3).
Fig no-6.4 : Cyclic Steam Stimulation (CSS)
Process
Table no-6.3:Composition and properties of 1.50 sg cement slurry tested at 75 & 350°C @
3000 psi
Component % BWOC Properties Result
Cement 100 Thickening time 148
Water 125 (Minute)
ID9 25 Initial Consistency (BC) 17
(Light weight thermally API Fluid Loss 68
stable cement (ml/30minute)
additive) Rheology (n’/k’ in 0.827/0.441
Silica Flour Fine 40 Pa.s^n)
Metakaoline 25 Free Fluid (%) Nil
Grpahite 15 Compressive strength 2590
Fluid Loss 1.0 after exposure to 350°C
Friction Reducer 0.5 (PSI)
Anti-settling Agent 0.4 Tensile Strength (PSI) 429
Young’s Modulus 0.59
Defoamer 0.1
(Mega PSI)
Poisson’s Ratio 0.31
Stability Stable
Permeability (m Darcy) 0.065
Advantages:
 Resist strength retrogression under temperature cycling upto 350°C.
 Due to light weight, suitable for depleted reservoir.
 Inspite of low SG, good compressive strength development with low permeability.
 Single cement system replaces lead + tail thermal blend and associated storage
inconvenience. Hence this cement slurry can be used for all steam injection wells.
Limitations:
 Homogeneous dry blending require due care.
71
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
6.8 Cement system for corrosive environment of CO2

Carbonate reservoirs are often characterized by high pressure and high content of H2S and CO2.
For these reasons, drilling the reservoir is the most challenging activity of such fields and long-
term zonal isolation across the reservoir section is one of the primary requirements. These both
gases carbon dioxide (CO2) is a common element in downhole fluids, whether naturally
occurring in ground waters or the result of CO2 injection processes. When CO2 comes into
contact with the Portland cement that is used to cement well casings, it produces a
deterioration phenomenon in the cement called carbonation can cause serious damage to
downhole tubular and destroy zonal isolation integrity, resulting in costly remedial services or
even abandonment of a well.
CO2 downhole generally falls within two categories— dry CO2, which is a result of carbon
capture and sequestration (CCS) activities, and wet CO2, which accounts for naturally formed
CO2. This CO2 in the wellbore is exposed to residual moisture and free water in the wellbore and
forms carbonic acid, as illustrated in Eq. 1. The portlandite and C-S-H phases of cement
subsequently react with carbonic acid to precipitate calcium carbonate, shown in Eq. 2 & 3. The
reactions of C-S-H phase with carbonic acid and bicarbonate ion are not thermodynamically
favoured compared to the reaction of the acids with portlandite. This is the first stage of the
process of carbonation where portlandite phase of cement reacts with carbonic acid to form
calcium carbonate. The formation of calcium carbonate causes densification of the cement
matrix because of the increase in mass in the same volume of solid set cement. This increases
strength and hardness, and decreases permeability, thereby limiting the rate of diffusion.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
Depending on the prevailing temperature and pressure, calcium carbonate (CaCO3) exists in
different forms. These include calcite, aragonite, vaterite and ikaite. However, calcite is the most
thermodynamically stable form at low temperature and is the most expected polymorph of
CaCO3.The carbonation is of significant concern if the CO2 enters the cemented annulus. The
surface area of the cement sheath that contacts CO2 should be minimized to help prevent
carbonation. This can be achieved by reducing the permeability of cement, preventing the
formation of cracks and micro-annulus, and reducing the components in the cement sheath
prone to attack from CO2.
The second step of carbonation of cement is a long term process. In case of long term exposure
to carbonic acid, or if the carbonic acid is refreshed, the calcium carbonate formed in the first
step further reacts with the acid to produce a more soluble product, calcium bicarbonate. This
reaction results in increased porosity, permeability, and loss of overall mechanical integrity. This
can lead to inefficient or even potential loss of zonal isolation in extreme cases. Eq. 7 illustrates
this mechanism.
72
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
(6)
(7)
The rate of carbonation is controlled by several parameters such as temperature, pressure,

cement formulation, CO2 partial pressure. Moderate carbonation can be beneficial for cement
porosity and permeability, since it forms CaCO3 that plugs the pores of the cement and acts as a
protective layer that limits further ingress of dissolved CO2. However, extensive carbonation can
result in the loss of structural integrity.
During experimentation of cement samples exposure to CO2, it has been observed that, cement
slurries with better particle packing and low porosity & permeability show least impact. Particle
packing can be done by blending small, medium & larger size additives like Silica Fume, Latex, fly
ash and Silica flour fine etc. in suitable doses.
One such design is prepared as follows;
Table no-6.4: Cement slurry design with better particle packing

Cement Water S.Flour S.Fume Fluid Dispersant Retarder Anti Defoamer
(Fine) Loss settling
additive Agent
100 48 35 5 0.4 0.6 0.3 0.1 0.1
Table no-6.5: XRD results Before and after exposure to CO2 environment @ 170 Deg C
Sl.NO SAMPLE DETAILS QUARTZ CALCITE MAGNESITE
(%) (%) (%)
1 Before Exposure 60.9 21.56 17.54

2 After Exposure 59.26 22.91 17.83
Results above shows no significant phase change in cement sample after one month period
exposure to CO2 at 170°C temperature.
6.9 Cementing solutions for loss prone fields and depleted reservoir:
Cementation in loss prone fields and depleted reservoir has always been a challenging task. To
avoid cement slurry contamination, density hierarchy has to be maintained. Hence cement
slurry density is kept always more than drilling fluid density. Due to presence of cement slurry,
annulus pressure head increases which makes situation worst if already losses are encountered
due to low formation strength in depleted reservoir. Under this situation well security
management is very difficult. Hence every efforts are to be made to stop the loss prior to
cementation.
In case of vugs and channels in formation, loss control by conventional LCM pills is very difficult.
Drilling and cementing is performed without any fluid return.
Cementation is executed in loss prone depleted reservoir under two circumstances:-
1. To handle the losses during drilling before reaching the target depth.
2. Primary cementation after well is drilled under loss condition and casing is lowered.
6.9.1 During drilling & before reaching target depth if losses are encountered and are not
controlled, following three proved solutions are designed:-
73
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
 Rapid Setting Fluid (RSF) Pill.

 Cross-linked Polymeric Gel.
 Microbubble light weight cement slurry
6.9.2Rapid Setting Fluid Pill: RSF pill is developed as temperature activated pill from
indigenously available chemicals. It can be used for curing lost circulation and formation
strengthening. It is chemically stable up to 140 Deg C (284 Deg F). RSF pill is an excellent
techno-economic solution for curing losses, both in producing and non-producing reservoir
zones. RSF pill can be formulated and placed easily against loss zones by conventional balanced
plug method. The smaller particle size makes it easy to pump through any BHA as a single pill.
Average cost of RSF pill is around 1.25 to 1.50 Lakhs for 50 bbl (8.0 m 3). RSF pill is easily soluble
with acid within 90 to 120 minutes.
Ingredients:
1) Dead Burnt Magnesite (DBM),
2) Magnesium Sulphate,
3) Boric Acid as retarder.
4) Filler material as MCC and/ or Wollastonite fibres.
Properties:-
 Enough compressive strength (around 200 psi in 6.0 hours).
Fig No-6.5: RSF Pill molds
 Non damaging (as 90-100% acid soluble). after set
 Density less than cement plug.
 No effect on setting time by contamination i.e. high resistance.
 Rapid, right angle and controllable setting.
 Short WOP (Waiting on Pill setting).
 Zero shrinkage.
 Ease of drill-ability.
Field Implementation: It has been successfully implemented in MR wells

1. N-12#3Z @ 1935-40m: Two RSF pills were executed to control dynamic losses from 50
bbl/hour to 3 bbl/ hour.
2. HG#6H @ 780-880m: Single RSF pill was executed to control dynamic losses from 150
bbl/hour to NIL.
6.9.3 Cross-linked Polymeric Gel Pill: Cross-linked polymer gel used as LCM provides circulation
lost control while drilling. This gel pill is preferably used in non-producing zones. Gelation
process is completed in 100 -120 minutes. In case longtime is required, retarder can be added to
get the sufficient placement time. This polymeric cross linked rigid gel provides sufficient
pressure barrier to allow circulating fluid to develop filter cake against formation. As this gel
does not gain any strength, hence after placement, it is followed by fibre based light weight
cement slurry for capping action.
Ingredients:
1. High molecular weight PHPA / Alcoflood 935– (0.8% to 1.1%)
2. Sodium Chloride- 0.5%
3. Sodium Thiosulphate- 2000 ppm
74
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
4. Calcium Chloride-0.2%
5. HMTA -0.5%
6. Hydroquinone – 0.3 to 0.4%.
Properties:-
 Polymeric gel is stable for long time.
 Maintains fluidity.
 Cross-linking process starts above 45-55 deg C and is
completed in 90-120 minutes. Gelation time: 4-5 hours.
 Gel sticks to formation and is malleable in nature.
 15 % acid can disintegrates the gel matrix.
 Sp. Gr. 1.04.
 It is chemically stable up to 100 deg C.
6.9.4 Microbubble light weight cement slurry: micro-bubble Fig no-6.6: Cross link gel Pill
light weight cement slurry has designed with indigenously after placement in vugs/
available surfactants. In spite of low density this slurry provides channels
with adequate compressive strength. It is compatible with API
class G cement and with most cement additives.
Normal cement slurry (1.90 g/cc) travels downwards against cavernous/ vugs and unable to seal
loss zone. Microbubble cement slurry does not spread against channel due to light weight &
gelation properties and hence seal cavernous/ vugs as shown in figure 6.7.
Ingredient:
1. Cement-100%
2. Water-44%
3. Surfactant- 0.5 to 1.0%
If this cement slurry is to be used at temperature more than 60 Deg C, suitable retarder dose
may be used. Being light in weight, this cement slurry reduces significant pressure head in
annulus in comparison to normal cement slurry. During preparation, first normal cement slurry
of 1.90 SG is prepared and stirred in batch mixture. Surfactant is added to cement slurry as per
slurry design to achieve desired specific gravity.
Fig no-6.7: Comparison of normal cement slurry with Micro-bubble cement slurry in terms
of spread against channels.
75
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Table no-6.6: Following are few combination of designed Microbubble cement slurry:-
Composition Sp. Gr. Compressive strength
Cement-100% + Water-44% + Dispersant- 1.40 1000 psi in 96 hours
0.2% + Retarder-0.2% + Surfactant-0.5%
Cement-100% + Water-70% + Silica Fume- 1.40 1500 psi in 24 hours
35% + Dispersant-0.2% + Retarder-0.2% +
Surfactant-0.5%
Cement-100% + Water-50% + Dispersant- 1.25 500 psi in 24 hours
0.5% + Latex-5% + Metakaoline-10% +
Surfactant-1.5%
Field Implementation: It has been field implemented in well # NMAB of Cauvery Asset. 1.5 m3
cement slurry of specific gravity 1.20 g/cc was used near cellar at around 12m to stop high
seepage losses. At depth 1038m, observed static loss of 7.5 m3/ hour. Pumped 5.0 m3 micro-
bubble cement slurry of specific gravity 1.50 g/cc. After WOC no static loss was observed. If high
compressive strength is not the requirement, this slurry can be used for primary cementing as
next phase drilling requires only 500 psi compressive strength.
6.10 Primary cementation after well is drilled under loss condition and casing is lowered:
Once the well is drilled up to target depth and casing is lowered, primary cementation has to be
executed. The most desirable parameter for primary cementation is good compressive strength
(preferably more than 2000 psi) for proper zonal isolation. Generally higher the cement slurry
weight higher the compressive strength. But due to depleted reservoir, normal weight (1.90
g/cc) cement slurry cannot be used. Hence achieving good compressive strength with light
weight cement slurry is very challenging. Following light weight cement slurry options are
suggested for depleted reservoir.
1. Light weight cement slurry using PVC and silica fume.
2. Light weight cement slurry using hollow glass sphere (HGS)
6.10.1 Light weight cement slurry using PVC and silica (13 ppg) – Slurry Design for CBM
wells:
PVC is a thermoplastic material which consists of PVC resin compounded with varying properties
of stabilizers, lubricants, fillers, pigments, plasticizers and processing aids. Different compounds
of these ingredients have been developed to obtain specific group of properties for different
applications. However the main compound is PVC resin and with these properties PVC resin can
be used in formulation of light weight cement slurries. Light weight cement slurry of 12 - 13 ppg
was prepared and field implemented in various ONGC wells with good results. The yield of slurry
is 2 m3/MT and the cost was 1.56 times less than slurry using HGS.
Ingredients:
1. Cement -100 %
2. Water – 100%
3. PVC- 70%
4. Silica Fume- 35%
5. Fluid loss control additive-0.8%
76
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
6. Dispersant- 1.2%
7. Defoamer – 0.1%
Above cement slurry exhibits a good compressive strength of 2200 psi in 24 hours and all the
parameter of cement slurry are within desired range. This cement slurry is well proven field
implemented.
Implementation:
Following are the details of well of CBM Asset where PVC + Silica Fume based light weight
cement slurry is used.
Table no-6.7: PVC based Cement Slurry Field Implementation

Sl No Name of Well Drill Specific gravity of Specific gravity of
Well Depth (M) Cement Slurry (g/cc) Cement Slurry (ppg)
01 RNAA 953 1.46 12.16
02 SKAC 1088 1.46 12.16
03 SKAB 1038 1.46 12.16
04 SKAA 1012 1.46 12.16
05 NKAC 996 1.46 12.16
06 NKAD 1015 1.46 12.16
07 JH#1A 1158 1.46 12.16
08 RNAB 1116 1.46 12.16
09 BKAI 676 1.46 12.16
10 JHAR 1144 1.46 12.16
11 JHAJ 935 1.46 12.16
12 #UNDP-3 - 1.46 12.16
6.10.2 Light weight cement slurry using Hollow Glass micro-Sphere (HGS)-13 PPG:
Hollow Glass Microspheres are a manufactured product from borosilicate glass, which obtain a
high strength-to-weight ratio, providing greater survivability under down-hole pressure. The
beads are manufactured to achieve near perfect sphericity and predictable crush ratings, the
most commonly used being 2000, 3000, 4000, 5000, 6000, 10,000 and 18,000 psi nominal crush
resistances. For cement slurry design in ONGC, IDT has used HGS 5000. This light weight cement
slurry uses HGS 5000*, Metakaolin and Silica Fume as aggregates. The yield of slurry is 1.4
m3/MT and ~1.56 times costlier than the PVC-Silica Fume slurry.
Ingredients:
1. Cement -100 %
2. Water – 70%
3. Metakaoline- 10%
4. Silica Fume- 10%
5. HGS 5000 – 12%
6. Fluid loss control additive -1.0%
7. Dispersant – 0.6%
8. Low temperature retarder- 0.5%
9. Gas Stop additive– 0.2%
10. Defoamer – 0.2%
A compressive strength of 3250 psi in 24 hours is recorded by crush method and all the
parameter of cement slurry are within desired range.
77
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
6.11 Other technical methods to control loss in depleted reservoir during cementation:
 External Casing Packers may be positioned in the casing string directly above a lost
circulation zone. The packer effectively prevents the loss of cement slurries into the lost
circulation zone. For these applications, a second stage cementing operation is normally
performed above the ECP, after setting the packer.
 In case any intermediate liner is lowered to cover depleted formation layer (e.g. Bassein
formation is proposed to cover by intermediate liner to reach up to Panna), it should be
lowered with top packer seal as cement rise up to liner hanger is not assured. After
cementation job first check the integrity at liner hanger top, proceed further if found OK,
otherwise seal the hanger top by a cement squeeze job prior to drill the landing collar.
After drilling landing collar, check the shoe integrity. If found OK, proceed for next phase
drilling otherwise improve the shoe integrity by a cement squeeze job.
 In case of loss situation, extra volume of cement slurry may be planned based on actual
loss rate at the time of final mud conditioning.
 In case complete loss situation where cement rise even with light weight cement slurry is
not assured, use of hybrid swellable packer is suggested. Hybrid swellable packer in the
annulus section avoids any futuristic annulus charging from formation fluid.
6.12 Cement slurry design for low temperature environment of deep sea surface
casing
Deepwater environments are challenging for cementation because the seafloor temperature are
low (approx. 3 - 4 °C) and the weak formations require lightweight cement slurries. Cementation
of conductor casing in deep water require special slurries. Cement slurry need to be accelerated
and simultaneously of sufficiently low density.
Further cement slurry properties needed are short transition times, low fluid loss and an
acceptable rate of strength development, much as when dealing with annular gas flow potential.
Low temperatures slows the cement hydration process and extend transition times, which
allows fluid influx.
The simplest means for density reduction is the addition of water, along with extenders (e.g.
bentonite / sodium or potassium silicates / diatomaceous earth). This process is economical, but
it degrades ultimate cement performance in proportion to the amount of excess added water.
Density reduction with water along with extenders like bentonite results in unacceptable
permeability and low compressive strength. Adequate / mandatory compressive strength
development requires extended WOC, which reflects in higher rig costs.
Considering above factors, a light weight cement slurry of 12.5 ppg for deep sea environment is
designed by using following additives:-
Test Conditions:
Sp. Gr. of slurry BHST, 0C BHCT, 0C BHP, psi RT, min
12.5 ppg 24 20 2250 15
78
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Composition % BWOC:
Water HGS Micro Fly Gas Stop Halad 344 CFR-3 D-Air
4000 Ash (PH) (PH) (PH) 3500L
(PB)
7.44 8 10 0.58 0.3 0.2 0.02
Gal/sac
k
Results:
Thickening Initial Fluid Loss Pv/ Yp Compressive Gas Free
Time BC (ml/30 strength tight Fluid
(Minute) minute) after 24 hrs Charact
er
505 10 52 143.48/8.68 987 psi Yes Nil
SGSA Chart
Tail slurry of 15.8 ppg with 0.5% accelerator (CaCl2), TT-291 min covering about 100-150m is
pumped.
6.13 Cement slurry design for HPHT wells and special considerations
The most common HPHT definition is when bottom hole temperature exceeds 300°F (149°C)
and/ or bottom hole pressure exceeds 10,000 psi. Cementation of HPHT wells encounters a wide
range of unique challenges like;
79
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
I. Narrow formation window (pore pressure and fracture strength margin),

II. Pipe movement not possible,
III. Low displacement rate causing cement contamination and improper mud removal,
IV. High density fluids to be used,
V. Limited HPHT cement additives with high temperature sensitivity,
VI. Rig cost high and tripping speed may be very low,
VII. Limitation of logging tools and reliability of data,
VIII. Rig equipment elastomers limitation,
IX. Production temperature causing tubing and well head elongation,
X. Unconventional well design resulting into narrow annulus (11 ¾ ‘’ X 9⅝’’) and high ECD,
XI. Well ballooning due to clastic nature of formations during dynamic condition,
XII. Casing integrity/ hermetical testing after cement set can be very detrimental to cement
sheath etc. to name a few.
In HPHT well, cement rise above liner top should be avoided. Longer liner overlap section may
be planned for conventional liner hanger for achieving hermeticity at hanger top. Use of
expandable liner hanger is always better option as it facilitates reciprocation and rotation of
string till cement displacement. In conventional liner hanger there is a possibility of leakage at
hanger top which requires cement squeeze job for isolation whereas in expandable liner hanger
there is no possibility of hanger top leakage.
In view of above challenges in HPHT condition, following steps needs to be carefully planned/
executed:-
1. The Planning Process
2. Slurry Design
3. Spacer Design
6.13.1 The Planning Process

6.13.1.1 Casing Eccentricity
a) Proper Directional survey and four arms caliper are recommended to determine a
proper centralizer placement in critical wells.
b) Generally, for casing centralization, 70% standoff is considered as the minimum
requirement to have good cement bond as per the latest guidelines.
6.13.1.2 Temperature estimation
In HPHT wells, simulation should be carried out to accurately predict the BHCT from BHST for
correct assessment of thickening time. Temperature attainment with time from simulation
should be used for evaluating compressive strength. The more data and modelling, the
better the most likely temperatures can be bracketed and the appropriate lab designs
chosen.
6.13.1.3 Mud Removal
Mud removal planning is crucial in achieving proper cement placement and strong cement
bond in HPHT wells. The plans include the
a) Thoroughly circulate the well for cutting removal before lowing of the casing. Surge/swab
model should be run on simulator to calculate suitable casing lowering speed and mud
properties. Condition the drilling fluid to lower the mud viscosity to permissible limit
80
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
before pull out of the drill string. This will reduce effect of surge/swab while casing/liner
lowering and reciprocation.
b) Break gel intermittently during casing lowering. After casing lowering, reach stepwise up
to planned circulation rate and plot graph between pressure v/s discharge rate, mud
properties.
c) Circulate well at planned circulation rate for 2 to 3 times of well volume to lower BHCT.
d) Time gap between end of circulation and start of cement job should be minimum.
e) The important factors to achieve a good mud removal are: (a) Improving pipe stand-off,
(b) increasing Pv/Yp ratio, (c) decreasing mud gel strength, and (d) increasing flow rate.
f) Use of pre-flush/ chemical wash/ spacer ahead of slurry to act as a buffer between
possibly incompatible mud and cement. To avoid slurry contamination, at least 200m
(650 ft) of spacer ahead and 50m (170 ft) behind cement slurry to be maintained for
separation from mud during displacement. Difference between spacer and mud
densities and cement and spacer densities should be around 10%. To get effective flow,
minimum of 1.33 m/sec annular velocity should be considered. However in case of
HPHT wells, it is not possible to achieve 1.33 m/sec annular velocity always, hence
rheological hierarchy of well fluids should be optimized at feasible discharge rate by
using software simulation.
6.13.1.4 Cementing Computer Program
Cementing operation could be optimized by simulating it first in cementing computer
program. It will give an overview of the proper flow pump sequence, pumping schedule
(include stage timing, flow rate, volume for each fluid, worse depth scenario regarding
collapse and burst), and centralizer placement. It also gives ECD predictions and the efficient
displacement rate. The program can give illustrations of pore and fracture pressure window,
which help in deciding the best slurry density, drilling fluid conditioning, spacer, lead or tail
slurry etc.
In critical well conditions, set cement sheath characteristics should be analyzed using
advanced software. The software can quantify the risk of wellbore set cement sheath failure
by applying stress analysis and sensitization criteria. The software analysis of radial and
tangential stresses can determine cement sheath performance in compression, tension or
both, enabling the design of the set cement behind the casing.
6.13.1.5 Contingency Planning:
 Make sure that contingency slurries are developed as the well progresses. Setting any
casing at deeper depth can have a profound effect on the slurry design due to increased
temperature and pressure condition and may take a week of lab testing if pilot studies
are not already underway.
 As contingency plan, Lab testing to obtain a suitable Kick-off plug/ plug designs for shoe
squeezes should be made available.
6.13.2 Slurry Design
Cement slurry system, pre-flush and spacer should be designed and tested in the laboratory to fit
the objective of the cementing job. When mixing slurry, laboratory testing needs to be run to
ensure right slurry properties at surface and down-hole conditions. Mixing sequence/ technique
need to be followed since some of the additives are sensitive to shear. In general retarder should
be blended just before the job. Laboratory tests simulated at appropriate period of ambient
81
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
pressure and temperature to provide proper mixing energy. The slurry should be tested ± 50°F
(10°C) from targeted BHCT (Bottom Hole Circulation Temperature).
Key areas to be considered in designing an HPHT cement slurry are:
• Bulk cement sampling
• Temperature
• Cement selection
• Additive selection:
 Retarder
 Fluid Loss Aid
 Silica
 Weighting Agent
 Gas Migration Control
• Slurry Sensitivity
6.13.2.1 Bulk Cement Sampling:

HT wells will require silica, most commonly dry blended silica flour.
For lab testing, samples should be collected from three sources viz.,
(i) individual samples of cement and silica,
(ii) sample taken from the bulk blending plant and
(iii) samples brought back from the rig
The samples should be properly packed (Containers must be moisture proof and airtight, full
and uncontaminated by anything) with the lids marked with well name, date etc.
6.13.2.2 Temperature
Accurate temperature prediction for cement slurry design is of paramount importance. For
detail of this topic refer 3.2 of chapter Slurry design and testing of cement.
6.13.2.3 Cement selection
High temperature cementing jobs are generally performed with API Class G or Class H cement.
Wherever possible in HPHT cementing, a recognized high quality well cement with a track
record at such conditions should be used.
Cements with non-linear response to retarder concentration should be avoided. Cement
properties and response to cement additives varies from batch to batch/manufacturer to
manufacturer. The cement lot destined for HPHT job must be identified and set aside for
intended use.
The API Specification does not address suitability for HT conditions. For slurry density > 2.1 SG
(17.5 ppg) at BHST above 300 DegF (149 DegC), the reactivity of some cements can make the
slurry very difficult to retard at high temperature and difficult to disperse thereby affecting
slurry rheology and amount of weighting agent required to create a pumpable slurry.
6.13.2.4 Additive Selection

A) Retarder (Thickening Time)
Proper amounts of retarder must be blended with the cement. In deep wells, differential static
temperature between top and bottom of cement column can exceed 100°F (55 DegC). Retarder
has varying sensitivity levels to temperature. Hence, small temperature difference can cause
82
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
significant changes in thickening time. Higher dose may delay the setting process which in turn
may lead the entry of gas into the cement in high pressure wells. For extreme temperature
conditions, thickening time for a cement lot should be measured with ±5% of the retarder
concentration. Variance in thickening time due to concentration sensitivity should be within
acceptable for safe cement job execution.
B) Fluid Loss Control
Maintaining constant fluid loss in HPHT well is necessary to preserve the chemical and physical
characteristic of the cement slurry, especially due to high hydrostatic pressure in deep wells. On
the other hand, it needs to prevent the development of filter cake that could cause bridging in
the annulus. Fluid loss is crucial, especially in deep wells having narrow clearance between
wellbore and liner/casing.
For high temperature application, the latex based fluid loss additives are widely used, the
advantage being that latex does not viscosify adversely.
The design criteria for fluid loss control for HPHT cementing operation are linked to dynamic
filtration rather than static filtration. Conditioning with stirred fluid loss cell is preferred.
Recommended API Fluid Loss (For HTHP wells) < 50 ml/ 30 min
C) Silica
Above 230°F (110 degC) BHST, commonly used Portland cement undergo retrogression
phenomenon (i.e. it loses strength and gain permeability, which can be minimized/ prevented
by adding at least 35 % silica.
In HPHT wells, changes in down hole temperature and pressure in later stage can crack or even
shatter the cement sheath; radial pressure/temperature fluctuations can create a micro
annulus. To avoid such failures high temperature flexible cement having lower Young’s modulus
should be used. Suitable expanding agent along with flexible additive provides desirable
characteristics to set cement. Use of blend of Class G cement with 40% silica flour, prevents
mechanical strength retrogression and also provides retardation property.
Two forms of silica are normally available:
• Silica flour (fine)
• Silica sand (coarse)
The concentration of silica added to cement should be 35-40%.
Silica flour must be pre-blended with the cement. Where large slurry volumes are to be
pumped, pre-blended silica is only practical option.
Pre-blending of silica with cement adds a significant risk as the bulk is often not fully
homogeneous and sampling errors can occur. With subsequent transfers, the blend becomes
more homogeneous. However, it may undergo some changes (aeration) due to moisture in the
compressed air transfer system. Therefore, samples taken from a blend at the yard may not
match those taken at the rig. Variation in the flour content of a blend can impact the retarder
response. Silica sand should not be used if temperatures exceeding 572°F [300°C] are
anticipated. Because of changes in the crystalline structure, thermal expansion of quartz is
relatively high at these temperatures, and thermal cycling could eventually disrupt the cement.
Thermally stable cement system like High Alumina cement may be used beyond 300°C.
D) Weighing Agents
It is crucial to maintain hydrostatic pressure in the well to balance or exceed the formation
pressure. Cement slurry with density over 16.5 ppg (1.98 SG) require weighing agents such as
hematite, tri-manganese tetra oxide.
83
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
E) Gas Migration Control:

It is very important to control the flow of influx after cementing for deeper high pressure oil and
gas wells. Most of the gas channeling in cement column occurs during a transition period from
liquid to solid, adding latex additives help to delay cement pore pressure drop and shortened
transition time between liquid and solid stage.
To prevent gas migration, slurry modification can be done by decreasing fluid loss, extend zero
gel time, reduce transition time adding gas influx preventing material and increase slurry
compressibility. Job design changes could be done by decreasing effective column height,
increasing overbalance pressure, interfering with gelation process and drilling a larger diameter
hole. Static Gel Strength Analyzer (SGSA) is utilized to evaluate the transition time in cement
slurry.
6.13.2.5 Slurry Sensitivity
In most cases additives for HPHT slurries are being used at the upper end of their design limits.
As a consequence the slurry properties are much more likely to be influenced by changes in:
• temperature
• mixing/shear
• mix water
• Slurry Stability
• density
• Sensitivity testing (additional TT test to the expected conditions). The impact of each of
these on the slurry design should be assessed.
i) Sensitivity to Temperature:
Once BHCT has been determined, the thickening time of slurry should be obtained for 10°C
higher than BHCT. The compressive strength should also be determined for a test
temperature 10°C lower, or at BHST at liner top whichever is less. If no set is seen in 36
hours retarder selection should be re-addressed.
ii) Mixing / Shear
Cement slurry properties can be affected by both the time they are held on surface after
mixing and the mixing energy they receive.
When a slurry is designed for an HPHT application, batch mixing time should be considered
while evaluating thickening time. Some cements have been shown to have 6 hour pump
times at high temperature but to exhibit significant viscosity rise when held at low
temperature and pressure. Any rise in consistency above 30 Bc during this surface
conditioning should be redesigned.
iii) Mix water:
Long time waiting on cement job arrangement after chemical mix water preparation may
reduce its effectiveness and thus may change cement slurry properties. To prevent ageing
of mix water, it should be prepared just prior to cement job.
Always use weighing balance / calibrated bucket for accurate cement additive measuring
at well site.
iv) Cement slurry Stability
• Conditioning in HPHT consistometer or cured in HPHT curing chamber
• If well deviation is below 15 deg - Free Fluid test is run vertical
84
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
• If well deviation is above 15 deg - Free Fluid test is run at 45 deg

• Free Fluid = Zero
• (Static) Sedimentation test: less than 5 % deviation from theoretical cement slurry
density
• Dynamic Settling Test: The SG of cement is measured from the top, middle and bottom
of the BP settling tube after the cement has set.
• Consistency spike after motor shut off: below 70 Bc, Also simulates dropping the top
plug or the shutdown period prior to sting-out of the liner and circulate/reverse
circulate.
v) Density
The slurry should be pumped after checking with a pressurized mud balance (calibrated at
the appropriate range).
vi) Sensitivity testing (additional TT test to the expected conditions):
• At maximum BHCT
• Minimum BHST for the compressive strength at top of the liner
• Minus 5% retarder concentration or 0.02 gps whichever is greater (Same for
retarder aids)
• Plus 5% retarder concentration or 0.02 gps whichever is greater (Same for
retarder aids)
• Plus 0.25 Ib/gal slurry density
• Minus 0.25 lb/gal slurry density
Design cement slurry for thickening time equal to: Surface mixing time/batch mix time +
placement time + time to pull running tool clear of the liner top (In case of liner) + 60
minute safety.
Test slurry for minus 5% retarder concentration. If TT is sufficient to pull running tool clear
of the liner top (In case of liner) + 60 minute safety, design is OK, else reconsider retarder
dose.
6.13.2.5 Spacer Design

In HPHT wells, both water and emulsion spacers (with OBM) have been used. The main areas of
concern with spacer design are:
• spacer stability
• rheology
• compatibility
1. Spacer Stability
The ability of the spacer to support the weighting agent on surface and under down-hole
conditions should be confirmed. This is particularly critical where pore and fracture gradient
margins result in spacer density being very close to mud weight. Prior to pumping, the
density should be confirmed with a pressurized mud balance.
The down-hole stability should be assessed using hot roller for temperature/ HPHT
consistometer slurry cup for pressure and temperature condition after leaving for a
minimum of 1 hour.
85
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
2. Spacer Rheology
In many cases the ability to achieve turbulent flow of the spacer, or a density hierarchy
between the spacer and the drilling fluid is compromised, due to the small difference
between pore and fracture pressures, rheology of the spacer and pipe movement will be
the only available methods for achieving good mud displacement.
To optimize spacer rheology it should be determined at simulated down-hole temperatures
(along with the mud) to ensure effective mud displacement. Spacer rheology should
preferably be 20% higher than mud rheology and 20% less than cement slurry rheology.
Surface rheology measurement should also be taken to provide a quality control step on
the rig.
3. Spacer Compatibility
It is critical that the compatibility of the spacer is confirmed with both the mud and the
cement. Using a range of mixtures (as a minimum 95/5, 75/25, 50/50, 25/75, 5/95), the
rheology should be determined at BHCT. In the absence of HPHT rheometer, It is advised
to condition the spacer in HPHT consistometer at BHCT & cool down to 88°C for measuring
its rheology.
10 minute gels should also be included. If the 100 rpm of admixtures is 25% greater than
the highest 100 rpm reading of the uncontaminated fluids, the spacer design should be
reviewed. If plastic viscosity/yield point or 10 minute gels suggest the slurry may become
un-pumpable, or separate into one or more phases, the spacer design should be changed.
In addition, the thickening time & compressive strength of the cement with spacer
contamination in the ratio of 90:10 must be determined.
Oil-based drilling fluids pose additional problems during cementing operations compared
to Water based muds because they frequently exhibit poor interfacial compatibility with
water-based fluids. There is a potential to form interfacial mixtures that can be extremely
viscous and non pumpable. An oil film remaining on the pipe surface from the drilling fluid
can hinder a good cement-to-pipe bond.
For Oil based muds the Spacer Surfactant screening test should be performed using a
wettability tester as per latest API 10B 2.
Few cement slurries design for HPHT wells along with parameters under different temperature
and pressure conditions are shown below;
HPHT Cement slurry Design 1:

Test Conditions:
2.10 175 150 10,000 50

Composition % BWOC:
Water Silica Hematite Manganese Dispersant F/L High Gas
Tetra Oxide Control Temp Block
Additive Retarder Additive
48 35 15 15 1.4 0.5 0.8 0.5
86
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Results:
Thickening Initial Fluid Pv/ Yp Compressive Gas tight Free Stability
Time BC Loss strength Character Fluid
(Minute) (ml/30 after 24 hrs
minute)
320 30 26 93/20 2500 Yes Nil T-2.09
M-2.10
B-2.11
TT Graph of cement slurry designed @ 150°C for HPHT Condition

Test Conditions:
2.50 255 230 18,000 70

Composition % BWOC:
Water Silica BA- Manganese Dispersant MPA- Retarder- Foam
90 Tetra Oxide CD-32 400 SR-35L Preventer
34.3 50 1.0 80 0.45 0.45 6.9 0.1
Results:
Thickening Initial Fluid Compressive Free Stability

Time BC Loss strength Fluid
minute)
363 22 22 4150 Nil 0.02 g/cc
difference
87
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn

Test Conditions:
2.35 240 225 18,000 60
Composition % BWOC:
Wat Silic Mangane Anti- Dispersa F/L Retard Retard Retard Gas
er a se Tetra settli nt Contr er-1 er-2 er Block
Oxide ng ol Enhanc Additi
Agent Additi er ve
ve
46 45 65 0.8 0.7 0.5 0.6 1.2 2.0 0.5
Results:
Thickening Initial Fluid Compressive Gas tight Free Stability
Time BC Loss strength Character Fluid
minute)
317 30 20 3100 Yes Nil Stable
TT Graph of cement slurry designed @ 225°C for HPHT Condition
88
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
CHAPTER 7
Cementing Equipment
There are a wide range of cementing equipment available in oil industry which can be used for
1. Cementing operations.
2. Allied jobs like testing of high pressure wells, oil spotting, fracturing jobs and other well
stimulation jobs.
Following are the cementing equipment commonly used for cementing operations:
i. Cementing units
ii. Cement-mixer
iii. Cement silos
iv. Bulk storage
v. Batch mixer/recirculating mixer/homogenizer
7.1 Cementing units

Two types of cementing units are available in the oil industry:
a. Mobile cementing units.
b. Skid mounted cementing units.
7.1.1 Mobile Cementing Units

These cementing units are mounted on a truck or on a trailer. Generally these units are
equipped with high pressure pumps, pump for mixing cement slurry, displacement tank and
some of the units also have RCM (Recirculating Mixers).
7.1.2 Skid Cementing Units

The cementing units are almost like a mobile cementing unit but they are skid mounted and can
easily be transported along with rig transportation. These units are generally used for isolated
drill sites and they are also good for offshore operations. Some of the units are specially made
so light that they can be air lifted. Some of the skid mounted units can give 20,000 psi pressure.
All current cementing pumps are of the reciprocating type, mostly with three plungers (triplex)
and spring loaded suction and discharge valves. The transformation of the rotating motion of
the input shaft into the reciprocating motion of the plungers is generally accomplished either by
a system of a crankshaft and connecting rods or by a swash plate and connecting rods system.
These pumps include an internal fixed-ratio speed reducer. Depending on the make and the
model, the plunger stroke varies from 5 to 10 in. [12.5 to 25 cm]. The efficiency of triplex pumps
is generally 85% to 90%. If adequately pressurized, the volumetric efficiency can reach 98% with
water at 80% of the maximum speed. The construction is particularly rugged, allowing the
pumps to handle the heaviest and most abrasive slurries.
The pumps on mobile units are driven by a diesel engine and may have either automatic or
manual transmissions. Those permanently installed on an offshore rig are frequently driven
electrically (usually with a directly coupled DC motor).
7.2 Cement Mixer

The purpose of a mixing system on any cementing operation is to prepare cement slurry of
desired parameters. There are two type of mixing devices:
a. Jet type mixer.
b. RCM (Recirculating cement mixer)
89
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Cementing Equipment
7.2.1 Jet Type Mixer

The high pressure hydraulic jet-type mixer system has revolutionized oil well cementing. The
heart of the system is a rugged compact unit. It consists of funnel shaped hopper, a mixer bowl.
The unit functions by forcing a stream of water through a jet, across the bowl into a discharge
line, then into a sump tub from which the cement slurry is taken away by the cementing pumps.
The stream of water passing through the bowl creates a vacuum which pulls the dry cement into
the bowl from the hopper immediately above. As the cement enters the jet stream of water, it is
thoroughly mixed in the turbulent flow that occurs in the appropriately designed discharge pipe.
Mixer of this type when supplied with sufficient water, under mixing pressure and adequate
feed rate of cement, are capable of producing normal slurry at rate of 50 cu. ft. per minute. The
slurry density is adjusted by using the bypass system to change the water-to-cement ratio. As
the bypass is opened, the suction effect decreases and reduces the amount of cement drawn
out of the hopper. At the same time, the water bypassing the jets enters the slurry. The
combined effect is a decrease in slurry density. Conversely, if the bypass is closed, the density
increases. For jet-type mixers, several efficient modifications in the low energy or high volume
systems has been developed. With low energy system, the high pressure displacement pumps
are available to handle the mixed slurry.
Fig. 7.1: Jet type mixer

A low pressure (175 to 200 psi) low energy type auxiliary water pump is utilized to supply the
mixing water. This, in fact, permits a dual pump type cementing unit having the low energy mixing
system to do the work of two cementing units which are not well equipped. The Rotary jet mixer is
normally employed with the low energy system. This mixer operates on the same basic principle
as the same jet type mixer, but has general sizes and configurations of jets in a rotatable turret.
These jets are selectable and can be used to compensate for changes in mixing rates or changes
into the cementing compositions without interrupting the mixing operations at rates as high as 60-
65 cu. ft. per minute, the slurry in these cases has been of necessary high quality tor the purpose
intended.
90
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Cementing Equipment
7.2.2 Recirculating Cement Mixer (RCM)

RCM system offers a unique combination of capabilities that makes accurate mixing possible
over a broad range of operating conditions.
Advantages of the RCM system include the followings:
• Slurries above 22 ppg (SG 2.64) may be accurately mixed
• Accurate slurry weight control makes the RCM ideal for critical liner, plug back and
squeeze jobs.
• Initial lead and final slurries can be mixed to the desired weight.
• Slurry operations can be closely controlled in order to provide desirable cement slurry
parameters.
• Batches as small as 8 bbl (1.27 m3) may be mixed.
• Equipment may be arranged in a wide variety of ways.
• The RCM system is built for operator's convenience, safety and operating efficiency.
Operating Features
The main feature of the
RCM system is the
recirculating mixer used
in conjunction with a
two compartment,
mixing tub equipped
with a turbine agitator in
each compartment. The
mixer combines fresh
water and components
are partially mixed and
then discharged into the
first compartment of the
tub.
The rate at which dry
cement enters the mixer
is controlled by a
remotely operated
sliding gate. The slurry is Fig. 7.2: Recirculating Cement Mixer (RCM)
removed from the slurry tub by a recirculation jet, fed by a centrifugal pump. The centrifugal
pump force feeds the displacement pumps and recirculates some slurry through the mixing
system.
The fresh water rate is controlled by mixing manifold.
In the first compartment of the tub, the slurry is blended by an agitator, recirculated by a
centrifugal pump and weighed by a densometer. When the first compartment is full, the slurry
flows over a weir into the second compartment. Flowing over the weir helps to remove
entrapped air.
The second compartment already contains some slurry of the desired weight. The combined
slurry are blended further by the agitator in the second compartment in order to help ensure a
uniform mixing. This slurry is then pumped to downhole.
Retention time in the tub gives the slurry time to achieve effects from time dependent additives.
Slurries can be mixed at pump rates upto 12 bbl/min. with the RCM system, weights over 22 ppg
have been successfully mixed. Whatever the weight or pumping rate, the RCM can help to
ensure a uniform slurry-density.
91
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Cementing Equipment
7.2.3 Batch Mixer/Homogenizer

Several mixing devices are available with service companies utilizing a variety of mixing
principles. Two basic types are ''continuous" and "batch". Mixing or blenching is achieved with
continuous methods through cyclone or whirl pool action; recirculation jet turbulence or a
combination of these actions. Larger tub storage of mixed slurry tends to improve uniformity.
Mixing or blending is achieved with batch methods through use of propeller or impeller type
mixers; paddle mixers, ribbon pneumatic mixing and rotation of cement tanks.
The amount of cement mixed in a batch unit is limited. However, several batch type units can be
combined to provide continuous operations on large jobs. Batch mixing provides the most
accurate and thorough mixing of all the slurry components.
'Continuous' and 'Batch' mixing units can also be combined in series. The various types of
equipment have different limits in mixing rate, storage or holding volume and pump rate.
Regarding availability, suitability and specifications of units for particular application, service
company's catalogues should be consulted.
Basically, Batch-mixer is used to blend a cement slurry at the surface before pumping it into the
well. It is rather a simple way to prepare a specific volume of slurry to exacting physical
requirement before it is pumped down the hole.
7.3 Bulk Storage

Oil-well cement in most areas of world is handled in bulk. With such a system, composition can
be mixed to suit any well condition.
Bulk storage involves handling of cementing materials in bulk form, provided by the cement
manufacturers at well site. This eliminates handling of cementing materials in sacks. It reduces
handling time, waste of material and labor cost. Bulk handling has gained wide acceptance by oil
industry as an improvement in oil-well cementing services.
Bulk cementing matches the high degree of efficiency attained in other phases of well
cementing. It is a continuous development which comes from the sustained programme of
improving cementing services. Cement is discharged from trucks or barges into steel storage
bins or into weather proof bulk cement convoys to be transported and dumped directly into a
mixer at the well, into field storage bins or in to a portable field storage unit for the next job.
Dumping of cement is done by pneumatic or mechanical screw conveyor, which is a part of each
bulk cement convoy field storage bin or portable field storage unit. The uniform feeding of fresh
cement, uncaked and lump free into mixer provides faster mixing and uniform slurries.
Each Bulk cement plant is equipped to mix any of the desired materials, such as pozmix cement,
bentonite, calcium chloride or other additives with cement. This is done by batch system. Each
material is weighed separately into a batch mixer so that any required proportion can easily be
obtained. This mixture is blended to a homogeneous consistency, loaded into convoys then
delivered to the well.
92
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Cementing Equipment
Fig. 7.3: Schematic of pneumatic batch mixer
Fig. 7.4: Ribbon Batch Mixer
There are three types of bulk cement plants that do this fast and efficient job of handling and
blending cement materials:
1. The mechanical screw conveyor
2. The pneumatic system
3. The new pneumatic plant that can be dismantled and rebuilt quickly.
They can be moved from one location to another location. Bulk cementing offers many
advantages such as:
1. Cement protected against weather while being hauled to well.
2. No caking, lumping, and spoiling of cement at well.
3. Eliminating wastage from two to ten percent as compared with dumping sack cement in
to mixer.
4. Industrial hazard is reduced.
93
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Cementing Equipment
5. Eliminates extra labor required to handle and dump sack cement.

6. Unused neat cement returned to bulk plant for credit instead of being left on ground or
lost.
7. Bentonite, barytes, silica flour and other powder cement additives are more uniformly
mixed with dry bulk cement at bulk cement plants.
Varied conditions of terrain scope of the well-servicing operation and other factors have
resulted in a wide range of transports and storage bins used to deliver bulk cement at well site.
At bulk blending stations, cement is moved pneumatically at 30 to 40 psi air pressure into
weather tight bins or tanks for a specific job, the cement with dry ingredients is loaded in to bulk
transport units of about 300 cu. ft. capacity. Water-borne vessel using the pneumatic pressure
system may be equipped with their own weighing and blending plants, or they may obtain
weighed and blended materials from a support vessel or from nearby on-land stations.
6.4 Pneumatic Bulk Material Handling System
A typical installation on an offshore platform might include the cement/stimulation skid units,
pressured tanks with high level indicator, mud surge tanks and scales, cement surge tanks and
an air compressor. Both cement and mud may be handled through tailored pneumatic bulk
material handling systems.
Components can be mounted on a single skid base or located separately, depending on the
requirement, portable diesel or electric powered compressors may be incorporated in the
systems.
Pressurized tanks are available in any number of sizes and designs, to fit requirements. The type
of tanks-cone-bottom or horizontal air slide and the size will vary according to space limitations
and the permissible deck load. Typical sizes may be 8, 9, 10, 12 or 13 feet diameter. Capacity
varies with type of pressurized tank selected. Supports for the tanks are designed for fixed or
floating rigs. One of the newest developments or specialized bulk material handling is the
unique Heli-Bins system developed for remote drilling locations that require supply by
helicopter or light aircraft. A typical application involves three 530 cu. ft. non pressure tanks
built of light-weight materials and pressurized tank with sack cutter. These elements are air
lifted in to a remote water or land locations and sacked cement, drilling mud or other dry
materials placed into the 530 cu. ft. tanks via cutter and 28 cu. ft. tank. The dry materials can
then be discharged into a mud system or cementing hopper much faster than is possible
by manual sacks cutting alone, and also the intermixing of additives is simplified and improved.
94
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
CHAPTER 8
Mechanical Aids
Mechanical aids are used with the casing when casing is lowered. They serve many functions
such as cake-removing, keeping casing into center, inducing turbulence, holding cement slurry
weight in weaker zone etc.
Floating equipment are commonly used in lower sections of casing to reduce derrick stress by
allowing the casing to float in place. The guide-shoe directs the casing away from edges and
minimizes caving, as the casing passes through deviated section of the hole.
8.1 Centralizers
Centralizers are heavy steel guides on springs that fit around the out-side of casing. The
centralizers are having bow type steel guides and designed to prevent overstressing in tight or
crooked holes (Fig. 8.1). The design of centralizers varies considerably depending, on the
purpose and the requirement of customer. API standard (10D) describes the minimum strength
requirement. These requirements are based on starting force, restoring force and running force
(maximum force required to move a centralizer through a specified wellbore diameter). Starting
force is the maximum force required to insert a centralizer into a specified wellbore diameter.
Restoring force is the force exerted by the centralizer against the borehole to keep the pipe
away from the borehole wall.
The function of centralizers are:

i. Prevent drag while running pipe into the hole.
ii. Centre the casing into well bore.
iii. Minimize differential sticking and thus help to equalize hydrostatic pressure in the annul
us.
iv. Reduce channeling and aid in mud removal.
The casing is centered to obtain a uniform cement sheath. The centralizers will also effectively
center the casing even in highly deviated holes.
Number and placement of centralizers is based on casing load, hole and casing size, hole
deviation and bore hole geometry. Specification of centralizers has been given in API 10D. There
are three types of centralizers: rigid, semi-rigid and spring bow.
Rigid centralizers are built with a fixed bow height and are sized to fit a specific casing or hole
size. Rigid centralizers must be smaller than any restrictions they must pass through;
consequently, the amount of standoff is limited.
95
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Mechanical Aids
Fig. 8.1: Centralizer, stop collar and spirolizer

8.2 Scratchers
Scratchers are mechanical wall cleaning devices that are placed on the casing. It removes the
loose filter cake from well bore. There are generally two types of scratchers: (Fig 8.2)
i. Rotating-Type
ii. Reciprocating-Type
8.2.1 Rotating Scratchers

These are either welded to the casing or attached with
stop rings. The scratcher claws are high strength steel
wires with angled ends that cut and remove the mud
cake during rotation .The claws may have a coil- spring
to reduce breaking or bending when casing is being run
into the hole. The rotating scratchers should be used
where pipe can be freely rotated because they are
damaged by excessive torque on the casing.
8.2.2 Reciprocating Scratchers Fig. 8.2: Scratcher

These are also constructed of steel wires or cables and
are installed on the casing with either on integral or separate stop rings. Reciprocating
scratchers are more effective kind where there is no depth limitation in setting casing and the
pipe can either be rotated or reciprocated after it is landed.
Turbolizers: Turbolizers are centralizers with fins attached inside of bows to induce turbulency
along with providing centralization.
Spirolizers: Spirolizers have solid blades wrapped around a metal body at an angle. Therefore its
reduced flow area between the spiral provides and creates vortex motion to increase fluid
velocity with direction. Spirolizers are designed to be used in deviated or horizontal sections of
the well.
Stop Collars: Stop collars are used to keep centralizers, turbolizers or spirolizers to keep in
place.
96
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Mechanical Aids
8.3 Cement Basket

The cement basket is made of high strength flexible steel
staves, mounted on steel rings and heavy duty canvas insert
riveted to the staves. The internal diameter (ID) of the end
ring is nominally ⅛” larger than the outside diameter (OD)
casing size. The outside diameter (OD) of the end ring is
nominally 1 ⅛" larger than the casing OD (Fig. 8.3). Cement
basket may be slipped over casing, without limiting clamps
or welding, it is free to slide between collars. Flexible staves
allow fluids to by-pass while running casing, circulating or
cementing.
Cement-baskets are run on casing or liners at points where

porous or weak formations need help in supporting weight Fig. 8.3: Cement basket
of cement column until it attains initial set.
However, these baskets are designed only to separate different density fluids and not able to
take hydrostatic head of fluids. For loss prone zones, ECP should be used.
8.4 Guide Shoe

The simplest type of guide shoe is an open end collar with or without moulded nose. The lower
portion of guide shoe usually contains hardened cement to increase the shock absorbing
characteristics of the shoe. Circulation is established down the casing and out of the open end of
the shoe, through side ports designed to create more agitation as the slurry is moved in the
annulus or through an opening end that completely encircles the shoe (Fig. 8.4). This shoe is run
on first joint of casing. It is rounded on bottom to guide the casing passing through irregularities
in the hole.
Fig. 8.4: Regular Guide Shoe. Fig. 8.5: Spring loaded Float Collar and float shoe.
8.5 Float Shoe

The float shoe usually incorporates a ball or spring loaded back pressure valve. The outside body
is made up of steel of the same strength as that of casing. The back pressure valve is enclosed in
plastic and high strength concrete. The valve is closed by spring or by hydrostatic pressure from
97
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Mechanical Aids
the fluid column in the well (Fig. 8.5). It prevents fluids from entering the casing while pipe is
lowered in to the hole. Since the pressure of the mud in the hole can collapse the casing, some
mud is needed in the pipe. This mud can be supplied from the surface or from the bottom by
employing a fill-up device in the float shoe.
The object of only partially filling the casing is to keep it light enough to float into the hole.
Floating the casing into the hole reduces some of the load that the derrick has to support. The
ball float valve assembly usually consists of a fabric-reinforced plastic seat with a moulded
rubber lip seal to prevent communication between reinforced plastic ball cage and seat. This
reinforcement eliminates the possibility of mud cut after prolonged circulation of mud or
cement containing a large amount of abrasive materials. The flow area through the valve is
designed to eliminate high pressure surges.
The flapper float shoe is designed for use when abnormally large amounts of lost circulation
materials are needed. Its unrestricted opening helps to prevent clogging and it allows a more
efficient flow of fluids. The flapper, which is spring loaded for quick closing, has a wear resistant
moulded rubber seat for positive back-sealing.
8.6 Regular Float Collar

Regular float collar serves the basic function as the float shoe. They contain a back pressure
valve and provides a smooth surface or latching device for the cementing plugs to sit. The space
between the float collar and the guide shoe serves as trap for contaminated cement or mud that
may accumulate from the wiping action of the top cementing plug. The contaminated cement is
thus kept away from the shoe, where a good bond is required (Fig. 8.5). When the cement plug
hits at the float collar it shuts off fluid flow and prevents over pumping of cement.
The float collars are normally placed one to three joints above the float or guide shoe.
8.7 Differential Float Collar

Differential float collar is a mechanical device which permits
fluid to enter into the casing from the bottom to maintain a
controlled differential pressure between the inside and
outside of casing being run in the hole.
The design of float collar is such that the filling action is
regulated by a fill-up flapper valve riding "piggy-back" on the
circulating- valve. The fill-up flapper valve is regulated by
spring tension which must be overcome by pressure
differential causing the fill-up valve open (Fig. 8.6). The back
pressure valve can be activated at any time by dropping a
weighted ball (1 ⅛” for 4 ½” to 6 ⅝" and 2 ⅜” for 7" and
larger). Circulation of 6 to 10 bbl/min should be sufficient to
break the releasing pin and activate the back pressure valve.
Advantages of using differential float collar is that the speed at
which casing is run into the well does not affect the operation
of fill-up valve. The differential fill tool is a combination of Fig. 8.6: Differential fill-up
differential fill-up unit and float collar. It helps protect collar.
formation from destructive high "ram-effect" surge pressure as the casing is run. The tool is so
designed that the hole may be circulated at any time without affecting the fill-up unit. This float
collar automatically fills the casing as it is being run and at the same time maintain an adequate
unfilled section to help float the casing into place. The design also provides a way of retaining
98
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Mechanical Aids
the cement in place with a positive check valve. Rig time is reduced because surface filling
operations are unnecessary i.e. saves costly rig time.
Float collar provides a seat for the bottom and top plugs used for cementing operations. The ball
size should be checked prior to lowering/connecting of float collar. Establish mud circulation
before dropping the ball in order to actuate or convert differential float collar into NRV.
8.7 Cement Retainer

Cement retainers are drillable
packers that have upper and
lower setting slips and side ports Upper Setting Slip
for communication near bottom
slip (Fig No-8.7). To cement
through the retainer, a stinger is Stinger stab-in tool
run on tubing, drill pipe, or coiled
tubing and inserted into the
cement retainer. Cement Lower Setting Slip
retainers are used to prevent
backflow when no cement
dehydration is expected or when
a high negative differential Flow passage
pressure may disturb the cement
cake.
Cement retainer are set using
any of the following method;
a) Wire line:
When accurate depth control Cement Slurry
is an issue, a wireline-set
cement retainer is deployed
with an adapter to connect
the cement retainer to the
wireline setting tool. The Fig. 8.7: Cement retainer
cement retainer is lowered to planned position and set by electrically firing a slow-burning
charge in the setting tool. When the cement retainer is completely packed off, the setting
tool shears free and is retrieved with the wireline.
b) Drill pipe
When drill pipe or tubing is used, cement retainer is set by rotation.
c) Coil Tubing.
By using coil tubing retainer is set hydraulically.
8.8 Stage Cementing Tools

When it is desirable to cement two or three separate sections behind the same casing string or
to cement a long section in two or three stages, multistage cementing tools are used. Stage
cementing usually reduces the mud contamination and lessens the possibility of formations
99
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Mechanical Aids
breakdown, which is often the cause of lost

circulation. Stage tools are installed at a
specific point in the casing string as casing is
being run into the hole. Stage cementing tool
consists of lower and upper sleeves. Initially,
lower sleeve keeps the ports covered. These
sleeves are held in place by shear pins having
predefined shear strength and moved by
shearing the pins by creating differential
force on shear pins. This can be done either
mechanically or hydraulically. In hydraulic
method, extra pressure is applied in the
casing. Due to difference in upper and lower
area of the sleeve, force is exerted on the
sleeve. At certain force, pins get sheared and
sleeve moves opening the ports of stage
cementing tools (fig no 8.9). In mechanical
method, an opening bomb is dropped
(freefalling or pumped).
Fig 8.8: Mechanical Stage collar and

equipment
Fig 8.9: Hydraulic Stage collar

This plug sets on the seats provided on lower sleeve, pressure is applied and pin gets sheared.
Mechanical method is used when there is possibility of inducing loss due to pressure surge by
sudden opening of ports as very less pressure is required to open the ports in mechanical
method. After the cement has been placed around the bottom of the casing (The first-stage) the
ports of stage cementing tools are opened. When the tool is opened, fluid such as cement, can
be circulated through its outside ports. After pumping cement slurry of second stage, closing
100
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Mechanical Aids
plug is dropped and displaced. When all the cement slurries has been placed, a closing plug
closes the ports by sliding a closing sleeve over the side ports. The free fall stage cementing
method is used when the first stage cement is not required to fill the annulus from the bottom
of casing all the way to the stage tool or when the distance between the tool and the casing
shoe is fairly long. The primary advantage of this method is that the shut-off plug used in the
first stage prevents over displacement of the first stage cement (Fig.8.8).
The displacement stage cementing method is used when the cement is to be placed in the entire
annulus from the bottom of casing upto or above the stage tool. The displacement method is
used in deep or deviated holes in which too much time is needed for a free falling plug to reach
the tool. Fluid volume must be accurately calculated and carefully measured to prevent over
displacement or under-displacement of the first stage. Two stage cementing is the most widely
used multistage cementing technique. However, when a cement slurry must be distributed over
long column and hole conditions will not allow circulation in one or two stages, three stage
method can be used. The same steps are involved as in the two stage methods, except that
there is an additional stage.
Note: For high angle wells (If well angle at stage collar is > 30°), hydraulically operated stage
collar is recommended.
8.9 Annulus / External Casing Packers (ACP/ ECP):

External/ annulas Casing Packers or ECP/ ACPs are popular because they provide improved
sealing and centralization. They are used to prevent gas migration, reduce the gas-to-oil
production ratio, reduce or prevent water production, isolate production or injection zones, and
avoid squeeze cementing. ACPs vary in size and valve type depending their purpose. Most can
be filled with mud or cement, but the amount of pressure they can withstand is limited.
Overfilling is a major cause of casing packer failures. Annular packoff equipment (packer shoes,
collars, and ACPs) is used to protect areas of the formation from excessive hydrostatic pressure,
contaminating fluids, or both. The equipment has expanding rubber elements that pack off
against the formation to create an impermeable annular barrier. The rubber elements also
centralize the casing when expanded. ACPs are generally used below stage collars or port collars
to protect the formation below from excessive hydrostatic pressure or contamination. ECP in
combination with stage collar may be used to isolate fractured basement to avoid entering
cement slurry in the basement.
Preferably, ECP is set inside casing or gauged hole. It may be set in an enlarged hole, but
differential pressure rating of the packer gets reduced as per the manufacturer’s specifications.
They are also used in an attempt to block gas and fluid migration. ACPs can be installed on either
side of a weak formation. ACPs can be packed off by either inflating or compressing the rubber
element. The inflatable type is generally larger and more capable of packing off oversized or
irregular holes. The inflation process generally begins at a predetermined setting pressure. The
setting pressure should be sufficiently high to prevent premature packoff while conditioning or
cementing.
An optional break-off rod may be used to prevent premature setting by blocking the inflation
port until broken free by a wiper plug. Once the element is inflated, an internal valve mechanism
will hold the inflated position, and the surface pressure may be released. When possible, the
element should be inflated with cement. Packer shoes and collars are hydraulically set by a
tripping ball. With the casing in place, the tripping ball is dropped and allowed to fall to a seat on
the piston. As pressure is applied, the load is transferred to an external sleeve that compresses
and expands the element. At a specified pressure (as per manufacturers specifications), the
101
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Mechanical Aids
piston shears free, uncovering the ports. The external sleeve contains a ratchet mechanism that
permanently holds the set position. The cement is pumped and, unlike stage equipment, the
ports are not closed.
Basket shoes use a basket instead of an expanding rubber element to pack off the annulus. They
provide the same function as a packoff shoe but are limited to low differential pressure
applications and do not create a true hydraulic seal.
8.10 Plug Containers

Plug containers/hold the top and bottom cementing plugs that are released ahead of and behind
the cement slurry. There are two types of containers. One of them is single plug container, (Fig.
8.10) which can only hold top plug cement with stopping. The other is the double plug container
type (Fig. 8.10), which can hold two plugs that may be loaded before the cement slurry is mixed.
In single plug container, cementing head is hooked after circulation is complete during which
well remains in static condition. In double plug container both the plugs are loaded in the
cementing head and head is hooked up before starting circulation. This way, cement pumping
can be started just after circulation without any need for well to be in static condition. Plug
containers are equipped with valves and connections for connecting cementing lines for
circulation and displacement. For rotation, swivels between the collar and the plug container
make it possible to rotate while the casing is suspended by the rotary table slips. Union permit
fast connection of plug-container to the casing when the last joint is landed also that circulation
can be started immediately.
For easy operation the cementing head should be as near the level of rig floor as possible. Plugs
are released by unscrewing the stopper bar whenever required. An indicator is provided on the
containers that indicates the passage of plug as it leaves the container.
Fig. 8.10: Single and Double Plug container Cementing Head.
102
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Mechanical Aids
8.11 Cementing Plugs

The casing and hole are usually
filled with drilling fluid before
cementing. To minimize
contamination of the interface
between the mud and the cement
in the casing a bottom plug is
pumped ahead of the cement
slurry. This plug wipes the mud
from the casing wall as it moves
down the pipe. When it reaches
the float collar, differential
pressure ruptures a diaphragm on
top of the plug, allowing the
cement slurry to flow through the
plug, floating equipment and up
the annular space between the
pipe and the hole. The top
cementing plug is landed at the Fig. 8.11 : Top and bottom plugs
float-collar or stop plate. It presents channeling contamination of the cement slurry with mud
and builds up pressure in the pipe.
Although the top and bottom cementing plugs are similar in appearance, their internal
structures are different. The top-plug, with its drillable inserts and rubber wipers, is built to
withstand the landing force of cement column and displacement fluid to provide dependable
scaling or shut-off. For cable tool operations, plugs are made with plastic inserts lo reduce
drilling time (Fig. 8.11).
Although the conventional wiper plugs are widely used, plugs of other designs are also available
for primary cementing like balls, wooden plugs, subsea plugs and tear drop or latch down
devices. The latch down casing plug and baffle may be used with most conventional floating
equipment but commonly, they are used in small diameter tubing for inner string cementing.
This type of plug system, supplementing the float valve prevents fluid from reentering the casing
string. When all the cement has been pumped, the latch down plug permits surface pressure to
be released immediately and also prevents the cement and plug from being backed up into the
casing by compressed air below the plug. If completions are made fairly close to the float collar,
the latch down plug system eliminates the need to drill out the cement.
103
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
CHAPTER 9
Preparation of Well Bore before

Casing and Cementation
9.1 Casing Running In

9.1.1 Casing Running in
Before running in casing, the well is always specially prepared for casing running in and
subsequent cementing operation. The following are important steps in preparing a hole.
(a) All the undergauged sections should be reamed to make these sections as near as to
gauge.
(b) Well shall be made free of any loss problems and activity.
(c) Exact Bottom Hole Circulating Temperature (BHCT) is the basic requirement of good
slurry design. Therefore temperature survey must be taken prior to running in casing,
which shall provide an idea about the temperature gradient. After obtaining BHST, API
table should be used to calculate BHCT. However, for highly inclined, deep sea and HPHT
wells, temperature simulation is recommended to get accurate BHCT.
9.1.2 Mud Conditioning

(a) Condition mud to lower rheological parameters as the system permits. However, this
should be done only after removing all the cutting from the well after casing lowering.
(b) Avoid mud properties that tend to adversely affect cementation. These are, high
viscosity, gel strength and excessive chemical treatment.
9.1.3 Hydraulic Erosion
The regime of flow of drilling fluid in drill collar-hole annulus plays a very important role in
maintaining hole stability. If flow passage is unduly restricted, more eddies and turbulence will
be induced in the fluid flow and it shall erode the walls of the hole. Another factor that could
also lead to hole erosion is due to maximising of jet velocity to achieve better rate of
penetration. Therefore, jet velocity shall be maximised to laminar flow around drill collars.
Adjust the Reynolds number below transition zone because rotation of drill string while drilling
is likely to change the flow regime in transition zone.
9.1.4 Jet Velocity
The jets are so located in a bit so as to impinge upon the edges of the hole so that the jet
velocity erodes the hole walls. The impact energy of jet stream is given by:
m/sec
Where = jet velocity m/sec.

Q = circulation lit/min.
= Area of nozzle (m2)
104
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Preparation of Wellbore before Cementation
A Jet velocity exceeding 70 m/sec is considered sufficient for good penetration rates.
9.1.5 Pressure Surges
The faster running in pipe does not substantially reduce the overall trip time, but it may on the
other hand produce heavy pressure surges sufficient to cause mud loss.
The amount of surge pressure is influenced by the speed of pipe, the viscosity of drilling fluid,
the annular clearance, the length of drill string, diameter of nozzles and bottom hole
assemblies. The pressure is developed due to the displacement of fluid in the direction opposite
to pipe movement.
9.2 Check Points

The following are the check points before running in casing:
(i) Check the capacity of the rig with respect to casing load.
(ii) Check the capacity of tackle system considering load factor.
(iii) Decrease static load from rig floor by breaking drill string, which will also provide working
space.
(iv) Inspect and ensure working of all handling tools and other items. Thread compound and
repair kit should be available.
(v) Break all assemblies such as drill collars, reamer, stabilisers or any other item with large
OD, which cannot be handled after casing has been lowered.
(vi) Prepare platform for slips, spiders and check the working of stabbing platform.
(vii) Check the condition of casing line and its dead and fast ends.
(viii) BOP should be fitted with the casing rams with appropriate size i.e. the size of casing
being lowered.
(ix) Check mud handling system for circulation during casing running in and cementation.
(x) Total volume of mud should be at least 1 ½ times of the casing volume.
9.3 Running in of Casing

(i) Running in casing is carried out under the supervision of a senior officer of drilling
department in accordance with the approved plan.
(ii) While running casing, slips and spider elevators are used. Load capacity of these two
should exceed maximum possible hook load during cementing.
(iii) Pipe slips are properly cleaned and should hold the pipe uniformly. The load capacity of
elevator is checked. Elevator latches (locking device) and power tongs to be checked
thoroughly. Power tongs should be placed above the joint.
(iv) The dies of power tong should have proper contact area to avoid damage of the outer
surface of pipe.
(v) Casing pipes are fitted with protectors while lifting from catwalk to prevent damage to
threads. The protector is removed when pipe is ready to be connected.
(vi) Casing shoe, float collar, and stop plate are placed on casing at the proper place.
(vii) Centralisers, scratchers, turbolizers and spirolizers are placed on casing as per approved
plan to ensure good cementation and zonal isolation.
(viii) The number of centralisers and their spacing is decided for each well separately on the
basis of caliper log, in case of deviated wells and in case of vertical wells as per software
simulated plan.
(ix) Each pipe is measured, checked and lowered into the well in its sequence.
(x) While making connection suitable thread dope is applied to threaded end and in the
inner side of box. The threaded end is smoothly placed into the box avoiding any
105
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Preparation of Wellbore before Cementation
possible damage to threads.

(xi) In case there is cross connection of threads, it is difficult to make a joint. Disconnect the
pipe, lift it and check the threads of the box and the pin after cleaning the thread dope.
In case threads are damaged, replace the casing pipe. If necessary thread can be
repaired with help of triangular file.
(xii) Pipes are tightened with power tongs by centering the pipe and controlling the torque
with torque gauge. The recommended value for torque for thread connection is shown
in Table 9.1.
(xiii) While running in casing pipe, a pipe tally is maintained. Untested and pipes without
clear marking are not lowered in the well.
(xiv) When weight of casing exceeds 100 tons while lowering casing, it is recommended to
switch over to use of power drive brake of draw works from manual mode.
TABLE 9.I
Recommended Value of Torque for Tightening Casing Pipes
SJ. Pipedia- Max.torque N- Min.torque N-M Optimum torque

No. meter(mm) M N-M
I. 114 MO 220 170
2. 140 280 550 370
3. 168 330 650 440
4. 178 390 790 530
5. 194 390 790 530
6. 2 19 430 840 570
7. 245 480 970 650
8. 273 510 1010 680
(xv) Running in speed of the casing should be calculated considering surge pressure
generated and fracture value of the weak formation to avoid inducing loss.
(xvi) Casing is lowered with a differential float collar for automatic filling of casing with
drilling fluid. If regular type of float collar is used, casing is to be filled in after every 05
(Five) joints.
(xvii) Last casing pipe on which BOP and safety equipment is to be installed should be lowered
with matching nipple having good threads in order to avoid any gas or oil leakage.
(xviii) Lower last two pipes with mud circulation.
(xix) Casing string is not to be rested on the bottom or kept under load.
(xx) Hole is flushed with well conditioned mud and casing should hang free in the hole, to
ensure reciprocation during flushing.
106
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
CHAPTER 10
Preparation for Cementing

Operation
10.1 Description
(i) Organisational and technical measures for cementation include the following:
(a) Preparation of a plan of cementation.
(b) Selection and preparation of site for placing cementing equipment.
(c) Placement of cementing units, batch mixers, cement bulk handling units and other
equipment.
(d) Loading and transfer of cement into cement mixers.
(e) Making connection of high pressure and low pressure line manifolds and connection of
cementing units with bunkers/silos. Pressure testing of lines at 150% of working
pressure.
(f) Prepare mixing fluid, blending of chemicals and preparation of buffers.
(ii) Preparation for cementing starts right from the moment when information is received
from the drilling department. Cementing section gets informed about the depth and size
of casing, diameter of the well, bottom hole temperature, pressure and mud parameter as
well as condition and behaviour of well (Circulation loss, kick, presence of salts in mud and
their type etc.)
(iii) A plan of cementation is prepared based on the data furnished and is to be circulated to
all concerned with specifically mentioning associated risk if any (Refer Annexure-1).
Cementing materials are selected and volume of cement slurry to be used and operation
time is calculated. After this, the cement slurry is designed for the bottom hole conditions
of well for thickening time and other parameters like fluid loss, free water, stability, gas
tight characteristics etc.
(iv) Lay-out plan of cementing equipment with number of cementing units, cement mixers
and other equipment is also included in the cementing plan. Working plan also included in
the cementing plan. Working plan also includes volume of displacement fluid, volume of
mixing fluid, type and quantity of chemicals, displacement rate and permissible working
pressure.
(v) The plan is finalised jointly with the drilling and mud department.
Cementing equipment to be used for cementation should reach drill site well in advance before
cementing operation. Cementing units and cement mixers are placed and hooked up with well
head as per the approved plan.
10.2 Preparation of Cementing Materials

Selection of cementing materials for cementation is made in accordance with geological and
technical conditions of the well. Main features determining composition of cement slurry with
the help of selected materials include anomaly coefficient of formation pressure in the interval
of well bore to be cemented, temperature, hydro-fracturing characteristics of rocks, required
cement rise in one stage, type of formation fluid, aggressiveness of formation fluids presence
and chemical composition of salt deposits in the sections of borehole if any.
107
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Preparation of Cementing Operation
(i) Selected cementing materials should meet the ONGC specification.

(ii) Required type of cementing materials to be used is calculated based on its %age
mentioned in cement slurry design.
(iii) Cement slurry for concrete conditions should be designed well before the cementation
job to making arrangements accordingly.
(iv) Cementation should not be done without laboratory results of cementing materials and
test report of cement slurry to be used.
(v) In case blending of cementing materials is to be carried out at drill site, dry blend should
be shifted from one bunker/silo to another at least thrice in order to get uniform
blending.
(vi) Cementing materials lying in the bunkers/silos for some days should be reshuffled
before their use.
(vii) While transporting and storing cementing materials they should be properly covered in
order to protect them from atmospheric conditions.
10.3 Preparation of Cementing Equipment and its Connections

Before proceeding for the drill site cementing section should carry out following jobs:
(i) Clean measuring tanks of cementing units, check size of liner and piston, safety pins
required for the maximum pressure during cementation. Working of pressure gauges,
safety valves and locking devices, required jet sizes for preparation of cement slurry of
desired weight are required to be checked.
(ii) Cement mixing bunkers/silos should be cleaned of old cement, cement lumps etc.
before loading fresh cement.
(iii) Cementing head should have high pressure valves. Before transporting it to drill site, it
should be tested at one and a half times the maximum expected working pressure.
Cementing head should be able to accommodate bottom and top plugs in it.
(iv) If expected working pressure during cementation exceeds 200 kg/cm2, working joints of
High Pressure (HP) lines of cementing units should be checked and pressure tested
before sending them to drill site.
(v) If casing is planned to be reciprocated/rotated during cementation, required additional
equipment should be fabricated and technological hook up of HP line with casing head
should be taken into consideration.
(vi) Required number of pumping units, cement mixers/silos and other equipment should be
determined on the basis of type and volume of cement job. Batch mixer for conditioning
cement slurry should be available.
(vii) Before placement of cementing equipment at site the area should be made free for
hook-up of cementing vehicle, if needed additional tanks, water lines should be made
available. Proper lighting arrangement is to be made if cementing is to be done at night.
(viii) While setting up and connecting cementing units and cement mixers, the following
instructions should be adhered to:
(a) Approach (passage) to the cement vehicles should be free for movement.
(b) Water tank & water line should be close to the cement mixers
(c) There should be free passage between cementing units and cement mixers for easy
working.
(ix) Cementing units should be placed horizontally as far as possible with its measuring tank
facing the weII. Layout and connections of the cementing units are made in such a way
108
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Preparation of Cementing Operation
as to accommodate all slurry points conveniently depending on quantity of cement. In

case of skid silo, slurry point is one only.
(x) Each mixing point should have cement mixer (one or more) and cementing units for
preparation and pumping of cement slurry.
In case the number of cement mixers to be used is more than slurry mixing points,
connections should be made in such a way that after completing work with one
cement mixer, standby cement mixer can be hooked up. For this, cementing
units should be placed in such a way that after completing work with one cement
mixer, standby cement mixer is able to enter and the other can go out easily.
(xi) After placing cementing units and cement mixers suction lines, delivery lines and water
lines are laid and connected.
(xii) While completing running in of casing mixing solution be prepared in accordance with
the test report in tanks (or in specially fabricated tanks) with 20% reserve volume.
Remaining tanks of cementing units should be filled with buffer and water/displacement
fluid.
(xiii) After making the connection, pressure lines should be tested at a pressure 1.5 times of
the expected working pressure but this value should not exceed the rated pressure of
these lines. Pressure testing is done with one of the units at low rate in order to avoid
sharp increase in pressure. If there is any leakage in pipelines they should be tested
again after its elimination. If pressure applied in the lines holds for 3 minute it means
lines are hermetic.
During pressure testing reading of all the pressure gauges should also be checked. If
reading of pressure gauges has variarion of more than 2.5 MPa they should be changed.
(xiv) If mud pumps are also to be used during cementation, their lines should also be
pressure tested alongwith delivery lines of cementing units.
If casing is to be reciprocated /rotated during displacement of cement slurry, delivery
line should be tested with simultaneous reciprocation (rotation) of casing.
(xv) Readiness of cementing equipment and its hook up should be checked by a responsible
senior cementing engineer, who will give instructions to the cementing crew about
sequence of using cementing units, working maximum permissible pressures and
parameters of cement slurry. He will also distribute calculated volume of displacement
fluid (if displacement is to be carried out with cementing units) and will give other
instructions in accordance with the plan of work for cementation.
109
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
CHAPTER 11
Recommended Practices: Do’s and Don’ts

11.1 Bulk Cement Storage and Bulk Handling Plant
Do’s
1. Cement stack in godown should be as per guidelines.
2. Vent line of adequate size should be clear upto the opening and secured. The dust
collectors should be provided to minimize release of cement dust in atmosphere.
The venting should be done downwind at safe distance.
3. All pressure vessels, compressors, air tanks should be fitted with safety valves set
within 10% of above maximum operating pressure.
4. Dryer of the air compressor should be in proper working condition.
5. Hydro testing of all pressure vessels shall be carried out as per prevailing rules.
6. Blending of additives should be done in small batches so as to maintain maximum
homogeneity. The provision for reshuffling in case of any blend, especially
lightweight/heavyweight, should exist. The charge pressure of the silos should be
according to density of the material. Minimum two transfers of cement should be
made when dry blended.
7. Airlines for purging and charging of silos/loading pods should be fitted with NRVs as
close to the pressure vessel as possible.
8. Storage of additives to be done distinctly to enable easy identification and access.
9. MSDS (in English and vernacular language) of all additives should be displayed at the
place of storage.
10. For rain prone areas and particularly during monsoon season, cement and dry
cement chemicals storage should have raised and covered platform with dry
wooden/ plastic/ metal planks flooring.
11. Skid silos and cementing skid units should be properly placed and installed if it is
part of the rig accessory.
Don’ts
1. Line, hatch etc. shall be attempted to open with no trapped pressure.
2. Any pressurized open ended line with butterfly valve should be plugged with
blind.
3. Loading pods, silos should not be over filled. Prolonged storage of cement/blend
in silos should be avoided. If stored for long, reshuffling should be done
periodically and before cement job.
11.2 Slurry and spacer design

Do’s
1. Bottom Hole Logging Temperature to be multiplied with correction factor to get
BHST.
2. For deviated, horizontal, deep-sea and HPHT wells, thermal simulator should be
used for accurate BHCT prediction. For other wells, API table may be considered.
3. Slurry design should be carried out with the same cement, additive and technical
water that is to be used during job.
4. Batch mixing time of cement slurry must be considered for slurry design.
5. For production casings, maximum fluid-loss rate of 100 ml/30 min for oil wells and
50 ml/30 min for gas wells & Liner cementation job are recommended.
6. To confirm from well site chemist for available well site water salinity and
coordinate for sweet water, if salinity is more than 500 ppm. In case of high salinity,
110
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
7. slurry should be designed with field water sample.

8. Static Gel Strength Analyzer (SGSA) is utilized to evaluate the transition time in
cement slurry.
9. Frictional pressure loss of displacing fluid should be at least 20% higher than the
fluid it is displacing.
Don’t:
1. Don’t pump drill water as spacer where mud wt. is higher than 12 ppg. Also avoid
pumping drill water for all shale section. Pump KCL water.
HPHT wells:
1. The slurry should be tested ± 50°F (10°C) from targeted BHCT (Bottom Hole
Circulation Temperature).
2. For extreme temperature conditions, thickening time for a cement lot should be
measured with ±5% of the retarder concentration. Variance in thickening time due
to concentration sensitivity should be within acceptable for safe cement job
execution
3. If well deviation is below 15 deg - Free Fluid test is run vertical
4. If well deviation is above 15 deg - Free Fluid test is run at 45 deg
5. Spacer should be compatible with cement slurry and mud system.
6. Spacer height should be 200-300m in the annulus or volume should be sufficient for
8-10 minute of contact time.
7. Expandable liner hanger to be used.
Don’ts
1. Slurry design of one lot should not be used in another lot. Slurry design of same
lot should be retested after six months.
2. Retarder sensitivity test to be carried out to check its TT at higher and lower doses
and variation in density.
3. To reduce circulating temp further pump Fresh mud kept at ambient room temp.
4. For Liner cementation be careful about cement rise never raise cement above
hanger top.
5. Overlap in HPHT liner can be increased from 100 to 200 m and raise cement in
overlap up to 100 mts. only.
6. Must consider break in pumping while designing slurry, give a break of 10 mins. to
consider dropping of plug during actual cementation.
7. In case of cement plug placement in HPHT well, avoid use of small diameter tail
pipe. Uniform diameter pipe is recommended for plug placement.
11.3 Preparation of Well Before Casing

Do’s
1. Well should be drilled to a depth to place the casing shoe against impermeable
formation.
2. Well should be stabilized and properly conditioned, free from lost circulation, tight
pull, caving and activity.
3. Always prepare a tentative cement job plan covering objective, risks & mitigations
and convey to DIC/RIC prior to casing/Liner lowering
4. Tally the casing and total depth such that the casing can be landed within 2 to 3 m
off bottom.
5. Caliper logs must be considered to determine hole volume to achieve desired
cement rise. In absence of caliper log, use past experience of particular field.
6. Arrange for long links to facilitate casing reciprocation.
7. Skid silos at rig-site should be inspected and serviced prior to cementation job.
111
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Don’ts
1. Well should not be kept idle for long time after pull out prior to casing lowering.
11.4 Casing Lowering

Do’s
1. Tackle system center line must be checked and must be aligned to avoid
damage to casing thread.
2. Control lowering speed to prevent fracturing/ loss circulation.
3. Adhere to the prepared casing running and fill up schedule.
4. Make up Torque on casing threads should be as per manufacturer recommendation.
5. Type and grade of float collar/ float shoe should be as per the casing. Use float shoe
and float collar at two joints apart. For long length (more than 3000m) and small
diameter casings, place float collar and shoe preferably three joints apart.
6. For production casings, float collar depth to be decided based on sump required for
testing the bottom-most pay zone. All endeavors should be made to avoid drilling of
cementing plugs and float collar for testing/production purpose.
7. For large size deeper casings, casing elongation has to be considered.
8. Use differential type of floating equipment in potential mud loss wells.
9. For casing centralization,
(i) Use cementing software for accurate stand-off calculation and optimize number
of centralizers accordingly.
(ii) In case simulated centralizer program is not available, always (a) use one
centralizer each for first five casings, (b) minimum one number per casing
against pay zones, (c) minimum one number per alternate casing between the
gaps of zones of interest and upto 150m above the top most zone
(iii) positive centralizers in the overlap sections to be used
(iv) To maintain the casing in center, a few centralizers should be fitted at top, apart
from centralization at bottom.
(v) Use high bow strength centralizers
(vi) Place turbolizers above and below the pay zones, caved sections and in dog
leg sections.
(vii) Place casing in neutral buoyancy.
10. Use external casing packers for zone isolation.
11. Use stage collar when two sections or more are to be cemented.
12. For better pipe movement during conditioning and cementing, place standoff band
in dog leg or severely deviated areas.
13. Last two casing joints shall be lowered at slow speed, with circulation.
14. After casing reaches bottom, begin reciprocation and hole conditioning with good
surface mud, till 90-95% hole volume is circulated.
15. Casing should be landed preferably within 2-3 m off-bottom. Casing tally should be
adjusted to accommodate cementing head at suitable height.
Don’ts
1. Do not use centralizer on casing couplings.
11.5 Mud Conditioning

Do’s
1. Circulate thoroughly with running mud to remove all cuttings from the wellbore.
Subsequently circulate to condition mud at highest possible discharge and bring down
rheological parameters to permissible value.
112
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
2. Reciprocate the casing up to 3 to 4 meter throughout circulation, cement pumping and

cement slurry displacement if well condition permits. Also rotate the casing at slow rpm
wherever feasible.
Don’ts
1. Avoid unnecessary circulation as it may result in wellbore erosion and enlargement.
2. Circulation pressure should be limited to the activation pressure of hydraulically
operated accessories.
11.6 Equipment
Do’s
1. Check the cementing units and bunkers to avoid any breakdown during the operations.
2. Clean the tanks of cementing unit thoroughly.
3. Pressure test the cementing head and all connecting lines.
4. Check and calibrate the pressure gauges.
5. Ensure that cementing line and end connections from ground to derrick floor is of
proper rating and anchored properly.
6. Ensure correct liner size of mud pump is considered for displacement calculation and
discharge. Mud pump efficiency should be considered based on efficiency observed
during previous job.
7. Cementing head, swivels and HP valves should be serviced and tested prior to hook up.
8. Ensure proper lineup for displacement hose to avoid bypass of displacement fluid.
9. Welding is not recommended on any casing joint in grade above J-55 casings.
Don’ts
1. Never hammer pressurized lines.
2. Never weld swivels, hammer union etc.
3. Never puncher bottom rubber wiper plug diaphragm at surface.
11.7 Cement Slurry Mixing

Do’s
1. Control slurry density with pressurized balance.
2. Check calibration of density devices at least with fresh water.
3. To confirm from well site chemist for available well site water salinity and coordinate for
sweet water, if salinity is more than 500 ppm. In case of high salinity, slurry should be
designed with field water sample.
4. Reshuffle dry blend cement at site at least two to three times before the job.
5. For homogenous slurry, use batch mixer/recirculating mixers.
6. Calculate cement volume and annular velocity on the basis of a Two/four-arm caliper.
7. Order of cement additive mixing should be as per lab design. Especially, retarder should
be mixed at last just prior to cement job execution.
8. Use weight balance/calibrated bucket for correct measurement of additive quantity.
Don’ts
1. Do not mix cement additive long before cement slurry preparation, except for pre-
hydrated additives.
2. Avoid pilferage and intermixing of mixing water during chemical mixing.
113
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
11.8 Pumping of Cement

Do’s
1. Maintain log of operations to include time, density measurements, mixing/displacement
rate, well head pressure, operation in progress, volume of fluid pumped, pump strokes
and return rate.
2. Inspect top and bottom plugs physically. Bottom (hollow) should be loaded first then the
top (solid) plug in the cementing head.
3. If cement reaches the annulus during cement pumping, try to maintain high mixing and
pumping rate.
4. Prior to cement pumping, check position of HP valves on high pressure pumping line.
5. Start pumping slowly and observe well fluid return.
Don’ts
1. Do not plan slurry volume more than that of total casing volume as far as possible.
2. Do not continue pumping if any leakage in lines is observed. Resume pumping after
fixing the leakage.
11.9 Displacement
Do’s
1. Determine displacement rate on the basis of the type of casing string to be cemented.
2. Release the top plug out of cementing head with minimum time lag.
3. Ensure that there is no bypass of the displacement fluid. Observe the anticipated mud
return rate throughout the job.
4. Mud return is measured in trip tanks or by other means. High return rate is predicted
during the free fall period. Slow return is an indication of lost circulation.
5. Check the return fluid: observe pH change, funnel viscosity and density to detect
contamination with cement slurry.
6. After bumping the top plug, leave casing open during WOC, if NRV is ok. If not, close the
well with differential pressure and monitor.
7. For sub-hydrostatic and shallow wells, displace with water and pressure test the casing
immediately after the top plug bumps.
8. Always keep cementing unit lined up for any exigency.
9. In case sudden pressure increase is observed during displacement, switch over to
cementing unit and attempt to displace with pressure limited up to formation strength.
Don’ts
1. Do not reduce displacement rate if loss is observed.
2. If NRV function is OK, never close valves of cementing head.
11.10 Monitoring
Do’s
1. Data comparisons with calculated predictions and post analysis of the job.
2. Calculate material balance for mix water, cement and cement additives and
compare with volume of each slurry pumped.
3. Prepare a summary of the completed job.
114
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
CHAPTER 12
Types of Cementation
12.1 Description
1. Cementing technology is determined by the type and size of casing to be cemented,
geological and technical conditions of the well, availability of cementing equipment and
experience of cementation in the particular region/area. Diversity of geological and
technical conditions during drilling has led to creation of various methods of cementation.
All the known methods of cementation are divided into primary and secondary
cementation. Primary cementation is carried out immediately after lowering of casing pipe
in drilled hole and secondary cementation is done after the primary cementation, i.e. re-
cementation or repair jobs, elimination of communication between formations, annular
leakage, liquidation of water or gas flow and well abandonment etc.
2. Incase due to some limitations it is not possible to have cement rise up to the desired
height in one stage, it is recommended to use one of the following specialized methods of
casing cementation.
a. Use two or more stages with time gap.
b. Lower and cement casing in sections.
c. Use method of reverse cementation.
3. In order to prevent cement slurry contamination with well fluid below stage collar, cement
basket is recommended to be used. ECP is recommended to be used for casings isolating
abnormally high pressure zones or formations with substantial difference in formation
pressure. ECP in combination with stage collar may be used to isolate fractured basement
to avoid entering cement slurry in the basement.
4. While using above mentioned methods of cementation following conditions should also be
observed.
i. Hydrostatic head of buffer, mud and cement slurry column should be 5—-10% more
than formation pressure;
ii. Value of total pressure acting on formation during cement placement in dynamic
condition should be less than hydro-fracturing pressure or pressure at which lost
circulation starts;
iii. There should not be any discontinuity of cement sheath in the cemented interval.
5. Main objective of any cementation job is to isolate productive horizons and ensure
maximum production of Oil and Gas.
6. Number of measures are taken to ensure total displacement of mud in the annulus. Some
of the most effective measures for better displacement are enlisted below:
a. Decrease in rheological parameters of mud up to the minimum permissible value,

while circulating the well before cementation. This step should be taken only after
cuttings from the wells has been removed.
115
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
b. Use of all mechanical aids including centralizers, turbolizers, spirolizers, scratchers,

top and bottom plugs etc.
c. Maintain calculated/ simulated annular velocity of cement slurry in order to prevent
formation-fracturing.
d. Design and pump mud, spacer and cement slurry with proper rheological hierarchy
at down hole circulating temperature.
7. A plan of work for cementation should be prepared & circulated to all concern in advance
and should be followed. In case of any complication during cementation (lost circulation,
activity of oil/gas show etc.) further plan of action for cementation should be chalked out in
consultation with drilling services, mud services and Crisis Management Team if necessary.
8. During cementation if cut mud is observed in return, cementation is continued with back
pressure in the annulus by using BOP and chock manifold for this purpose.
12.2 Primary Cementation

1. Direct single-stage cementing: This method of cementation is used for such wells, where
there is no complication or lost circulation and where cement rise in the annulus can be
attained in one stage. After landing casing, circulating/ cementing head is installed at the
upper most pipe joint and it is then connected to the mud pumps for circulation.
2. After circulation is completed, circulating/ cementing head is hooked up with cementing
units (In case of single plug container cementing head, open circulating head after circulation
+ spacer pumping and install cementing head on casing prior to pumping cement slurry).
Before pumping cement slurry, bottom plug is released. At the same time cement mixing
units are started for preparing cement slurry and cementing units pump it into the well.
3. Cement slurry is prepared with the help of cement mixing units or hopper as per its operating
conditions. Supply of dry blend to the mixing unit is started when water through the jet
comes under required pressure. Slurry being prepared is pumped into the well only after
working condition of the mixing device is stabilized. Permissible variation of specific gravity of
cement slurries being prepared should be in the range of + .03 gm/cc. in relation to the given
slurry specific gravity.
4. Variable jet mixing device is used for preparation of cement slurry. There are generally 04
numbers of holes 6.0 or 8.0mm each or a continuous slot of 20mm x 6 mm or 8mm size.
Variable jet have space for drilling 5mm holes or slot for customization.
5. While using batch mixer, cement slurry from all mixing points is initially pumped into it where
slurry is churned to make it homogeneous. Thereafter, it is pumped into the well by
cementing unit.
6. During cementation following check tests should be carried out:
a. Measure specific gravity of cement slurry preferably with pressurized mud balance and
take samples from each point of cement mixing.
b. Control operating pump pressure on cementing units and cementing head.
c. Control the return from the well and in case of lost circulation, adjust the pumping rate
but not less than minimum displacement rate required for good cementation.
d. Control pumping pressure of mixing fluid in the mixing tank with the help of a pressure
gauge with measurement range of 0-30 kg/cm2. This gauge can be fitted at discharge line
of water pump.
7. Casing should be reciprocated during mud circulation, cement pumping and displacement.
116
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Maximum axial load on hook during reciprocation should not exceed 80% of casing load.
The value of maximum permissible load on hook during reciprocation should be calculated
and indicated in the cementation plan.
8. After pumping cement slurry into the well, top plug (Fig. 12.1) is dropped and then
displacement fluid is pumped. With the help of double plug container, static time for
installing cementing head after circulation can also be removed. Cleaning of manifold from
cement slurry, displacement fluid and other auxiliary operations should be carried without
losing any time.
9. Displacement fluid of minimum permissible specific gravity as per GTO is recommended to
be used for decreasing radial elastic deformation of the cemented casing caused by
pressure decrease inside casing (during well completion and production). If conditions
permit, displacement can also be done with water and hermetical test thereafter, saving
precious rig time without harming cement bond. (Guidelines for Hermetical testing of
shallow hydrostatic and sub-hydrostatic wells issued by IDT on 22.03.2016)
10. Completion of displacement of cement slurry can be determined by increase in casing
pressure after plug hitting.
Displace with mud at pre-determined pumping rate, slow down displacement after 95% of
calculated strokes are pumped and thereafter bump the plug gently. If bumping pressure is
not holding, stop pumping immediately and keep the well under differential pressure.
11. If the top plug fails to land on float collar, number of extra displacement strokes over the
calculated strokes should not exceed 50% of calculated shoe track volume to ensure
cement around shoe. If top plug bumping is ok, check floats function by releasing pressure
slowly. Release the pressure through properly secured and anchored line.
12. If float is holding, keep the cementing/circulating head valve open to avoid pressure build
up inside casing due to thermal expansion. If float is not holding (also when only guide shoe
is used), keep the well under pressure of differential head for 6 to 8 hrs to avoid back flow
of cement slurry.
13. In case of long cement column or if gas is expected, keep the well under pressure through
annulus for 6 to 8 hours, limited to fracture limit of the formation.
14. The pressure increase after plug hitting, should not be more than 80% of the pressure at
which casing pipe had been tested before landing.
15. After completion of displacement excess pressure in well is bled to atmospheric pressure
and flow of displacement fluid is observed to check whether NRVs in float collar and float
shoe are working properly. If there is no flow, NRVs are working properly. If NRV is ok, well
is left open for WOC.
16. In case NRVs are not holding, displacement fluid equivalent to the volume returned from
the well should be pumped back. In such a case during WOC, pressure equivalent to
differential pressure at the cementing head be monitored and controlled. Pressure during
WOC should not exceeds differential pressure and to be bled periodically if necessary.
17. During WOC, casing should hang on the travelling system. This enables to decrease hook
load upto the initial value spontaneously, in case hook load is increased. This information
should also be recorded.
18. During WOC, condition of the cemented annulus should also be observed.
19. No operation connected with drilling of cement plug or float shoe and float collar should be
taken up before completion of WOC and BOP installation (or casing head).
20. Time for WOC is established depending on the minimum required compressive strength
development time throughout the cemented interval taken by a cement slurry (based on
laboratory tests).
117
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
21. Cementation of large diameter casing is often done through drill pipes (stab in
cementation) (Fig. 12.2). This method of cementation cuts down displacement time and
contamination. Technology of cementation through drill pipes or stab-in cementation
includes the use of stab-in stinger, stab-in receptacle and special plugs.
Fig 12.1: Primary Cementation
118
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Fig 12.2: Stab-in cementation equipment
12.3 Stage Cementation

1. In practice stage cementing (two stage or three stage) is used in the following cases:
a. When it is not possible to have cement rise up to desired height in one stage (due to
geological, technical or other reasons).
b. When in cement rise interval there are formations with sharp variations in temperature
which can have substantial effect on thickening time of cement slurry.
c. When required number of cementing equipment (cementing units, bunkers) is not
available.
d. When cementing material required is not available in sufficient quantity.
e. When cementation of second stage is required to be done with a time gap and not
immediately after first stage.
2. Multiple stage cementing is carried out with multiple stage cementing collar (Fig. 12.3)
which is placed on casing in the selected intervals of the well.
Depth at which stage collar is to be fixed should be decided from logs: Stage collar should
be preferably placed against stable formations (e.g. clay, shales) in nominal gauged hole.
Casing centralizers should be placed 2-3 m above and below the stage collar to help center
the tool. Stage collar is placed at the depth selected in advance before landing the casing.
Multiple stage collar (Fig. 12.3) consists of the main body which is fixed on the casing.
There is a steel cylinder inside the body (housing). Internal drillable sleeves are fixed in the
cylinder with the help of shear pins. Each sleeve has opening plug seat and top plug seat in
119
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
its upper position. Rubber packing is used to hermetically seal these sleeves. There are
some ports in the stage cementer for establishing circulation. These ports are sealed off by
the closing sleeves. Closing plug, shut off plug and free fall plug (bomb) are also included in
the multiple stage cementer set (Fig 12.4).
3. Cementation with stage collar is carried out in the following sequence (Fig. 12.5). Buffer
and calculated volume of cement slurry are pumped into the well. After this, 1st stage seal
off plug [shut off plug (Fig. 12.3)] is released and displacement carried out until the plug is
seated on baffle plate.
4. Next step is to open stage collar port. Port are closed by lower sleeve which is held by
shear pins having specific shear strength. These pins can be sheared up by applying only
pressure (In case of hydraulic stage collar). Another way is to drop the opening bomb which
seats on lower sleeve seat (In case of mechanical and hydraulic stage collar). After seating
of bomb, pressure is applied for shearing pin. For highly deviated wells, hydraulic stage
collar is recommended. The pressure requirement to open ports in hydraulic stage collar is
much more as compared to opening bomb plug method. Hence, to avoid fracture of weak
formation, if any, by sudden surge of pressure after opening ports, use of opening bomb is
suggested. Pressure drop and establishment of circulation are indications that ports have
been open.
5. 1st stage cement rise should be planned at least 100m below the position of stage collar.
However, cement rise upto stage collar may occur (though possibility is less) due to cement
slurry channeling through mud. Therefore, after cementation of first stage and after
opening ports of the stage collar, well should be circulated in order to wash out excessive
volume of cement slurry from the annulus (above the stage collar) and to condition mud as
per requirement.
6. Second stage should be cemented in accordance with the normal cementing technology;
pump buffer and cement slurry, release top plug and displace till it reaches the stage collar.
After this, in addition to the working pressure, apply additional pressure as specified by
manufacturer (determined by number and shear strength of shear pins) for shearing the
pin and sealing off the ports with sleeve. This process is controlled by releasing pressure at
the cementing head upto zero. If there is no return from the well it is an indication that the
ports have been sealed off.
7. If planned cement rise is quite high, stage collar should be placed in the middle of the
projected height of cement rise. If two pay horizons are to be isolated stage collar should
be placed 10—30 m below the upper hydrocarbon bearing formation.
In any case stage collar is recommended to be put against clay or other low permeable
formations.
8. All the stage collars are supplied with technical specification with their dimensions and
pressures for opening and closing the ports. Table 12.1 gives the data of one brand of
Multiple Stage Cementer Collar.
Note: For high angle wells (If well angle at stage collar is > 30°), hydraulically operated stage
collar is recommended.
120
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Fig 12.3: Stage Cementation collar and equipment
Fig 12.4: Stage Cementation collar operational sequence
121
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
2nd stage top plug

1st Stage Cementing and 2nd stage Cement
Circulation bumping and closing
release of Opening Plug displacement
stage collar ports
Fig 12.5: Stage Cementation collar operational sequence
Table No 12.1: Technical Parameters for Stage Cementing Collar
122
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
12.4 Multiple Stage Packer Cementing Collar

1. Multiple stage packer cementing collar is used to seal annulus between casing and well bore
or casings. Some applications for multiple stage packer cementing collar are for cementing:
a. Between a high pressure gas zone and a lost circulation zone,
b. Above a lost circulation zone.
c. Where the formation pressure of an immediate zone is greater than the hydrostatic
head of cement.
d. When second stage of cement is to be placed at a distant point up the hole from the top
of the first stage cement and a packer is required to help support the cement column.
e. A full hole of slotted or perforated liners.
2. Quality of cementation depends a lot on the reliability of multiple stage packer cementing
collar which should ensure hermetic sealing while landing casing and during cementation of
first stage, obstacle free movement (passage) or bottom plug and hermetic sealing during
pressure testing and production of the well.
3. Multiple stage packer cementing collar is an integral part of the casing and it is set at the
calculated depth. This packer cementer is set in such a way that it could seal annulus
between casing and borehole.
In case packer cementer is to be installed in open hole, position for its installation should be
selected from the caliper log. It should be placed in nominal hole against stable formation
(clay, marl etc.). Casing centralizers should be placed above and below the packer stage
collar for proper centering.
Multiple stage packer cementing collar (see Fig. 12.6) is analogical to ordinary stage collar in
its design but it also has a rubber packing of element that replaces the need of one or more
cement baskets on the casing below a regular type of stage cementer. After completing first
stage and releasing free fall plug (bomb) packer is opened at manufacturer’s operating
pressure to open slotted ports. After this remaining cement slurry is washed out (if it has
raised above stage collar during cementation of first stage) and complete circulation is
established.
4. Cementation of second stage is carried out in accordance with normal practice.
5. All cementation jobs with the help of multiple stage packer cementing collar should be
carried out only after carefully going through the instructions of its use and after testing it
on the surface.
12.5 Cementation of sections of Casings and Liners.

1. Main organizational and technical measures taken for ensuring successful landing and
cementation of complete lengths of casing are also used while landing and cementing
sections of casing and liners.
2. Cementation of well by landing liners or sections of casing have many things in common.
Liners and lower sections of casing are landed on drill pipes by using pump down plug (Fig.
12.7).
3. Liner wiper plug (6) is supported by shear pins and pump down plug (2) is placed in
cementing head (1) from where it is dropped and displaced in the drill pipes (3) up to the
liner hanger.
123
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Run in Position Inflating Position
Fig 12.6: Multiple stage Packer Cementing Collar Inflatable
124
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Fig 12.7: Liner Cementation
125
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
4. Pressure required for shearing the pins holding liner wiper plug (Fig. 12.7-6) as per
manufacturers specification.
5. Before cementing liner or section of the casing in some particular interval, it is hanged on
the slips of liner hanger (7). After this drill pipes are opened and backed off and seal off the
liner hanger. (5) tested by flushing well. While doing this pulling out of drill pipes (after
disconnecting them from casing) for more than the length of nipple (connecting pipe) is
categorically prohibited in order to avoid packer coming out of the nipple section of the
casing.
6. Backing off of drill pipes from casing should be done in accordance with the instructions of
the operating manual.
7. After disconnecting kelly cementing head is installed on the drill pipe through crossover.
After this circulation is established through cementing head before carrying out cementing
jobs (Fig. 12.7-A, B, C).
8. After cementing operation, drill pipes are installed on the upper end of the section of casing
for reverse circulation (Fig. 12.7-E) after which drill pipes are pulled out completely.
9. Often liner hanger is placed on slips or tongs. Slips or tongs are fixed at the shoe of previous
casing. Hydraulic set liner hanger (left) and mechanically set ‘J-slot’ hanger (right) are shown
in Fig. 12.8.
At present there is a range of liner hangers and setting tools with different features
available. Generally a liner hanger is composed of the following:
a. Setting Assembly: This has either a mechanical or hydraulic mechanism. Mechanical set
hangers can be operated either by rotation or reciprocation. In both cases pipe
movement will release a slip bowl from the retracted position by means of a ‘J-slot’ or
dog spring mechanism. The slips move into the hanging position supported by an upper
cone thereby transferring the liner weight to the upper casing.
b. The hydraulic set hangers: They are operated by hydraulic pressure. Some slip releasing
systems are actuated by dropping a ball, once the liner is in place, which will land in a
catcher sub. Further pressure will move a piston type assembly or shear pins which will
release the slips (Fig. 12.8).
c. Setting Sleeve: This is run above the setting assembly and has a thread matching the
liner setting tool. It is used to run the liner to depth.
d. Tie Back Sleeve: Screwed on top of the liner, it has an internal polished surface to
provide a seat and seal for future tie back liners or casings (Fig. 12.9).
e. Liner Packers and Liner Hanger-Packers: Liner packers are separate tools that screw on
top of the liner hanger. ‘They are usually weight operated with special setting tools,
which operate the hanger at the same time. Liner packers can be set at any time after
the liner hanger has been set. A tie back sleeve can be placed on top of packer for future
extensions of the liner (Fig. 12.10).
Liner Hanger Packers: A tool which combine the functions of hanger and packer: Packing
elements could be either compressed in a separate operation or compressed at the time
the hanger is set. The later system is not used for cementing.
f. Setting Tools: These are used to run and cement liners. They usually have a left hand
threaded nut which engages coarse left-hand threads in the liner hanger, to support the
liner as it is run. A sealing system preventing upward flow through the tool during the
cementing operation. The liner wiper plug is attached to the setting tool by shear pins
126
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
which shear after the pump-down plug has landed and pressure had been applied. This
allows displacement of the wiper plug down the liner (Fig. 12.11).
Hydraulically set Liner Mechanically set Liner

Fig 12.8: Liner Cementation
Hydraulic Setting Sleeve Mechanical Setting Sleeve

Fig 12.9: Setting sleeve with tie back extension
127
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Fig 12.10: Hanger Packers
128
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Fig 12.11: Setting Tool
129
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
12.6 Running-in and Tie Back of the Second Section of Casing

1. After cementation of lower section of casing and completion of WOC, TCR bit is lowered
into the well to check the condition of borehole up to the top of cemented section of
casing. In case there is cement plug in the casing it should be drilled without damaging
hanger or setting tool. Then pull out the bit.
2. Run in another three roller bit of the size of inner diameter of cemented section of cone
casing. The bit should be lowered 2-3 mts. below the hanger without rotation. Circulate
and pull out the bit.
3. In the next trip tie back nipple is lowered into the well with the help of drill string and a
trial is made to tie it back with the previous section of casing. Trial run of tie back tool with
locking device is made. In order to ensure rigidity of the assembly being lowered during the
trial run 20-30 m of casing pipes of corresponding diameter should be added to the tie-
back nipple.
Lowering of section of casing to be tied back should be carried out in accordance with the
requirements and guidelines set for the lower section of casing.
4. Deep tie-back of section of casing in a well is carried out with circulation at pump rate of 5
liters/sec. and with gradual release of casing weight. Tie-back process can be controlled by
the change in hook load, pump pressure and mud return at the surface.
5. If section of the casing to be tied is an intermediate one and has to be anchored on cement
stone around it than following jobs should be carried out after its landing.
a. Length of drill pipes is calculated in such a way that while tying back the section of
casing tool joint of the upper most pipe should be 0.5-1.5 m above rotary table
(without giving any load).
b. Drill pipes are set on elevation in such a way that tie-back sealing nipple does not come
out of tie back sleeve but circulating holes should be above tie back sleeve so that
cementation could be done through them.
c. Cementing head is connected with drill pipes through a cross over sub after which
circulation is established and cementation started.
6. Following operations are carried out while tying back last section of casing:
First of all last section of casing is tied back with previous cemented section. After this
length of casing (if any) above the rotary table and above casing landing flange is
measured. Last casing pipe is rested on this flange Length of the last section of casing is
selected in such a way that tool joint of the upper most casing pipe could exactly seat on
the casing landing flange. If it is not possible to adjust casing length up to the flange, a
special matching nipple is made from the same casing pipe.
After selecting required length of the last section of casing a special thick-wall nipple is
connected with the casing to install cementing head and conduct cementation.
Before starting cementation section of casing is raised in such a way that circulating holes
come out of tie-back sleeve with tie-back sealing nipple still inside. Then install nipple on
elevator and connect cementing head and manifold.
130
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
CEMENTING CEMENTING
STUBLINER TIE BACK CASING
Fig 12.12: Schematic view of Stubliner and Tieback Casing
131
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
CHAPTER 13
Secondary Cementation
13.1 Description
Cement plugs placement objective is to get a stable gas, water & oil impermeable cement
column of cement stone having sufficient strength at desired depth. Cement plugs are
placed in cased as well as in open holes.
Placement of cement plugs has many things in common with casing cementation but at the
same time it has its own peculiar features. Volume of cement slurry used is less, there is no
shoe, float collar, plugs etc. Plug has nothing to hold it from under and it may be pushed
downwards under the action of difference in sp. gr. of mud and cement slurry.
Plug job is supposed to be technically more complicated as compared to normal cementing
operation. It is more difficult in deep wells with high temperatures and pressures. Executors
of the job should take into consideration geological, technical and other subjective factors.
The experience of cement plug jobs has shown that in deep wells accidents and
complications do occur.
(a) Due to poor organisation of the job,
(b) Poor preparation of well bore,
(c) Poor conditioning of mud,
(d) Wrong treatment of cement slurry,
(e) Mistake in calculation of chemicals,
(f) Volume of displacement fluid.
Most common complication during placement of plug is stuck up of tubing as a result of
premature setting or thickening of cement slurry.
Cement plug should be placed only after thorough preparation of well bore i.e. bottom of
the well should be continuously flushed for 2-3 hours and till drilling fluid has normal
parameters. On the basis of existing loads, cement plugs are divided into two categories·
(a) For testing pressure of fluid or gas.
(b) For testing load of the string during side tracking and use of DST etc. Cement plugs
placed in this category should have high compressive strength.
In most of the cases cement plugs are placed with pressure balance in annulus as well as in
pipes. For this sp. Gr. Of mud and displacement fluid should be the same. In order to have
uniform mud, well is circulated till mud parameters becomes uniform after reaching bottom
at desired depth. In this case cement slurry placed at desired depth should be balanced in
annulus and pipes.
Squeeze cementing is carried out for pumping cement into formation under pressure.
Cement slurry is squeezed through damaged threaded joints or through perforations in the
casing for repair or for shut off water. After determining the interval to be repaired, casing is
perforated (if it is required) and cement is squeezed through these perforations after
lowering drill pipe 2-4 m above (some times below) these perforations while doing so, well
132
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
head should be sealed.

The injection rate must be determined prior to carrying out squeeze job. While taking
injectivity test, precaution must be taken to raise the pressure very gently upto the point
when injection takes place. Precautions must be taken to avoid fracturing or bursting of
pipe. The success of squeeze job depends upon the injection rate determination. On the
basis of injection rate the amount of slurry to be squeezed and maximum pressure to be
applied should be fixed. After determining the injectivity, required volume of cement slurry
is pumped into the well through tubing. While pumping cement slurry, annulus should be
open. As per calculations, column of cement slurry is 200m maximum from the open end,
annulus is closed and cement slurry squeezed into the formation. Further detail procedure
for placing cement plug and cement squeeze job is as follows;
13.2 Secondary Cementation
1. Circulate and condition well fluid at maximum possible rate for wellbore cleaning,
homogeneity (and lowering of wellbore temperature to circulating temperature in HPHT
wells).
2. Check for wellbore stability and note down the hook load. If found unstable, circulate the
well with suitable well fluid parameter.
3. Use 5" drill pipe with diverter tool (Fig No-13.1)
 In hole size of 12- ¼” and larger
 In 9-5/8" casing or larger
4. Avoid diverter tool if pressure limitation is expected during reverse circulation after cement
placement which may induce loss in the well.
5. To avoid stuck up of pipe due to cement on the lower side in an inclined hole, plan direct
circulation and the string must be in continuous reciprocation and rotation.
6. In case of smaller size hole/casing, use combination
string (preferably with 3 ½” or 2 7/8" drill pipe) with
tail pipe of 2 7/8" tubing. Minimum length of tail pipe
should be more than the intended length of cement
plug and spacer/pre-flush together to be placed.
7. Avoid using tubing string for squeeze jobs in deep
wells.
8. Plan longer cement column for highly deviated hole.
9. Calculate the height of cement column with drill
Fig No-13.1: Diverter Tool pipe/tubing inside cement slurry and displacement
volume accordingly.
10. Length of cement plug preferably be kept at minimum particularly in slim holes with narrow
annulus clearance.
133
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
11. For displacement of cement slurry, use cementing unit for accurate volumetric
displacement.
12. Underbalance the plug by 300 to 500 liter volume according to the size of the casing, if
substantial difference is there between mud and cement slurry SG.
13. Keep lines/valves/ change over connections ready before start of cementation to facilitate
immediate reverse circulation after plug placement & pulling out without loss of any time.
14. For large/deviated hole, rotate the string (during cement pumping and displacement) to
increase the chances of cement plug success. String should be kept in rotation while pulling
out also. Carry out safety pullout immediately after reverse wash. Option of direct wash
may be considered in highly deviated wells if rotation is possible.
15. Monitor hook load continuously throughout cementing operations including pulling out of
string for reverse wash. In case of increase in hook load, pull out fast to safe position and
immediately carry out direct wash at full SPM to avoid any complication.
16. Pulling out speed should not be more than 10-15 m/minute while string is in cement and
thereafter at high speed. In normal case, after pulling out minimum 100m above plug top,
carry out reverse wash
17. It is good practice to pull out in stands; break stand from working joint while pull out.
18. In all the cases of direct or reverse circulation, slurry thickening time should consider job
time, wash time and with contingency.
19. After carrying out the reverse wash / squeeze operation, ensure the opening of BOP
through physical inspection.
20. In case of problem in closing pipe ram for reverse circulation (after cement placement and
pulling out), resort to direct circulation with reciprocation to flush out residual cement to
avoid any complication.
21. In case of any problem in pulling out from bottom after cement placement, attempt to
rotate the string.
22. Keep cementing unit in readiness after cement pumping and also for any pressure
application required in case circulation could not be established after pulling out. In case,
pressure shoots up during initiation/process of reversing out, apply pressure through drill
string by cementing unit up to the safe limit of the minimum rating of running string
components or fracture limit of formation in case of open hole.
23. In case cement plug is required to be repeated, ensure that previous cement cuttings are
cleared and flushed out of hole properly (if required, use viscous sweep). Otherwise large
chunk of cement cuttings are likely to block drill pipe/annulus during reverse/direct wash,
resulting in well complication.
24. In very deep wells with high mud weight to increase the chances of successful placement of
cement plug, mechanical separation inside the string may be done using sponge ball to
avoid the contamination and cement plug failure.
To avoid the chances of stuck up of pipe with cement during cement plug placement in very
deep wells with high mud weight, fiber tubing may be used @ two times the cement plug
134
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
length. This will help in case of a stuck situation to snap the fiber tubing from metal tubing
/drill pipe and thereby saving the well as fiber tubing can be drilled out later.
25. In case of a secondary job in a well with brine solution which is likely to accelerate the
cement setting time, sufficient care should be taken to avoid flash setting of cement.
Sufficient amount of pre-flush and after flush in proportion (minimum 100m ) to be pumped
ahead and behind slurry to avoid contamination. If brine weight in the well is more than
1.09 SG (9 ppg), it may be replaced with mud.
26. In loss condition, cementitious material viz. RSF pill/cement slurry may be placed. The
specific gravity, thickening time, thixotropic property and volume of RSF pill/cement slurry is
based on the severity of the loss.
27. Always wash the string in loss condition also. If well condition does not permit wash at
deeper depth, pull out to shallower depth and wash the string/ annulus. In case of total
loss/ severe loss, wash volume to be monitored.
28. Thixotropic cement may be used in case loss cannot be brought under control using
conventional cement.
29. All precautions to be taken during tagging and drilling of cement
 Never attempt to tag cement with open end drill pipe/ tubing.
 Go slowly with bit (preferably without nozzles) rotation and mud circulation below the
depth of reverse/ direct wash. Monitor the torque & pressure. Also, lift the string
intermittently.
13.3 Cement Plug in Shallow depth

In shallow depth, plug placement becomes challenging due to larger hole size causing
cement channelizing/contamination problem. Distinctive precautions for shallow depth plug
placement are:
 Place weighted high viscous pill of around 100 m (150 sec funnel viscosity or higher) at
bottom sump just below planned bottom of cement plug.
 Use diverter tool. Lateral exit of fluid from diverter tool will provide better round the
hole cleaning and cement slurry placement.
 Circulate the well with tandem low vis-high vis sweep. Rotate and reciprocate the string
during circulation and plug placement.
 Optimize cement slurry thickening time. Slurry must be designed considering BHCT at
plug depth. Use accelerator if necessary.
 In absence of caliper log, slurry volume should be calculated considering likely hole size.
Also, for safety, pull out at least 150 m above expected plug top before wash.
 Design light weight cement slurry for loss situation and high density slurry for side track
plug.
 Use appropriate spacer /washes to prevent cement contamination. IDT designed
chemical wash is recommended for cement plugs in NDDF system.
 Plug placement should be in laminar / plug flow regime.
135
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
13.4 Cement squeeze procedures

1. In case of squeeze jobs, injectivity must be checked in water before taking up the job.
2. If an attempt is to be made to squeeze cement into perforations or into a casing leak etc.,
and the cement opposite the point of squeeze is to be drilled out later, injection rates
should be established before cement is squeezed.
3. Establishment of the injection rate is less important if the well is to be abandoned and
cement will not be drilled out afterwards.
4. If injectivity is not there, try to improve injectivity by acid wash against perforated areas.
Injectivity should be minimum 100 L/min at 1,000 psi in general.
5. In mud filled or partially plugged perforations where the injectivity is very poor, one of the
best ways to ensure a uniform deposit of cement is to pump weak hydrochloric or acetic
acid solution ahead of the cement as suggested by WSS expert. The acid shrinks the clay
particles and allows the cement slurry to penetrate farther.
6. High squeeze pressures which may induce formation breakdown must be avoided,
particularly in the vicinity of faults and stacked reservoirs, in order to prevent zonal
communication via vertical fissures. The formation closure pressure should never be
exceeded.
7. When a packer has been set just above the perforations or zone to be squeezed off, the
bottom hole pressure must be kept below 80 % of the collapse pressure of the weakest
casing in use. Changing the setting point of the packer or applying back pressure may help
to increase the allowable squeeze pressure.
8. The hesitation squeeze technique should be used in lost circulation / high pressure zones to
aid bridging of the cement solids.
9. Apply squeeze pressure in stages to achieve the desired squeezing pressure. (shown in fig
13.2)
Fig No-13.2: Cement Squeeze job by Hesitation Method
136
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
10. The simplest way to carry out a squeeze is to place a balanced plug and squeeze it by
applying pressure with the annulus closed. However, a packer must be used if the pressure
during the squeeze will exceed the maximum allowable pressure at any point above the
planned depth of the cementation.
11. In vertical wells minimum 25 m plug above the perforation should be there after squeeze, in
case of horizontal wells it should be 50 m.
Requirements (cement slurry design requirements)

 A consistent slurry SG is particularly important for cement plugs. The cement must be
batch mixed until the correct SG is achieved.
 The slurries with low fluid loss of less than 50 ml/30 min are used for regular squeeze
cementing jobs, to reduce premature slurry dehydration during placement.
 Slurries designed for use in remedial cementation operations, will be formulated such
that:
Pumpability Time = Mixing Time + Slurry Displacement Time + Circulating out Time + 60
mins (Safety margin)
Preparations
 In deviated wells with less than 30° hole angle, a viscous pill of approximately 100m
length can be used as a bottom support for the cement plug.
 If there are any perforations below that need to be protected from the squeeze
pressure and/or cement that might work its way down the hole, a drillable bridge plug
must be set above the perforation, approximately 7m below the interval to be squeezed.
13.5 Block cementation using a Cement Retainer
The following procedure should be adhered to when preparing for block cementation
(Circulation squeeze using a cement retainer):
i. Set a drillable cement retainer above lower most perforations to be squeezed.
ii. Before stab-in, circulate and run-in slowly into the retainer and establish hermeticity of the
string.
iii. Now, release the weight and attempt to establish circulation behind the casing, with
pressure less than fracture pressure of the formation.
iv. Use pre-flush and after flush before and after cement slurry.
v. Displace the batch-mixed cement until the first spacer reaches the end of the stinger.
vi. Stab in stinger into cement retainer immediately.
vii. Squeeze maximum 70% of the cement slurry.
viii. Pull out drill pipe from cement retainer approximately 15m. above the upper perforations
ix. Reverse wash the string.
x. POOH
xi. Block cementation is not recommended in case mud weights is more than 1.8 gm/cc.
13.6 Well Abandonment Procedure
Well abandoning procedure is recommended to prevent pressure build up or cross flow in the
well and its surroundings in future. Abandonment shall also prevent contamination of fresh
137
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
water aquifers and leakage of any well bore fluid to the surface.
There are two types of abandonment
 Temporary well abandonment
 Permanent well abandonment
1. Temporary Well Abandonment

i. Place a bridge plug or minimum 100m cement plug at the base of last casing string.
Avoid open hole cement plug.
ii. Put another plug with top of plug not more than 300m below wellhead / mud line. This
plug may be any of the three types.
 Retrievable Bridge Plug / packer
 Permanent Bridge Plug
 Cement Plug of 100 m
iii. For surface/ subsea wellhead, corrosion cap is to be installed covering all the annulus
and inside casing.
Testing abandonment cement plug for both permanent and temporary
abandonment
 Tag the cement plug, load test with 8 MT of weight and pressure test with 1,000 psi
wherever possible.
 The bore hole including the space between the cement plugs shall be filled with
drilling fluid of sufficient specific gravity and other properties so as to enable it to
withstand any subsequent pressure which may develop in the bore hole.
2. Permanent Well Abandonment

Permanent abandonment is to be followed in the wells
 Completed as a non-productive well
 Ceases to produce hydrocarbons
 No longer operated
a. Bottom Abandonment Plug

I. Open Hole Abandonment (Take extra height of cement plug to ensure minimum
plug length as below)
 With Oil /Gas/Freshwater Zone
 Place cement plug such that it covers
- Minimum 30m below the bottom-most zone &
- 30 m above the top-most zone.
 If a caliper log is available, correct volume of cement plug should be calculated
and placed to cover the predetermined length of cement plug.
 Tag the cement plug, load test with 8 MT of weight and pressure test with 1,000
psi or upto LOT equivalent pressure at exposed shoe.
 Place thereafter another cement plug such that minimum 30m below the shoe
and 30 m above shoe is covered.
138
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
 With No Oil / Gas / Freshwater Zone:

 Place cement plug such that minimum 30m below the shoe and 30 m above
shoe is covered.
 For Expected / Known Loss Zone:
 Bridge plug is to be set 15m to 30m above last shoe followed by 50 m
cement plug just above.
II. Cased Hole Abandonment
 Place preferably 100m cement plug such that minimum 30 m above the
top of topmost perforation is covered after cement is set and squeezed-
squeeze volume.
III. Cased Hole Abandonment (earlier producing one):
 Place preferably 100m cement plug such that minimum 30m below the bottom
of bottommost perforation to 30 m above the top of topmost perforation is
covered after cement is set.
 If perforation interval is too big, isolation of all zones are required or not, to be
decided. If required place more than one plug.
 Top most object in all cases is to be isolated by squeezing cement slurry.
Squeeze can be combined with cement plug placement while isolating top most
object.
 If completion packer is not retrieved, perforation interval below the packer is to
be isolated first by squeezing cement through packer and thereafter leaving a
cement plug of minimum 30m above packer.
b. Intermediate Abandonment Plug
I. For Well With Liner
In case well is completed with liner cementation in the final phase, place 100m
cement plug such that minimum 30m below the liner hanger top to 30 m above the
liner hanger top is covered after cement is set.
II. For Well with Retrieved Casing Leaving A Stub:
If casing is retrieved leaving a stub inside the previous casing, place 100m cement
plug such that minimum 30m inside stub and minimum 30 m above the stub is
covered after cement is set.
III. For Offshore Well (additional safety):
Check well for annulus activity. In case no activity is observed in offshore
exploratory well, place 100m cement plug in production casing at 1,000m–1,500m
depth. Alternatively bridge plug is to be set if top zone is already isolated by cement
plug/squeeze.
c. Top abandonment plug:
I. For Onshore Wells:
 Check 13⅜ x9⅝’’ annulus and 9⅝’’ x 7’’/ 5½’’ annulus for any activity.
 Fill both annuli with suitable mud. Perforate 7’’/ 5½’’ and 9⅝’’ casings 25m above
13⅜’’ shoe (9⅝’’ shoe in case of 2 casing policy) position with 8 shots per foot.
139
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
 Open 9⅝’’ x 7’’/ 5½’’ and 13⅜ x9⅝’’ annuli valve one by one & try to establish
circulation individually with required mud (within LOT value).
 Place a balanced cement plug of calculated volume and try to raise minimum 30 m
cement slurry in annulus one by one by operating annulus valves and closing BOP
such that 30m plug remains inside casing above perforation. Pump/Squeeze slurry
up to 1,000psi/ within LOT value.
 If circulation does not establish, in addition to squeeze against perforation, outer
most annulus to be top filled with cement slurry through tubing after removal of
Well Head.
 In case of 4 casing policy (18⅝’’/ 20’’ surface casing), perforation to be done 20 – 30
m above 18⅝’’/ 20’’ shoe depth assuming that there is no hydrocarbon show above
20’’ casing shoe.
 After removing all well heads a plate (Minimum thickness of 10 mm) to be welded
on the outermost casing with vent line and provision for pressure gauge.
 If casings are retrieved, place a progressive surface plug of 60 m height covering all
the annulus and inner most casing stub.
II. For Offshore Wells with Surface BOP:
 Check 20’’ x 13⅜’’ annulus and 13⅜’’ x 9⅝’’ annulus for any activity. Fill both annuli
with suitable mud.
 Perforate 9⅝’’ and 13⅜’’ casings 25m above 20’’ shoe (13⅜’’ or 9⅝’’ shoe in case of
3 casing/ 2 casing policy respectively) position with 8 shots per foot. Open
13⅜”x9⅝” and 20’’X13⅜’’ annuli valve one by one & try to establish circulation
individually with required mud (within LOT value).
 Place a balanced cement plug of calculated volume and try to raise minimum 30 m
cement slurry in both annuli one by one by closing BOP and operating annulus
valves such that 30m plug remains inside casing above perforation.
 Squeeze slurry up to 1,000psi/ LOT value.
III. For Offshore Wells with Sub-surface BOP:
 Place a cement plug of 100 m length such that top of cement plug is at about 100m
below well head.
d. Surface abandonment plug for offshore:
I. With surface BOP:
If MLS (Mudline suspension) is used and it covers all the casings, retrieve all casings
from MLS. However if there is any pressure in any of the annulus (20’’X13⅜’’ & 13⅜’’ X
9⅝’’), it needs to be subdued. After well is subdued and casing is retrieved from MLS,
Place Corrosion/ (T/A) Cap which covers all the annulus and inner casing stub.
If MLS is not used, check for any annulus activity. Subdue the well if any activity is
observed. Cut 9⅝’’ casing from 15m, 13⅜’’ casing from 10m and 20’’ casing from 5m
below sea bed. Cut and retrieve all the casings and place a progressive surface plug of
60 m height covering all the annulus and inner most casing stub. After cement plug
placement, wash down the cement up to 2m to 3m below sea bed. Cut and retrieve
back 30’’ casing at 2m below sea bed.
II. With Sub-surface BOP:
When well head is not retrieved and annuli are sealed by energization, no surface
140
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
abandon plug is required.
13.7 Isolation of Formation Water by Diesel Cement Slurry

1. Oil based cement slurries capable of forming light strength cement stone in aqueous
medium are used in the fluids having alternate sections of oil and water for isolating
formation water.
2. Oil, kerosene or diesel with chemicals (e.g., cresol, calcium napthenates, phenol etc.) are
used for preparing oil based cement slurries. Their use improves mixing capacity of cement
and hydrocarbon liquid and convert them into a homogenous mass and enables it to
maintain it's fluidity for a long period and ensures displacement of hydrocarbon liquid when
oil based cement slurry comes in contact with water.
3. Diesel cement slurry sets only when the slurry comes in contact with water at normal or
high temperature. Petroleum product in cement slurry is displaced by water as soon as oil
base cement slurry comes into contact with water. It is sufficient to displace 25-30% of
diesel from these slurries to ensure a good cement set. This property of diesel cement
slurries shut off selective water formations, i.e. cement slurry sets in the water formations
only leaving plugs. But in oil bearing formation it does not set, at all.
4. Before use, the composition of this slurry is designed in the laboratory, keeping the fluidity
of composition and lowest oil/cement ratio for good water shut off. Surfactants are selected
for improving the fluidity of cement slurry at low oil cement ratio and for helping to increase
displacement of oil product by water after it has been squeezed in water bearing
formations.
5. To prevent mixing of oil base cement slurry with and displacement fluid in delivery pipes,
spacer of hydrocarbon liquid should be used before and after the slurry. Volume of such
spacer should be 100-150 m of column in pipes and annulus.
6. As per calculations the column of cement slurry reaches lower end of pipes, annulus is
closed and cement slurry squeezed through perforations (filter) of production casing. When
pressure reaches its maximum value squeeze job is supposed to be completed.
7. For easier separation of petroleum product from cement slurry and better plugging of
fractures and void spaces, during displacement, pressure should be increased upto
maximum and then decreased upto zero for a number of times.
8. After completion of squeeze job excessive oil base cement should be washed out with
reverse circulation and then pipes should be pulled out to such a depth where there is no
risk of stuck up.
9. The well is then kept for WOC after which well is flushed or cement plug is drilled. Casing is
hermetically tested and perforated.
13.8 Consideration for Side track plug
Placing a sidetrack plug is a challenging task as compressive strength requirement is higher and
any deviation from ideal conditions may result in repetition of the job. Following are the
consideration for successful sidetrack plug job:
1. Determine accurate hole size and/or excess factor based on field experience
2. Optimize mud properties prior to cementing for mud removal. Pump adequate quantity of
141
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
fresh mud prior to preflush.

3. Determine accurate BHCT.
4. Optimize cement slurry thickening time. Slurry must be designed considering high
compressive strength as compared to formation at plug depth.
5. Design compatible weighted spacer (preflush and afterflush) with appropriate density and
rheological hierarchy.
6. Use diverter tool with narrow tail pipe. Lateral exit of fluid from diverter tool will provide
better round the hole cleaning and cement slurry placement (refer Fig No. 13.1)
7. Place weighted high viscous pill of around 100 m (150 sec funnel viscosity or higher) at
bottom sump just below planned bottom of cement plug.
8. Use batch mixer for uniform cement slurry specific gravity.
9. Rotate/reciprocate the string during circulation and plug placement. However, do not
reciprocate when cement start to rise in the annulus.
10. Displacement rate for plug placement should be as high as possible, limited to formation
strength.
11. Balance the plug.
12. Pull out the string at slow rate (approx. 10 m/min) till string open end comes out of the
cement. Also rotate intermittently with 7-8 rpm.
13. Reverse wash the string. Consider direct wash if high back pressure/loss is expected.
Following are the examples of side track plug job:
1. Well: RPAA, Silchar
During drilling 8 ½”hole up to 2984m string got stuck (9 5/8”casing shoe at 2459m). Lot of
efforts were made to release the string but in vain and even the circulation could not be
established. It was decided to side track the well with the fish top at 2862m. It was an inclined
well with angle of 13.6o at fish top.
First attempt for cement plug made b/w 2850-2700m considering 10’’ open hole size without
recording caliper log. Cement could not be tagged. Recorded caliper log and observed highly
caved hole size of 16 to 18 inches.
Further, three more unsuccessful attempts were made. During failure analysis, observed that
existing diverter tool design and spacer design are culprit. Finally manufactured standard
diverter tool (Fig no 13.1), designed compatible spacer and better compressive strength cement.
Cement Water BA-90 FL52D CD-32 R21L FP21L
100 41 3.0 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.2
Results:
Thick. Initial API F/L Rheology Comp. Free Fluid

Time Consistency (ml/30 Strength %
(min) (Bc) min) (psi)
277 20 44 194/20 4100 Nil
142
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
UCA chart:
Execution of fifth cement plug was as follows;

Cement plug of 120 m between 2540-2420 m for side-tracking {80m in open hole and
40 m in cased hole}
1. Running in 5”drill pipe with 3½” diverter tool up to 2600 m and circulate the well at 120-
140 SPM (around 3.1m3/min at 150-180ksc) with reciprocation 7-8m and rotation 7-10
RPM.
2. Placed weighted high viscous pill (1.75 SG) of 50m (2600-2550m) having 160 sec funnel
viscosity at bottom sump just below planned bottom of cement plug.
3. Pull out up to 2540m (02 stands) and circulate the well for two cycle of well volume at
140 SPM (around 3.1m3/min) with rotation at 7-10 RPM.
4. Pump 20m3 fresh mud of 1.43 sp.gr. by rig pump with rotation of 7-8 RPM.
5. Pump pre-flush 3.8m3 (150m) of weighted spacer having 1.55 sp.gr. by rig pump with
rotation of 7-8 RPM.
6. Pump batch mix cement slurry 15.0 m3 (120m cement plug from 2540-2420m) of
average 1.94 sp.gr.
7. Pump after-flush 1.4m3 (150m) of weighted spacer having 1.55 sp.gr. by rig pump with
rotation of 7-8 RPM.
8. Mud displacement 20.9m3 (120-140 SPM) by rig pump and balance the plug.
9. Pull out 15 stands of drill pipe from cement plug at slow speed of 10 to 15 m/minute.
10. Reverse wash through rig pump of 02 cycle volume at 60-70 SPM.
11. Safety pull out 06 stand of drill pipe.
12. Fill the hole and WOC 36 Hrs.
After WOC, plug was tagged and well was sidetracked successfully.
143
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
2. Well: PDAC_KKL (TD-4746m), Cauvery Asset

During drilling 12-1/4”hole from 2451m (13 3/8”casing shoe) to 3254m, observed two nos of
cone and blade of the bit left in the well. Lot of efforts were made for junk milling without
success. It was then decided to side track the well with the fish top at 3254m. Three cement
plug were placed and tagged in open hole, but could not sidetrack the well due to insufficient
comptressive strength as compared to very hard formation. Thereafter, designed a 1.95 SG
cement slurry with compressive strength of 5000 PSI.
Slurry composition:
Cement Water Si-Fume FL52D CD-32 R21L FP21L
100 40 06 0.3 0.6 0.35 0.2
Results:
Thick. Initial API F/L Rheology Comp. Free Fluid

Time Consistency (ml/30 Strength %
(min) (Bc) min) (psi)
235 24 74 Pv-143.7 5000 Nil
Yp-5.63 (15 hrs)
Note: Supported formation should be selected as KOP for side track and cement plug should be
planned accordingly.
144
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
CHAPTER 14
Annular Gas Leakage

14.0 Annular Gas Leakage
It is now well established that annular gas leakage after cementing is associated with a
reduction in effective hydrostatic head by a cement column during its setting period. This
explanation is right because after setting the cement column exerts pressure equal to column of
mix water density. The other factors that can cause annular gas flow shortly after cementing
are:
- Excessive dehydration.
- Cement shrinkage.
- Non-uniform setting of cement.
With the introduction of cement slurries with adequate fluid loss control characteristics can
avoid excessive dehydration.
Cement shrinkage can be controlled by using certain cement additives. Use of expanding cement
system (using additives like DBM-Dead Burnt Magnesite) reduces the chances of microannulus.
The non-uniform setting is now considered a positive point if the cement slurry above gas
horizon remains fluid for a longer time and continues to exert the head till it attains initial set.
The techniques and measures adopted in annular gas preventions are selected by taking
formation integrity into consideration. Thus pressure depleted zone can lead to severe annular
gas migration after cementing as cement may loss in formation leading reduction in head. In
such conditions where cement rise upto gas zones is not possible, ECP (External casing packer)
may be used to seal annulus above the gas zone in overlap section. The other important
considerations are tubular design, stability, load analysis, rheology of mud, cement, quality
control of cement, accuracy of hole caliper data, accurate circulating temperature, depth, pore-
pressure data and knowledge of past completion practices which are common to good
cementing practices including gas wells.
If cement column during its setting exerts a pressure equal to density of mix water, then most
effective method to reduce the potential gas flow is to minimise the Cement column. Thus the
height of cement column should be reduced to compensate the loss of hydrostatic head during
setting by increasing adequately the column of drilling fluid or allternatively increasing its
weight.
The other possible technique is to use cement slurry with varying thickening time, so that API
thickening time difference is two hours between initial set of tail and lead slurry slurry at the
bottom sets before slurry at the top.
The potential for annular gas can be reduced by applying a surface pressure on the cement
annulus after cement placement. The imposed pressure accounts for the loss in cement
hydrostatic head that occurs as the slurry thickens. This technique requires that cement used for
cementing should develop strength soon after its initial set. In this method BOP should be closed
immediately after cement placement and pressure is applied on the cemented annulus during
the time the cement attains its initial set considering fracture of weakest formation.
Static Gel Strength (SGS) development is one of many factors that contribute to decay of
hydrostatic pressure. As gelled fluid interacts with the casing and the borehole wall it loses its
ability to transmit hydrostatic pressure. It also contributes to the ability of slurries to suspend
145
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Annular Gas Leakage
solids under static conditions. Experimental data has shown that gas cannot freely percolate
through cement that has a SGS ranging from 250 to 500 lbf/100ft 2 or more. The industry has
conservatively adopted the upper end of the range as the accepted limit. It is considered that
hydrostatic head start to reduce when SGS reaches critical gel strength (generally considered as
100 lbf/100ft2). So the time period for SGS to reach from 100 lbf/100ft2 to 500 lbf/100ft2 should
be less than 45 minutes (API STD 65-2).
The multiple stage cementing technique has been applied successfully in preventing annular gas
migration by selective cementation of casing in place. Each cement column is allowed to set
prior to placing a subsequent stage.
Most recent development is compressible cement system which is designed to maintain a fluid
gradient near its original density during its initial hydration. These cements are formulated to
contain minute gas bubbles, which make new cement system compressible so that new bubbles
expand to maintain a near constant bottom hole pressure, thus providing an adequate
hydrostatic overbalance. In addition, the presence of gas bubbles make the cement column to
transmit pressure throughout its length, which may get interspersed due to differential setting
of cement, because of difference in temperature and permeability of formation, cement
additives has been developed to prevent annular gas leakage.
External Casing Packer (ECP) can also be used to contain activity from uncemented zones below.
14.1 Sustained Casing Pressure
Sustained Casing Pressure (SCP) is defined as any measurable annular pressure at the casing
head that rebuilds to essentially the original annular pressure after being bled down and is
attributable to cause (s) other than;
(a) An artificially applied annular pressure (i.e. gas lift) which remains isolated from other
annuli. Or
(b) Temperature fluctuation in the well (Thermal pressure)
The principle concern for wells that exhibit a sustained casing pressure is that a down-hole
situation is developing or has developed that can result in an underground blowout. Wells are
designed so that the innermost casings are the strongest. Only the production casing is designed
to withstand the pressure of the deepest producing formation. Thus production casing provides
a redundant barrier to a blowout in the event of a failure of the production tubing. This
redundant protection allows the tubing to be safely repaired. However, if a tubing leak develops
and pressure is allowed on the production casing, there is no longer a redundant barrier
present. If the production casing fails, the next outer casing string is generally not designed to
withstand formation pressure. In such a situation, blowouts of sufficient flow rate to jeopardize
the production platform becomes a possibility. The magnitude of the leak rate is as important as
the magnitude of the pressure when determining the potential hazard posed by sustained
casing pressure. API has issued following standards related to SCP management;
1. API RP 90: Annular casing pressure management for offshore wells
2. API RP 90-2: Annular casing pressure management for onshore wells
3. API STD 65-2: Isolating Potential Flow Zones During Well Construction
146
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Annular Gas Leakage
14.1.1 Case histories in ONGC western offshore field:
This problem has also taken its toll on Oil and Gas Industry in the world as well as in India. There
are more than 8000 wells with this problem in Gulf of Mexico. In Indian offshore, out of more
than 100 SCP wells, following four cases are reported;
Case 1:
B-121 Blowout occurred leading to fire and the whole platform melted. Relief well was drilled to
control the blowout.
Case2
Sinking of wells of HC platform. All the wells are planned to be liquidated.
Case 3
NSBX: Severe gas leakage through holes of 20” & 30” casing, controlled with ingenious method
of clamping holes and circulating through 13 3/8” casing perforation up to 13 3/8”*20” annulus.
Case 4
BE-10H: 20” casing parted and the original well had to be abandoned and a new location was
drilled through the slot.
14.1.2 SCP Categorization Criteria in ONGC

ONGC Western Offshore SCP policy is based on guidelines under Minerals Management Service
(MMS), US, regulation (provision- 30 CFR 250) .SCP wells are mainly classified into following
categories.
SAFE:
Wells with SCP less than 5% of Minimum Internal Yield Pressure (MIYP) of outer casing used.
SELF APPROVED DEPARTURE (SAD):
Wells with SCP in the range of 5% <SCP< 20% of MIYP and bleeds to 0 psi in 24 hours or less
through ½” needle valve.
CRITICAL:
Wells with sustained casing pressure that is greater than 20 % of MIYP of the affected casing or
which do not bleed to zero through a ½” needle valve within 24 hours or less.
Under this critical category of wells, there can be three different situations:
a) Well’s annuli having sustained casing pressure greater than 20% of MIYP of affected
casing but bleeds to zero within 24 hours through a ½” needle valve.
b) Well’s annuli having sustained casing pressure less than 20% of MIYP of affected casing
but does not bleed to zero within 24 hours through a ½” needle valve.
c) Well’s annuli having SCP greater than 20% of MIYP of affected casing and also doesn’t
bleed to zero within 24 hrs through ½” needle valve.
14.1.3 Probable reason of SCP
In ONGC, a Kick off meeting of SCP Committee was carried out on 23/01/2015 in Mumbai
offshore. Based on data received for 1671 wells, it was found that 104 wells were Critical wells
based on SCP Categorization criteria followed in ONGC which in turn is as per Inspection &
Reporting Requirements (IRR) for Wells and Well Platforms, November 2001. Out of those 104
SCP critical wells, Water Injection wells (51 nos) constitutes 49 % of inventory , followed by Gas
lift wells (27 nos) which constitutes 26 % , 17.3 % by Self flow oil wells(18 nos) and 6.7 % and
0.9% by Gas producer (7 nos) and ESP (1) wells respectively.
147
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Annular Gas Leakage
Following are the probable reason;

a) SCP in production annulus / “C” section
Problem generally is due to leakage through tubing or completion equipment including
Packers and gas lift valves. Mostly self-flow wells, gas producer wells and water injector
wells fall in this category. In most cases attempted repair is successful.
b) SCP in outer annuli / “A” or “B” section
Problem is generally due to Well head seal leak which may lead to pressure migration
from production casing annulus to outer annulus, HC source at shallow depth and not
isolated with cement, micro-annulus, leak through casing threads/corroded body.
Mostly in gas lifted wells, Injection gas leaks through casing threads. Generally difficult
to repair if it is due to other than well head seal leak. Referring SCP in outer annulus API
says in RP-90 “If the condition exists on the outer annuli, it is recognized that option for
correction are very limited.
In the case of shallow reservoir, elimination is very difficult. On case to case basis
“lubrication” is found very effective. In this method lighter gas is replaced with heavier
fluid like water in affected annulus which exerts higher than shallow reservoir pressure
and controls it for certain period.
14.1.4 Cementing Recommendation to Avoid SCP
1. If due to some reasons, cement is not present up to top of the annulus between
conductor and 20” casing, the oxygen corrosion can take place on the internal surface of
conductor casing and external surface of 20” casing. This will lead to progressive
penetration of corrosion to inner casings also. Hence cement rise upto surface is
recommended (see fig 14.1). Top up cement job may be performed to ensure cement
rise up to surface until fully achieved. In case of offshore wells, cement rise upto surface
may prevent any further action to be taken up in case any channels or cracks occur in
cement body. Hence in offshore, ensure cement rise upto sea bed and fill remaining
annulus with electrolyte free mud system upto surface to avoid corrosion due to
oxygenated fluid.
2. Use of light weight extended slurry with Bentonite may be discontinued as its
compressive strength is very low and most likely intends to crack under marine
environment. Use of properly designed light weight lead slurry with high compressive
strength as lead followed by 15.8 ppg (1.90 sg) tail slurry for bottom 100 to 150m to
obtain long term integrity of the cement sheath is, therefore recommended.
148
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Annular Gas Leakage
3. Use of stinger i.e. inner string to cement 20" casing as it will avoid contamination of
slurry during pumping and displacement which will provide good cement rise up to
surface is guaranteed. Experienced supervisor from Drilling services has to be present at
the time of stinger job for successful implementation.
4. Wherever applicable, ECP should be set in annulus to stop gas migration. Potential gas
zones and potential flow zones should be clearly demarcated and depth of ECP to be
decided accordingly. In all such cases where ECP use are recommended, caliper log
should be taken to decide on setting depth of ECP.
5. Cement slurry properties of 9⅝" casing may be modified to achieve long term integrity.
Enhancement of mechanical properties can be achieved with the help of special
additives which can prevent development of
cracks when subjected to cyclic stress during
testing and stimulation jobs where high
pressure is involve.
6. Using sea water as displacement fluid during
displacement of cement slurry in 9⅝" casing
may be explored which can prevent de-bonding
between cement and casing and formation of
micro annulus when well is tested with lighter
brine.
7. Proper care to be taken to plan centralizer
spacing as per software and use of non-weld
centralizers in all production casing and liner
job must be ensured so as to achieve at least
70% standoff. Non weld centralizer has ability
to reduce friction and do not break during
running- in of casing.
8. Care should be taken to improve mud
displacement while dealing with SOBM mud.
Design of sacrificial mud and volume of mud
cleaner should be designed properly to obtain Fig 14.1: Cement rise upto surface
water wetting of formation and casing. Proper in outer most casing
surfactants have to be used for cleaning the oil film.
9. Cement Bond evaluation logs must be recorded and analyzed in detail to exactly know
actual cementation job performed on the rigs along with data of mud circulation, time
logs, and mud loss data during actual cementation job. Post analysis of each job must be
done to predict cause of failure and lessons learnt to improve further in future. True
reporting of mud loss is also vital in maintaining a comprehensive data record.
10. In all marginal / new fields, CBL has to be carried out for production, intermediate and
surface casings to confirm that cement rise takes place as per plan to targeted depth
and good quality bond is intact.
149
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
CHAPTER 15
Cementing Calculations
15.0 General
1. Calculations for cementing operations are made to determine the following:
(a) Quantity of materials required for successful cementation.
(b) Operation lime.
(c) Type and number of cementing equipment.
2. Type of cementing material is usually selected on the basis of following factors: Formation
pressure anomaly, bottom hole temperature, mud weight, saturation of formation fluid in
the section of well bore and rock constituents.
3. Selected cementing materials should ensure SG of cement slurry, for creating required
hydrostatic head along with mud and buffer, which should not exceed 85-90% of hydro-
fracturing pressure of the interval to be cemented.
4. While designing cement slurry, following parameters should be determined: rheology, SG,
thickening time, and compressive strength of cement stone at the bottom hole
temperature and pressure conditions.
5. Annular volume should be found out from the caliper log. More accurate and complete
information about cavings, tight section of well bore and key seals is to be considered.
15.1 Some basics:

 Volumetric capacity of a annulus (litre/m) =
Where, IDh = Diameter of hole. Inches
ODc = Casing size/Outside diameter of casing, inches
 Volumetric capacity of a hole (litre/m) =

Where, IDh = Diameter of hole. Inches
 Pressure exerted by a column of fluid (kg/cm2) =

Where, SG = Specific gravity of fluid, gm/cc
H = Height of fluid column, meter
 1 kg/cm2 = 14.22 PSI
 1 gm/cc = 8.33 ppg
 Bulk density: Mass of many particles of the material divided by the total volume they
occupy. The total volume includes particle volume, inter-particle void volume, and internal
pore volume. E.g. bulk density of OWC is 1505.47 kg/m3. More commonly used term
“sack” means 94 lbs, which is the mass 1 ft3 of OWC, as per bulk density.
150
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
 Absolute density: Mass of many particles of the material divided by the total volume they
occupy. The total volume includes particle volume only and exclude inter-particle void
volume and internal pore volume. E.g. absolute density of Class G OWC is 3140 kg/m3.
 Specific Gravity: Density relative to water. E.g. SG of OWC is 3.14 {density of OWC (3140
kg/m3) divided by density of water (1000 kg/m3)}.
 Specific gravity of cement slurry:
Example: SG of neat cement slurry 100% OWC + 44% water

Slurry density = = = 1894.74 kg/m3 1.90 gm/cc
Example:
Rqrd for 1MT Volume rqrd for 1MT
Material SG % BWOC
OWC (kg) OWC (m3)
OWC 3.14 100 1000 0.318471338
Water 1 46 460 0.46
Haematite 4.95 16 160 0.032323232
DO60 1.1 0.8 8 0.007272727
DO65 1.43 0.1 1 0.000699301
D121 1.38 0.1 1 0.000724638
DO47 1 0.1 1 0.001
Total 1631 kg 0.820491236 m3
Slurry Density = = = 1989 kg/m3

SG of slurry 1.99
 Yield: Volume of cement slurry obtained from unit wt of dry OWC.

Yield is calculated from slurry design report
Example: Yield of neat cement slurry 100% OWC + 44% water
Volume of cement (1MT OWC) + volume of water (for 1MT of OWC)
= = 0.76 m3 per 1MT of OWC
151
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Example:
Rqrd for 1MT Volume rqrd for 1MT
Material SG % BWOC
OWC (kg) OWC (m3)
OWC 3.14 100 1000 0.318471338
Water 1 46 460 0.46
Haematite 4.95 16 160 0.032323232
DO60 1.1 0.8 8 0.007272727
DO65 1.43 0.1 1 0.000699301
D121 1.38 0.1 1 0.000724638
DO47 1 0.1 1 0.001
Total 1631 kg 0.820491236 m3
Volume obtained from 1MT OWC = 0.82 m3

Hence, yield is 0.82 m3 per MT of OWC.
15.2 Basic steps for calculation, while planning cementation job:

1. Cement slurry volume
a. Rise of cement
b. Caliper log or field experience
2. Dry cement
a. Slurry design and Yield
3. Mix water
a. Slurry design
4. Quantity of additives
a. Dry cement
b. Slurry design
c. Wet or dry blending
5. Displacement
a. Casing specifications
b. Float collar depth
6. Pressure
a. SG and height of all the fluids used in cementation job
7. Casing tally
152
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Example 1:
Following are the well parameters:
Drilled Depth 3514m
Casing Shoe Depth 3510m
Float Collar Depth 3486m
Casing 5 ½”, 20 PPF, P-110 (ID=4.778”)
100% OWC + 46% Water + 16% Haematite + 0.8% DO60
Slurry Design
+ 0.1% DO65 + 0.1% D121 + 0.1% DO47
Hole size As per caliper (or 9.5 inch)

Cement rise required in annulus 600m
Spacer 1.70 SG, 300m in the annulus
Mud Weight 1.45 SG
1. Cement slurry volume:
(Always use caliper log for volume calculation. If not available, use prior experience in that
particular field.)
Sample calculation for only the part of caliper given above:
Casing Size = 5.5“, Ann Vol Capacity = (IDh2 – ODc2)/1973.52 m3/m, Dh & Dc are in inch
20 PPF
Depth Hole Dia
Volume
Length (m) (inch) from Ann Vol Cap (m3/m)
From (m) To (m) (m3)
caliper
a b c = b-a d e = (Dh2 – ODc2)/1973.52 f = e X c
2730-2725 = (From log) = (9.52 – 5.52)/1973.52
2910 3120 6.38
210 9.5 = 0.03040
3120 3225 105 9 0.02571 2.7
3225 3383 158 8.75 0.02322 3.67
3383 3510 127 10.75 0.043228 5.49
Total slurry volume 18.24
Caving factor is the % increase in volume as compared to gauged hole.

Slurry volume in annulus in case of gauged hole = =
= 12.76 m3.
Caving factor = = 42.9%
Average hole size can be calculated as below:
153
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Avg hole size = = 9.5 inch

Volume of slurry required for shoe track = Vol. capacity of casing X shoe track length
= ltr/m X (3510m – 3486m) = X 24m = 0.277 m3
Total slurry volume required = 18.24 m3 + 0.277 m3 = 18.517 m3

2. Dry Cement:
As per slurry design, yield has already been calculated, which is 0.82 m3 per MT of OWC.
Hence, dry OWC required for 18.517 m3 slurry = 18.517 m3 / 0.82 m3 per MT = 22.58 MT OWC
3. Mix water:
As per slurry design, water to be used is 46% BWOC.
Hence, water required for 22.58 MT OWC = 46% of 22.58 MT = 10.38 MT = 10.38 m3
4. Quantity of cement additives:

Material % BWOC Rqrd for 22.58 MT OWC (kg)
Haematite 16 3613
DO60 0.8 181
DO65 0.1 22.58
D121 0.1 22.58
DO47 0.1 22.58
5. Displacement:
Float collar depth = 3486m
Displacement = Float collar depth X Vol capacity of casing
= 3486m X = ltr/m = 40.33 m3
6. Pump pressure to land the plug:

Differential pressure after final placement
= Annular hydrostatic head - Casing hyd. Head
={ }-{ }
= 38.6 kg/cm2 = 548 psi
Surface pressure at the end of displacement

= 548 PSI + Friction losses in pumping
7. Plug hit Pressure:

= Pump pressure at the end of displacement + 50 Kg/cm2 (To ensure plug hitting)
154
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Example 2:
Drilled Depth 1545m
Casing shoe depth 1540m
Float collar depth 1516m
Casing 13 ⅜”, 68 PPF, N-80 (ID =12.415”)
Slurry design Lead Slurry: 100% OWC + 70% Water + 2% Bentonite
Tail Slurry : 100% OWC + 44% Water + 0.3% CFD + 0.1%
DO47
Avg hole dia 18”
Annulus rise 600m (400m lead slurry + 200m tail slurry)
MW 1.20
1. Cement slurry volume:

Volumetric capacity of annulus = litre/m = = litre/m = 73.48 l/m
Volume of slurry required for 400m rise (Lead slurry) in annulus = 73.48 l/m X 400m = 29.4 m3
Volume of slurry required for 200m rise (tail slurry) in annulus = 73.48 l/m X 200m = 14.7 m3
Volume of slurry required for shoe track = Vol. capacity of casing X shoe track length
= ltr/m X (1540m – 1516m) = X 24m = 1.87 m3
Total tail slurry volume required = 14.7 m3 + 1.87 m3 = 16.57 m3

2. Dry Cement:
Yield of lead slurry = Summation of volume of all constituents required for 1 MT of OWC
= Vol of 1MT OWC + Vol of 700 kg water + Vol of 20 kg bentonite
= = 1.026 m3 per MT OWC
Dry OWC required for lead slurry (29.4 m3) = 29.4m3/1.026m3 per MT = 28.65MT
Yield of tail slurry = Summation of volume of all constituents required for 1 MT of OWC
= Vol of 1MT OWC + Vol of 440 kg water + Vol of 3 kg CFD + Vol of 1kg DO47
= = 0.77 m3 per MT OWC
Dry OWC required for tail slurry (16.57m3) = 16.57m3/0.77m3 per MT = 21.52MT
Total dry OWC requirement = 28.65MT + 21.52MT = 50.17MT
155
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
3. Mix water:
As per slurry design, water to be used is 70% BWOC for lead and 44% for tail slurry.
Hence, water required for lead slurry (28.65MT) = 70% of 28.65 MT = 20MT = 20 m3
water required for tail slurry (21.52MT) = 44% of 21.52 MT = 9.5MT = 9.5 m3
4. Quantity of cement additives:
Material % BWOC Requirement (kg)
Bentonite 2 2% of 28.65MT = 573kg

CFD 0.3 0.3% of 21.52MT = 64.5kg
DO47 0.1 0.1% of 21.52MT = 21.52kg
5. Displacement:
Float collar depth = 1516m
Displacement = Float collar depth X Vol capacity of casing
= 1516m X = ltr/m = 118.4 m3
6. Pump pressure to land plug
SG of lead slurry = 1.65
SG of tail slurry = 1.90
Differential pressure after final placement
= Annular hydrostatic head - Casing hyd. Head
={ }-{ }
= 30.32 kg/cm2 = 431 psi
Surface pressure at the end of displacement

= 431 PSI + Friction losses in pumping
7. Plug hit pressure
= Pump pressure at the end of displacement + 50 kg/cm2
156
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Example 3:
Placing a 100m cement plug 50m in open hole and 50m in casing
Hole dia 9.25”
Casing ID 8.681” (9 ⅝”, 47PPF)
OETP 2550m.
Preflush and afterflush 50m length each
String inside the casing 5” Drill pipe, 19.5 PPF (ID=4.276”)
Slurry design to be used 100% OWC+ 44% water + 16% Haematite +
0.8% DO60 + 0.1% DO65 + 0.1% D121 + 0.1%
DO47
1. Open hole volume = [ ltr/m] X 50m = 2.17m3
2. Cased hole volume = [ ] X 50m = 1.91m3
3. Total vol rqd = 4.08m3
4. Cement column length when drill pipe is inside
a. Metal volume displacement by drill pipe = l/m=3.40 l/m
b. Volume displaced by 100m of drill pipe = 3.40 X 100 = 340 ltr
Additional cement column length due to metal displacement =
Cement column length when drill pipe is inside = 109.7m
5. Displacement = (2550-109.7-50)m X 9.265 l/m = 22.15 m3
157
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
15.3 Pressure to lift the casing:

During some cementing treatments, there is a danger that the casing may be pumped or lifted
out of the well.
Conditions that favor such an occurrence are;
1. Lightweight pipe
2. Short pipe length
3. large-diameter pipe
4. High-density cement slurries
5. Low-density displacement fluids
6. High annular friction pressures
7. Bridging in the annulus
8. Backpressure.
Under static condition, when a check valve is used
⃤ F = [(ph)ann X AOD] – (mcsg + mfluid)
Where,
AOD = cross-sectional area (in2) of casing outside diameter
mcsg = casing weight (lbm)
mfluid = weight of fluid inside casing (lbm)
(ph)ann = hydrostatic pressure of annular fluid(s) (lbf/in2).
Under static condition, when no check valve is used
⃤ F = [(ph)ann X (AOD-AID)] + [{(ph)ann –(ph)csg}(AID)] - mcsg
Where,
AID = cross-sectional area (in2) of casing inside diameter
(ph)csg = hydrostatic pressure of fluid(s) in casing (lbf/in2).
Fig No. 15.1: Diagram for
pressure to lift Casing
When pumping, the pump pressure (pp) acting on the inner-diameter cross-sectional area (AID)
must be added to the above equation.
⃤ F = PBH (AOD-AID) + (Pp x AID) - mcsg
Where,
PBH = effective pressure at the bottom of the hole; PBH = (ph)csg + Pp.
If ⃤ F is positive, the casing may come out of the well. Working this problem backward, the
value of pp that gives a ⃤ F value of zero is the critical pump pressure above which the casing
may be pumped from the well.
The service crew should ensure that the pump pressure during the treatment never exceeds this
value unless the casing is restrained.
158
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Ppmax =
Example:
Consider a 13 ⅜”, 61 ppf casing set at 244 m with 1.77 SG cement and 1 SG water for
displacement. Is there danger of the casing coming out of the well? Consider 25m cement is left
in the casing.
Under static conditions:
⃤ F = [(ph)ann X (AOD-AID)] + [{(ph)ann –(ph)csg}(AID)] - mcsg)
= [( PSI) X ( ] + [{ –
}X( )] – (244 X 3.28 X 61)
= -9682.85 lbf
The negative force indicates that there is not enough buoyancy to float the casing under static
conditions. The pump pressure at the end of displacement is
Pp = = 239.8 PSI
This pump pressure balances the hydrostatic-pressure difference between the fluid in the
annulus and the fluid in the casing. Maximum allowable pump pressure to avoid lifting the
casing from the well:
Pp,max =
= 347.33-38.70 = 308.63 PSI
Therefore, for this casing, the pump pressure must be maintained below 308.63 PSI, or other
precautions should be taken to avoid having the casing come out of the well.
159
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
CHAPTER 16
Cement Evaluation
Cementation of a well is a very important aspect of completion, which determines the
productivity of the well. A good primary cementation should ensure a long and trouble free
economic life of a well. It ensures effective zonal isolation and trouble free production, prevents
loss of expensive rig-time on secondary repair jobs and avoids annular leakage problems.
Once primary-cementation is over, bond-logging and perforation must be considered. The
purpose of this chapter is to discuss the methods of locating cement behind the casing. This
involves the evaluation of quality of cement placed behind the casing, which in other words
determines the quality of bond of cement to casing and formation.
The main objectives are to highlight the following points:
 The length of annular cement column.
 The quality of bond of cement to casing and formation.
 Effective seals between different producing horizons.
16.1 Cement Evaluation Methods

There is no direct method available for evaluation of the quality of cementation in a well. All the
methods presently available for evaluation are indirect methods, based on the response of
various 'Logging Tools' available for this purpose. At present the following methods are available
for locating the cement behind the casing pipe.
 Temperature Surveys
 Radioactive Tracer Surveys
 Acoustic Bond Logs.
16.1.1 Temperature Surveys

Temperature measurements are made with an electrical thermometer fitted with a temperature
sensitive element. If a constant current is passed through this element, the voltage drop will be
proportional to the resistance and is recorded as temperature. The heat generated by setting of
cement increases the temperature inside the casing by several degrees over normal
temperature due to exothermic reaction. The log should be run before the heat is completely
dissipated after the cement has set. The maximum temperature change occurs between 12-16
hours depending on the type of cement used.
Limitation: It can only locate the cement top; but it is silent about the quality of cement bond.
This method is obsolete now a days.
16.1.2 Radioactive Tracer Survey

The radioactive method of detecting cement behind the casing uses a radioactive material
having a short half life. The most commonly used tracers arc:
i. Iodine 131 – Halflife -8 days.
ii. Scandium 46 –Halflife - 84 day
160
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Cement Evaluation
Fig No-16.1: Temperature rise showing TOC Fig No-16.2: Radioactive tracer distinguishes
the top of cement
With this method the top of cement can be accurately determined when initial portion of
cement slurry is rendered radioactive. Fig. l6.2 illustrates how a radioactive tracer survey
(gamma-ray Iog) distinguishes the top of good cement.
The tracer is added as a soluble salt to the mixing water and it is thoroughly mixed with the
slurry. Adding a radioactive tracer to the upper most portion of the cement slurry is a good
insurance in case if too much time lapses alter cement is placed for a temperature survey to be
accurate. It is not necessary to be so prompt with a tracer survey and with a long halflife of
tracer, the survey can be conducted at any time in the life time of tracer. The main advantage of
the radioactive tracer method is that it positively and accurately determines the location of
tracer. Its main disadvantages are:
i. Its use requires observance of health precautionary measures.
ii. It is more expensive.
iii. Conducting a base survey of natural gamma radiation is essential.
161
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Cement Evaluation
16.1.3 Acoustic Bond Logs

Temperature survey and radioactive tracer methods can only be used to locate the cement top.
In other words these two methods do not give any information about the quality of the bond at
the interface of pipe cement and cement & formation.
The above limitations of thermolog and radioactive tracer survey have been overcome by
introduction of Acoustic Bond logs.
For convenience, cement evaluation tools are often classified according to the frequency of the
sound waves they employ: sonic (low frequency) and ultrasonic (high frequency). CBL-VDL, CBT,
SBT, SBL are examples of sonic and USIT, CAST-V, URS, Isolation Scanner are examples of
ultrasonic logs developed by different manufacturers.
a) CBL-VDL:
Generally in a sonic logging tool, there is a transmitter and two receivers located 3ft and
5ft from the transmitter.
The CBL tool emits an acoustic-energy pulse that travels in all directions through the
borehole fluid as an expanding spherical wave of sound. When the sound pulse strikes
the inner casing surface, some of it is refracted according to Snell’s law. Calculations
show that the wave front striking the casing at an angle of approximately 17° will refract
parallel to the casing wall (see Figure 16.3). The passage of the wave pulse through the
casing wall acts as an intermittent pressure pulse, causing the steel of the casing wall to
cycle through compression and tension. Cycling the steel through compression and
tension causes the casing to ring, creating sonic waves that travel through the casing
fluid and reach the logging-tool receiver. The pressure pulse loses energy as it travels
inside the casing wall. This loss of strength, or decay, is commonly referred to as sound
attenuation.
The sound travels through
the casing and borehole fluid
to two receivers that are 3 ft
apart (amplitude and travel
time measurement) and 5 ft
apart (full waveform
measurement).
At the 3-ft receiver, the first
arrival amplitude (known as
E1 or E2), or the attenuation
rate of the received signal, is
related to the cement’s
acoustic properties and the
casing wall thickness (see
Figure 16.4), as long as the
cement is set (capable of
transmitting shear waves)
and acoustically coupled to
Fig No. 16.3: Schematic of Cement Bond Logging Tool the casing.
Cement compressive strength
can be derived from casing-size, casing-thickness, amplitude or attenuation data. Inputs
of casing size, casing thickness, and cement compressive strength will result in
162
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Cement Evaluation
predicting the tool amplitude or downhole attenuation measurement. Each type of tool
has similar but unique charts (consult each service company).
b) Waveform/Variable Density Physics, VDL:

The acoustic-waveform signal is recorded at a second receiver that is typically 5 ft from
the transmitter. The composite waveform, illustrated in Figure 16.5, is a combination of
the casing waveform, the cement-sheath waveform, the formation waveform and the
logging-fluid waveform. The waveform reflected from the cement and the formation is
indistinguishable. Standard waveform nomenclature lists the first positive peak as the
E1 peak, with subsequent positive peaks denoted as E3, E5, E7, etc. The first negative
peak is referred to as E2, with subsequent negative peaks denoted as E4, E6, etc. Figure
16.5 illustrates the typical arrival times for casing, formation, and casing fluid. The
composite waveform is affected by the quality of the cement’s acoustic coupling to the
formation and casing, the shear strength of the cement, the thickness of the cement
sheath, and the thickness of the casing wall.
Fig No.16.4: CBL Interpretation Chart
163
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Cement Evaluation
Figure 16.6 (Left) illustrates a

typical waveform for uncemented
casing. The amplitude is highest in
free casing because the signal
creates a ringing effect that is un-
attenuated by solid material
(cement) coupled to it. When the
casing is not acoustically coupled to
a high shear strength solid in the
annulus, the only signal detected by
the receiver will be from the casing.
This effect can be observed on a
bond log when the annulus is filled
with unset cement or very weak
cement (< 250 psi compressive
Fig No.16.5: Principle of Operation of the Variable strength) with thick-wall casing in
Density Log the hole,
Fig No.16.6: Un-cemented Casing (Left) and fully Cemented Casing (Right)
164
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Cement Evaluation
microannulus at the casing-cement interface, gas-cut or foamed cement, mud, water, gas or
sloughed formation particles. Good acoustic coupling of the cement to the casing and the
formation is required for signal transmission through all of the conductors. The E1 curve of the
free casing waveform should appear on the display between 300 microseconds (μs) to 400
microseconds (μs) when the signal is received at the 5-ft receiver (the travel time of sound
through steel is 57 μs/ft).
Figure 16.6 (Right) illustrates a waveform when high-shear-strength cement completely

occupies the annular space and is acoustically coupled to the casing. The strongest portion of
the waveform is the formation signal. The casing signal is very weak. With good casing and
formation coupling provided by high-shear- strength, uncontaminated cement, the waveform
should reflect formation-bed changes corresponding to, and at the same depth as, the gamma
ray (GR) curve. The high shear strength of the cement dampens the pressure-pulse effect during
passage of the sonic signal through the length and thickness of the casing wall. This dampening
decreases the amplitude of the sound traveling through the pipe and increases the attenuation
rate.
The presentation of the composite waveform on the log may be in the form of a “total energy
wave” (signature plot, X-Y plot, etc.) or a linear form commonly called a VDL (variable density
log) or microseismogram. The presentation is scaled from 200 to 1200 μs. A total energy
waveform would be very messy, and no details could be observed. Linear presentation makes it
much easier to separate casing signals from formation signals. Casing signals will always be
straight unless the logging tool is eccentered, and casing collars will be evident. Formation
signals usually vary and are rarely straight. The presentation will mimic an open hole sonic DT
(Sonic DT is the duration of time sound travels through a given distance in the formation,
typically measured in μs/ft.).
16.2.1 CBL VDL Presentation:

CBL-VDL of a well is given in Figure no.16.7 and is divided in four main tracks for understanding
purpose. Each track has its significant in evaluating and interpreting the cement bond with
casing and formation. Therefore we have to understand the track parameters and their
importance.
Track No-01:
Gamma Ray and CCL (Casing Collar Locater) for depth correlation and Transit (Travel) time for
measuring elapsed time of signal from transmitter to receiver. Reservoir rocks (Sandstone/
Limestone/ Dolomite) shows low Gamma Ray value whereas shale shows high Gamma Ray value
due to large amount of K-40 Potassium and Th-232 Thorium atoms.
Track No-02: Depth Scale.
Track no-03:
Cement bond log (CBL) is represented by a continuous line curve in mV. Scale for track 3 may be
from 0 to 100 mV or 0 to 50 mV sometimes in combination with 0 to 10mV dotted line curve for
amplified scale purpose. CBL denotes cement bond with steel casing and its signal is received at
3ft receiver (Generally) in logging tool sonde.
165
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Cement Evaluation
Track no. 4:
It is the presentation of full waveform received at 5’ receiver is in VDL (Variable Density Log)
form in black and white strips. Positive amplitudes become blacker as they increase. Negative
amplitudes become whiter as they decrease. In case of good cement bond with casing as well as
formation, formation arrival will make zig-zag wavy black and white pattern.
Table no.16.1 shows slowness (Δt) of acoustic waves in different medium. The waveform
received is affected by the quality of the cement’s acoustic coupling to the formation and casing,
the shear strength of the cement, the thickness of the cement sheath, thickness of the casing
wall, formation density and compressive strength.
Presentation of full waveform received at 5’ receiver is in VDL (Variable Density Log) form in
black and white strips. Positive amplitudes become blacker as they increase. Negative
amplitudes become whiter as they decrease. In case of good cement bond with casing as well as
formation, formation arrival will make zig-zag wavy black and white pattern.
Table no. 16.1 : Acoustic waves slowness in different medium

Medium Slowness Δt graph
(Δt) in µs/ ft
Water based Mud (15.4ppg) 216
Oil based mud (12.6 ppg) 245
Water 206
Diesel 221
Air at 3000 psi & 100°C 780
Casing 57
Dolomite ~ 44
Shale 60 - 170
Anhydrite 50
Quartz 52.9
Coal 100-140
Porous Sandstone with Water 80
(Фs = 20%)
Limestone 47.6 – 52.6
Fast formations—The well-known “fast-formation effect” is a transit-time decrease. When

the formations have higher velocities than the casing (slowness less than 57 µs/ft), the refracted
formation compressional waves may arrive before the casing wave. Normally, dolomite or
limestone are considered to be fast formations that create this early signal dilemma.
Occasionally, anhydrites or near-zero-porosity quartz could have the same effect.
166
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Cement Evaluation
Fig No.16.7: Presentation of CBL-VDL
16.2.2 CBL Interpretation:

The CBL-interpretation process is based on the following assumptions:
 cement sheath thickness ≥ 0.75 in. and
 Constant cement compressive strength and density is around the casing circumference
and throughout the height of the cement column. (This is a major flaw in CBL analysis.)
Bond Index:
The free-pipe amplitude value is entered at 0% Bond Index. The 100% cemented amplitude is
entered at 100% Bond Index. For example, the free-pipe amplitude is 70 mV and the 100%
cemented amplitude is 0.2 mV (read from and area of the log with the lowest amplitude-Fig
16.8). Therefore, an 80% Bond Index would have an amplitude of about 0.6 mV. Percent Bond
Index is determined by drawing a line across from an amplitude found on the log to the diagonal
line and reading down to the “Bond Index.”
16.2.3 CBL Quality Control:

Tool Eccentering:
The signal TT, normally shown in Track 1 of the log, may be used to detect tool eccentering.
When the tool is eccentered in the casing, the bond log quality is highly questionable. “Critical
travel time” is defined as the elapsed time (μs) for the signal to travel from the transmitter to
the 3-ft receiver via the casing when the tool is centered in the casing. The TT curve should be
167
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Cement Evaluation
straight in free pipe, except for

consistently spaced, minor
increases (shifting to the left) as the
tool crosses the casing collars. Tool
eccentering in the casing will
induce shorter TTs and lower
amplitudes (see Figure 16.9-Left).
Tool eccentering is easier to see if
the TT measurement range is
adjusted from the conventional 200
μs to 100 μs. If the tool TT
decreases by 4 μs or more, the
tool should be pulled from the hole
and fitted with additional
centralizers or replacement
centralizers. TT decreases may also
be caused by early signal arrivals
from “fast formations,” so it is
necessary to recognize lithology
effects. TT increases do not pose a
problem, and are caused by casing
collars, very soft formations, and
Fig No.16.8: Semi-log Plot for Calculating the Bond extremely high strength cement in
Index contact with medium-to-thin
walled casing.
Fig No.16.9: Tool Eccentric (Left) and Cause of Cycle Skip & Cycle Stretch (Right)
Cycle Stretch and Cycle Skip:

Figure 16.9 (Right) illustrates the causes of phenomena known as “cycle stretch” and “cycle
skip.” Casing signal-detection (threshold) levels are generally set by a “gate” that is fixed at
some level below 50% of the free-pipe amplitude, and the arrival time at the leading edge of the
E1 curve. As the E1 amplitude decreases because of increasing cement strength, the distance to
168
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Cement Evaluation
the leading edge of E1 increases, which also increases the TT. This increase in TT is called “cycle
stretch.” When the E1 amplitude falls below the gate detection level, the measurement detects
the next available curve— the leading edge of the E3 curve. This causes the TT curve to “skip” to
a much greater value. Cycle stretch and cycle skip infer very high-shear-strength cement in
contact with medium- to thin-wall casing. Cycle stretch and cycle skip are generally an indicator
of good log quality over that section of the log.
Additional Quality Control Indicators

1. Amplitude or attenuation should never read zero.
2. 200 ft (~60m) of a free pipe section should be run.
3. Free-pipe amplitude should be ±10% of the service-company specifications (may be
lower in fluid weights >11 ppg).
4. TT should be within ±10 μs of the service-company specifications (may be different for
fast fluid-travel times).
5. 200 ft of repeat log should be run to ensure consistency.
16.2.4 Limitations (Environmental Effects):

Microannulus/Cement Channels: Figure 16.10 illustrates a typical waveform display when
there are cement channels or if a microannulus exists at the casing-cement interface. The casing
signal is reflected from a portion of uncemented casing, while the formation reflection is
detected through a cemented portion of the casing. Channeling may result from several causes:
 poorly centralized casing,
 poor mud removal,
 inadequate removal of formation cuttings,
 settled barite at the low side of the hole and
 cement slurries exhibiting excessive free water separation and sedimentation after
placement.
Microannuli are generally created by pressure changes after the cement has set. Common
causes include:
 displacing the casing wiper plug with heavier mud then logging in lighter brine,
 pressure testing casing after the cement is set but before it has a chance to develop
sufficient compressive strength,
 casing expansion caused by heat generated during cement setting,
 pressure inside the casing is less at the time of logging than when the cement is cured,
 cool fluids are circulated before running the CBL,
 performing a cement squeeze, and
 drilling ahead while the cement is curing.
One method to discriminate between a channel and a microannulus is to run a pressurized pass
and a non-pressurized pass. The recommended amount of pressure in the casing is that required to
compensate for previous pressure changes, plus 500 psi for casing expansion caused by the heat
generated by cement setting. Typically, 2500 psi is the maximum pressure that can be applied
with standard pressure equipment (check with the service company for the safety limit).
A second method to discriminate between a channel and a microannulus involves beginning with
a zero-pressure pass, followed by pressuring up to 1000 psi and observing any changes in the
amplitude or attenuation and VDL. If no changes occur, increase the pressure in 500-psi
increments until amplitude or attenuation and VDL changes are observed. Typically, 2500 psi is
169
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Cement Evaluation
the maximum pressure that can be

applied to standard pressure
equipment (check with the service
company for the safety limit).
If changes are observed, one may
assume a microannulus is present. At
this point one option would be to
increase the pressure by 500 psi and
determine if further improvements
occur. A second option is to accept the
fact that a microannulus exists and
avoid further pressure increases.
If a microannulus is present, the
casing signals will become lighter and
Fig No.16.10: Effect of Microannulus (Only casing may disappear from the waveform
arrival will come in VDL) when pressure is applied to the
casing. If a channel is present, the casing signals will remain. The following equation may be
used to calculate the maximum size of the microannulus.
Where,
r is the casing radius, in.;
P is the pressure, psi;
E is Young’s Modulus of Elasticity for Steel (30 x 106 psi);
tw is the casing wall thickness, in.
Additional Environmental Effects:

1. Cement curing.
2. Gas contaminated cement.
3. Thin cement sheath.
4. Eccentered casing.
5. Coated casing.
6. Identifying cement channels.
16.3.1 Segmented Bond Log:

The SBT is a high-frequency acoustic device that uses compensated logging technology. This
unique tool features six pads that are placed against the inner casing surface to measure the
casing signal attenuation rate (dB/ft) in each of six, discreet 60° arcs of the casing-cement
interface. A standard-frequency VDL tool is part of the service, and it is used to produce full-
waveforms for microseismogram presentations. A picture of the complete instrument is
displayed in Figure 16.11.
To better appreciate the operation of the instrument’s pad section, it is easier to view the pads
unfolded in a two-dimensional drawing (see Figure 16.11).
The SBT tool employs high-frequency focused transducers mounted on six pads. Motorized arms
position each pad with a transmitter and receiver against the casing wall. The tool can be used
in casing sizes from 4.5 in. to 16 in., with any type or density of fluid in the casing. A full
170
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Cement Evaluation
waveform is produced from the 5-ft, omnidirectional transmitter-receiver module that is run in
conjunction with the pad section. As the transmitters are fired sequentially, amplitude
measurements are made on two consecutive and adjacent receivers. A transmitter on the fourth
adjacent pad is fired, and amplitudes at the same two receivers (in the opposite direction) are
measured (somewhat analogous to the CBT). Energy (amplitude) losses across the receivers are
averaged, producing a direct attenuation measurement over a short distance.
Fig No.16.11: Segmented Bond Tool (SBT) construction and Pad Arrangement
Thus, the measurements are compensated for transducer variations. Calibrations of matching
transmitter/receiver pairs are not required. Following acquisition of Segment 1, the remaining
Segments 2 to 6 are acquired, and the tool cycle begins again.
16.3.2 SBT Presentation

As shown in fig 16.12, Track 1 (From left side) contains the GR, collar locator, DTMN (DT
minimum) and DTMX (DT maximum) curves.
Track 2 is the depth track. Track 3 displays the six individual attenuation measurements in six
“sub-tracks”, labeled ATC1, ATC2,…ATC6, with the relative bearing curve (RB) indicating the tool
face relative low side of the hole. Track 4 contains the average and minimum attenuations
(ATAV and ATMN). Track 5 is a cement map that is a graphic form of interpretation of the
cement quality.
Track 6 is a VDL display from the 5-ft receiver.
171
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Cement Evaluation
Fig No.16.12: SBT log representation
16.3.3 SBT Interpretation

The GR and collar log are used for correlation and depth control. The six individual attenuation
measurements are labeled ATC1, ATC2,…ATC6. The higher the attenuation, the greater the
likelihood of cement presence. The relative bearing (RB) indicates the tool face relative low side
of the hole. This feature is used to depict cement anomalies radially around the casing (see
cement map discussion below). It is only useful in deviated wells.
The average and minimum attenuations (ATAV and ATMN) are exactly as described. The average
is the sum of the six individual attenuations divided by six. The minimum is the lowest of the six
individual attenuations. These two curves will normally display some separation. They will nearly
stack when certain conditions are satisfied— completely free pipe (no cement) and pipe
uniformly cemented around the casing.
A cement map is a graphic interpretation that is subject to certain user inputs. The interpreter
must understand how the cement map was constructed and know whether reasonable inputs
were used in its construction. In the case of the SBT cement map, six regions across the map left
to right correspond to the values in each of the six individual attenuation measurements. Higher
attenuation rates (better cement) will appear as darker regions on the cement map. Normal
user input is automated, and based on inputs of casing size and weight as well as cement
172
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Cement Evaluation
compressive strength. The parameters are stated in the log header. For deviated wells, the RB
curve mentioned earlier can be used as an input to orient the low or high side of the hole to the
middle of the cement map. The purpose of this high-side/low-side option is to detect whether
cement anomalies correlate with the high or low side of the casing. The most useful feature of a
cement map is the detection of uncemented channels over significant intervals as opposed to
isolated voids. The SBT Interpretation Chart (see Figure 16.13) depicts the relationship between
casing wall thickness and cement compressive strength. The chart should be used as a guideline
when evaluating conventional cements (Class H, Class G, etc.) that are not mixed with volume
extending additives. When evaluating foamed cements or other cement systems containing low-
density additives (e.g. microspheres) or volume extending additives, the relationship between
cement compressive strength and cement acoustic impedance tends to be less reliable.
Fig No.16.13: SBT log Interpretation for Attenuation to Compressive Strength for
Classes G and H Cement
NOTE: Draw a horizontal line from the attenuation measurement on the y-axis, and a vertical line from the
casing-thickness on the x-axis. The point at which both lines intersect is the apparent cement compressive
strength.
16.3.4 SBT Quality Control and Recommendations

1. Attenuation should never read zero.
2. Run 200 ft of repeat section.
3. Run 200 ft of a free-pipe section.
4. DTMN and DTMX curves are the primary log-quality indicators. They indicate the degree
of casing centralization, and are a direct acoustic couple of the instrument pads with the
173
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Cement Evaluation
casing wall. Excessive internal scale or residual cement may not permit effective
acoustic coupling. The two curves should be scaled 140 μs/ft to 40 μs/ft, and should
track each other within 4 μs/ft to 5 μs/ft, except across casing collars where greater
separation will be present. The two curves should center over the 57-μs/ft value, which
is the TT of steel casing. Finally, the DTMN and DTMX curves are excellent indicators of
instrument integrity. Should one of the transducers or related circuitry fail, its DTMN
and DTMX curves will depart significantly from the standard behavior of the other
transducers.
5. Scale the ATC1, ATC2, …ATC6 attenuation rates to 20–0 dB/ft.
6. On the SBT, scale the Attenuation Rate to 0–9 dB/ft and the Cement Map using the SBT
interpretation chart. The minimum coloration value should be equal to that of free pipe
on the chart (based on casing wall thickness) (see Figure 16.13).
7. The SBT can be run in any casing-fluid density, and in casing sizes up to and including 16
in. Larger sizes have been logged with special arm extenders; however, the log quality is
lower.
8. For perforation, in general, cement compressive strength of 2000 psi is considered to be
adequate. Hence, prior to recording actual log, SBT tool should be calibrated for 2000
psi cement compressive strength. However, for specific operation like hydro-fracturing,
requirement of cement compressive strength may vary and accordingly tool calibration
to be done by operator.
9. Generate a receiver-calibration and verification summary.
Limitations (Environmental Effects)

1. Microannulus.
2. Fast formations (to a lesser extent than traditional CBL—reduced transmitter receiver
spacing).
3. Cement curing.
4. Gas contaminated cement.
5. Thin cement sheath.
6. Eccentered casing.
7. Coated casing.
8. Identifying small cement channels.
16.4 Cement Evaluation Tool

The cement Evaluation Tool (CET) is a new device and it represents a new approach to cement
evaluation using eight high frequency ultrasonic transducers. It examines the casing
circumferentially with a very high vertical resolution. The new sonde is light, rigid and easily
centralized. The type of wave propagation used is not affected by micro-annulus and the
response is largely immune to fast formation arrivals.
The response of the tool is dependent on the acoustic impedance of the cement and an
empirical relationship has been established in the laboratory between this impedance and the
compressive strength of the cement.
The basic principle of the CET tool is illustrated in Fig. 16.14. The tool consists of 8 ultrasonic
transducers arranged in a helical array over 2 feet. Each transducer in turn transmits a signal
incident on the casing wall and then receives its reverberant echo, measuring in a first lime
window the peak amplitude of the first reflection (W-1) and in a second time window of an
amplitude representative of signal decay (W-2).
174
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Cement Evaluation
The incident acoustic pulses cause the casing to resonate in its thickness mode and the decay
rate of the reverberant echo depends on the acoustic impedance of the cement in each sector
behind the casing.
The measured decay is calibrated in terms of acoustic impedance.
From these measurements, which are repeated for each of the 8 transducers, the maximum and
Fig No.16.14: Cement Evaluation Tool
minimum values of apparent cement compressive strength are computed with an empirical
relationship and displayed on the CET log.
A 9th transducer in the Sonde is used to measure the transit time of the mud at down hole
conditions. This permits the conversion of 8 transit times into caliper measurements and 8
apparent radii are made available with a 45° separation. From these radius measurements
several different casing geometry parameters can be calculated. The CET calipers also measures
175
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Cement Evaluation
different weight of the casings.
Although CET has several unique features but it has yet to find favor as a popular cement
evaluation tool like CBL -VDL which still remains the primary service tool for all cement
evaluation jobs throughout the petroleum industry. The main reasons due to which CET could
not get much success are:
 Does not give any idea about the bond between cement and formation.
 Cannot be used with heavy muds inside the casing which will absorb the CET signals.
 Even a small air bubble inside the casing fluid will seriously affect the CET signal which
will give false indications of gas.
 For proper cement evaluation the CET log cannot be used alone, it requires recording of
CBL-VDL as companion log.
 Since CET log cannot be used alone it requires extra rig time for recording CBL-VDL and
involves extra expenditure.
16.5 Ultrasonic Evaluation Tools:

Ultrasonic cement-evaluation logs employ a method different from CBL logs to define cement-
sheath quality and quantity. These tools identify the material next to the pipe and cannot be
used to evaluate cement-to-formation coupling. Therefore, CBL-VDL tools should be run along
with ultrasonic tools to observe formation-to-cement coupling. In most cases, ultrasonic tools
can evaluate newer complex cement blends including foamed cement, latex-modified cement
and ultra-low density or gas contaminated cements.
Additional measurements include the pipe internal diameter and pipe thickness, obtained
simultaneously with the cement information. The ultrasonic source and receiver are packaged
together as one transducer instead of the source-and-receiver pairing employed in CBL tools.
Present generation ultrasonic tools employ a single rotating transducer (see Figure 16.15) to
produce high resolution, circumferential data. The rotating transducer provides 36 to 200
measurements per depth sample, at a vertical sampling rate ranging from 2 to 12 samples per ft,
depending upon the service company and tool setup. Both the CBL and ultrasonic tools are
combinable, allowing data to be recorded in one pass through the wellbore.
Ultrasonic evaluation tools operate at frequencies between 200 kHz and 700 kHz. The basic
principle behind the ultrasonic technique is to cause a small area of casing to resonate through
its thickness. The transducer transmits a short pulse of ultrasound and senses the echo
containing the resonance. If there is fluid behind the casing, the casing will tend to resonate or
“ring,” but resonance will be dampened when there is solid cement behind the casing. The
resonance is analyzed to determine the cement acoustic impedance.
Key Requirements
The following are necessary requirements for ultrasonic cement evaluation logs.
1. A bit and scraper run is recommended to remove cement and scale from the casing wall.
2. The borehole must be filled with liquid. Gas or air bubbles will cause inaccurate
readings. If the hydrostatic pressure is insufficient to ensure transducer wettability with
the wellbore fluids, it may be necessary to apply pressure to the wellbore. This will allow
the ultrasonic tools to function properly over the entire wellbore.
3. The borehole fluid should be known. This will help the logging engineer select the
proper tool, transducer frequency, and placement method before the logging job.
176
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Cement Evaluation
4. Casing size, weight and internal diameter

must be known. This is necessary
information to assist in pre-job planning
and obtain improved results.
5. Ultrasonic tools must be run centralized.
Most ultrasonic logs cannot be
reprocessed to remove eccentricity errors
in the calculation of the impedance values.
6. Density of the fluid in the casing must be
known. This will allow proper calculation of
mud impedance, which is used in
determination of the impedance of the
material in the annular space.
The following will improve and simplify the

evaluation of the ultrasonic cement evaluation
logs.
1. Wellbore schematic.
2. The proper cement curing time prior to
logging. This may include plotting the
acoustic impedance vs. time to determine
the proper logging time.
3. Casing and centralizer report to determine
where casing eccentering may occur.
4. Wellbore deviation and trajectory to help
determine areas of unusual log response.
5. Open hole logs with a caliper and lithology
to assist in determining thin cement sheath
Fig No.16.15: Ultrasonic Tool locations. Predicted cement tops for the
lead and tail slurry.
6. Estimate of the acoustic impedance of the
cement in the casing annulus.
7. Estimate of the acoustic impedance of the potential fluid(s) in the casing annulus. This
includes mud that was displaced and the fluid used to displace the cement slurry.
9. Any information regarding cement-placement operations that may assist in determining
unusual log response. Examples include lost returns, cement to surface and pressures
during cement placement.
10. An understanding of fluid type (liquid or gas) in the formation pore space.
11. History of pressures applied to the wellbore may assist in determination of unusual log
response. Examples include fluid changes, casing pressure tests, squeeze jobs and
stimulation treatments.
Ultrasonic Limitations (Environmental Effects)

1. Typical maximum mud density:
 WBM: 16 lbm/gal (up to 18 lbm/gal depending on conditions)
 NAF: 13 lbm/gal (up to 16 lbm/gal depending on conditions)
177
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Cement Evaluation
2. Casing eccentering: It is difficult to distinguish between casing eccentering and a channel. To

identify casing eccentering where the casing is leaning close to or against the formation, it is
important to review the casing reports to determine poor casing centralization
3. To evaluate fluid displacement, it is important to review cementing reports to determine the
following:
a. degree of casing centralization,
b. casing reciprocation while circulating or cementing,
c. solids settling from mud or cement on the low side of the casing,
d. free-fluid separation from the cement slurry, and
e. fluid or gas entry before the cement has set.
4. Tool eccentering.
5. Casing thickness range.
0.177 in. to 0.75 in. (4.5 mm to 19.05 mm).
6. Impedance of material behind the casing.0 – 10 MRayl
7. Casing corrosion or scaling: This affects the cement map. The echo-amplitude image is the
best indicator of this problem.
8. Microannulus: The ultrasonic measurement is less sensitive than a CBL to a liquid
microannulus. The effect of a microannulus on an ultrasonic log is illustrated by Figure
16.16. A pressure pass with an ultrasonic tool is recommended if cement isolation is
questionable. Figure 16.17 shows the change in casing dimension arising from pressure
changes.
Fig No.16.16: Experimental Liquid and Gas Microannulus Effects on the

USIT Measurement
NOTE: Acoustic impedance change with microannulus size, using a 4.7-in. diameter, 9-mm thick casing.
Copyright of the Society of Petroleum Engineers, reproduced with permission.
178
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
Cement Evaluation
Fig No.16.17: Relationship between Pipe Expansion (Microannulus) and a change in

Pressure
NOTE: Depending upon the microannulus size, there is an effect on both CBL and ultrasonic tools.
Copyright of the Society of Petroleum Engineers, reproduced with permission.
179
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
ANNEXURE-I
ऑयल एंड नेचरु ल गैस कॉर्पोरे शन लललिटेड

OIL AND NATURAL GAS CORPORATION LTD
DEEPWATER BUNDLE PROJECT

Well Location: PDM
Rig Name: OLST
Well Name: PDM_D#SH
Job: 20in Surface Casing Cementation Job
CEMENT PROGRAM
Version 1.0
Date: 07 Nov 2019
Revision Summary
Version Date Prepared/Revised By Reviewed by Summary of revisions (include section or page number)
#
V 1.0 07-11-2019 XYZ XYZ -20” SURFACE Casing Shoe @ 1150 M
-Lead TOC: SEA BED;
-Place 150 Mtr length Tail Slurry From Bottom -Leave
20 Mtr. shoe track inside casing.
-Consider 120% OH Excess on Lead and 150% on Tail

slurry.
Approval
Submitted by Digital Signature
XYZ XYZ
Reviewed and Approved by Digital Signature
XYZ XYZ
180
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
1 CEMENTING JOB DESIGN
1.1 Job Objectives and Measures

Objectives Measures
To have top of cement at SEABED. Designed job with 120% and 150% of Lead and Tail slurry,
Red oxide iron is mixed with Drill Water to check the
returns on surface.
Potential Shallow Gas Migration Design 15.8ppg and 12.5ppg Tuned light Gas Tight Slurry
To mitigate shallow gas flow and risk of losses
Provide Casing Support and achieve 500PSI to Drill Ahead 17 ½ Designed 150 mtrs of 15.8 ppg tail slurry to Achieve good
OH. compressive strength.
1.2 Lessons Learnt
• Flush the cement & Test lines with fresh water @5BPM to the rig floor after cement job
• Blow the air Through Bulk lines couple of hours prior to cement job to make sure all the lines are clear
of blockage.
• If Floats are not Holding Pump back return volume without exceeding 400 PSI.
• Don’t Mix and Dump Cement from Surge tank before Displacement
181
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
WELLBORE GEOMETRY
FORMATION DATA WELLBORE SCHEMATIC
Pore Pressure: 9.0 PPG at TD
Fracture Gradient: 11.8 PPG at TD
WELL DATA
Hole size: 26’’ TD: 1157 m MD/RKB
Deviation angle: Vertical
Open H excess: OH Excess: 120% on lead & 150% on
tail
Water Depth 567.6 Mtr. MD/RKB
Air Gap 28.4m MD/RKB
Seabed Temperature 9.7 Deg. C
BHST: 33.00 Deg. C
BHCT: 25.00 Deg. C
CASING
OD: 20 Casing
ID: 18.73’’
Depth: 1150 m MD/RKB
Weight: 133 PPF
PREVIOUS CASING
OD: 36in Casing
ID: 33’’
Depth: 668 m MD/RKB
Weight: 310#
TOP OF CEMENT
Theoretical TOC: +/- 596 MD/RKB
DRILLING FLUID
Type: WBM
Mud 11.4 PPG
KEY ASSUMPTIONS
• This is Initial version of program based on well data/fluid properties (MD, TD, Mud Data, OH and
Temperature) from EDP. Landing string is considered to be 5 7/8in DP
• Propose 120% excess over volume of 12.50ppg (gas tight slurry capability for Shallow environment).
150% on 15.8ppg Tail Slurry with gas tight property. Considered 36.0 C BHST and 23.0 C BHCT to
design this slurry.
• The set-up time (i.e. the thickening time) of the cement slurry is design with Minimum of 2.0 hours’
safety factor to minimize risk to allow extra time in case of problem (loss).
182
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
• Propose to pump displacement @ minimum 06.0bbl/min.

• Plan to leave 20 m shoe track
• Pump 20 BBL Hi-Vis of 170-200 viscosity behind tail slurry
2 JOB EXECUTION
PRE-CEMENTING CONSIDERATIONS
• Tank requirement: one pit for lead mix fluid and one Pit for tail. Ensure that all tanks are clean.
• Centralizer to be pre-install offline on the casing as per Casing Tally.
CENTRALIZATION PROGRAM
 (As per cementing software)
 All equipment (Cement unit; Silo system) should be tested and ready for the job. Keep evidence of
readiness of the equipment onboard and send the scan copy to base Engineer. Batch Mixer should be
used as backup in case of mixing system failure. In that case, Batch mixing of 100bbl should be
carried.
 Water salinity should be tested 2 days before the job and kept it ready for cement job. Salinity should
be less than 500PPM.
 Rig pump efficiency should be checked during the circulation. It is Supervisor responsibility.
 All siloes should be fluffed at least 10-15 min prior the job and ensured that all cement line and siloes
are clean and free of hard cement before the job.
 Any deviation from the plan has to be communicated to base Engineer before proceed.
 Shoe used is an autofill casing and per default, it’s deactivated. Supervisor will check to ensure that
Autofill is not activated.
183
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
2.1 Job Procedure

1- Once 20” casing reached bottom as per casing Tally with inner String +/- 40 m above the shoe (wash
down the last stand observe full return around the low-Pressure Housing prior to land casing).
2- After landing the Casing, Circulation with one inner String volume and observe full return from 2 ball
valves prior cement job.
3- Flush the line with 10 bbl. of Drill water from Cement Unit and pressure test lines to 300Psi/3000 psi.
4- From Cement unit pump 40 Bbl. of Drill water. Pumping rate 6-7BPM.
5- Mix and pump 800 Bbl. Tuned Light Blend as per lab report attached 12.5 PPG Top of cement at seabed
considering 100% Open Hole Excess. Pumping rate 6 BPM.
6- Mix and pump 352 bbl. of Tail slurry 15.8 PPG as per Lab Report Considering 150 m Cement rise from
the bottom and 150% Open Hole Excess. Pumping rate 6 BPM.
7- Start Displacement at 6-7 BPM with 20 bbl. of HI-VIS Pill. (Viscosity of pill should be at least 200 Sec to
be confirm by the supervisor onboard) from Cement Unit.
8- Complete the displacement with 86.5 bbl. (excluding line volume) of Sea Water from Cement Unit.
Displacement rate 6-7 BPM Leaving 20m Plug inside 20’’ Casing. Keep controlling Losses with pumping
rate if possible by observing return from 2 ball valves in the Lower Housing Head.
9- Bleed Off and Check NRV through Cement Unit and Monitor Return.
10- In case the float is not holding, Pump back the return volume and keep the well closed under Final
pressure not more than differential pressure (400 PSI), and wait for 6 hours and keep all 2 valves in the
Lower Housing Close after completed of the Displacement.
11- If NRV holding, then further program as per GE Veto.
12- After 12 Hours open one valve in the wellhead to check any trap of gas with the help of the ROV and
leave it open. Keep record of the video and share it with asset team.
Notes:
• Final Chemicals Consumption will be as per Rig Pit Dead Volume.
• In case of change of depths mentioned above, contact base for review of the program.
184
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
• Salinity of drill water for mixing cement should be less than 500 PPM.
• Consider physical and digital volume count for displacement.
• All volume calculations are to be checked/re-calculated as per actual depths and sizes. Displacement
volume to be calculated based on the actual size and grade of drill pipe used.
• Keep 3 gallon of mix fluid sample used for the job for any post job analysis.
• Collect 3-4 random samples of slurry and keep in oven at BHST (35 degC).
• Job shall be in accordance with HSE policies and guidelines.
2.2 Pump Schedule
Description Stage No. Density Rate Yield Water Req. Volume Bulk Cement Duration
(ppg) (bbl/min) (ft³/sack) (gal/sack) (bbl) (94lb sacks) (min)
Rev PDM-D 11.4 PPG 1 11.40 6.00 0.00 0.00
Drill Water 2 8.33 6.00 70.00 11.67
PDM-D LEAD SLURRY 3 12.50 6.00 1.8636 7.448 800.0 2236.05 123.70
PDM-D TAIL SLURRY 4 15.80 6.00 1.1640 5.086 352.23 1698.91 58.70
Top Plug/Start Displacement
PDM-D 8.7 PPG Hi -Vis 5 8.70 6.00 20.00 3.33
SEA WATER 6 8.54 6.00 86.5 15.27
Total: 1,276.06 212.68
185
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
3 Slurry Design (Lead and Tail)
186
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
187
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
SIMULATION RESULTS
2D FLUID POSITIONS CHART
ECD & HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE PLOT: NO LOSS EXPECTED
Downhole Pressure Profiles: no loss expected
CALCULATED SURFACE PRESSURE
188
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
4 CONTINGENCY PLANS
Risk Risk impact Mitigation Plan Contingency plan
Is the well static Cement may be Ensure that well is static before If there is gas in the
before unable to provide cementing is started. mud or the well is
cementation? satisfactory barrier. flowing gas or water,
continue circulating
and increase MW.
The rig cannot Inefficient Design slurry with sufficient if the rake is not able to
supply displacement of thickening time considering provide mud at all then
displacement cement, lowest displacement rate at we shift to rig pumps
mud to cement contamination of which cement can be displaced. for entirety of
unit at planned mud, spacer and displacement.
rate. cement, leading to a Program designed with lowest
poor CBL. possible pump rate.
Improper mud poor mud removal, Condition mud before cement Squeeze for remedial
conditioning slurry channeling and job. First, circulate out all the cementing
contamination, poor cutting and foreign materials.
bonding and poor Then lower the rheological
zonal isolation properties of mud to as lowest
as well permits. Job design and
pump schedule optimisation
189
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
simulations softwares. Design

spacer and cement slurry
considering compatibility,
wettability and rheological
hierarchy between fluids to be
pumped.
improper poor mud removal, Centralisation placement Squeeze for remedial
centralisation slurry channeling and optimisation with simulation cementing
contamination, poor software. Try to achieve highest
bonding and poor standoff possible. Rotate and
zonal isolation reciprocate casing, if possible.
Losses Top of cement below Control well and reduce losses procedures should be
than expected, poor before running and cement job. in place in the event of
bonding and poor losses.
zonal isolation.
Squeeze for remedial
cementing
Incorrect Not able to bump the Caliper internal diameter of Be on alert well before
volumes plug as planned. casing. Confirm rig pump the plug is about to be
calculations Excessive cement efficiency or use cementing unit bumped.
inside casing. Poor tanks for small volumes. Use If plug is not bumped
bonding and need minimum of two casing joints of at calculated strokes,
remedial cement jobs shoe track considering pump pump extra volume
efficiency factor 95%. equal to half shoe track
volume.
Incorrect BHCT Thickening time API and simulation softwares Squeeze for remedial
estimation under or over should be used to calculate cementing
estimated. Cement BHCT after post logging
slurry flash set. temperature confirmation.
Weight on cement
longer than expected
Incorrect open Top of cement below Use caliper log. Squeeze for remedial
hole excess expected If no caliper, use prior field cementing
experience in that particular
field.
The well packed Lost return to Design program based on actual When packed off and
off during surface. Unable to fracture gradient or historical reach its pumping
cement job finish the job, well condition. Circulate to cool pressure limit, stop
cement inside casing the hole and condition mud pumping, disconnect
prior to cement job. Stage up the line and flush
the pumping rate that is limited surface line, clean
by the fracture gradient cement unit, lineup to
rig pumps and attempt
190
Cementing Manual
sdfgghv bbnbnn
to displace or circulate
out cement with rig
pumps
Cement Cement job will not Ensure cement equipment is Rig pump will be used
pumping meet objective serviced and maintained before to circulate all the
equipment each job. Prior to the job, cement out of the well
malfunction calculate minimum top of
during job cement required and cement
volume required if equipment
fails.
Improper Bulk cement delivery Validate air volume rate and Clean/ check/ repair/
cement supply issues. Density pressure will meet job upgrade bulk air
control problems, requirements. Use pressurized compressor and
cannot mix at mud balance to check slurry moisture control
designed job rates. density. Verify competency of
Job time exceed bulk operator.
thickening time.
Rig alarm during Cement job in Continue mixing and pumping Secure equipment and
cement job progress with cement until the announcement is made assemble in the
in the well/ casing/ to confirm the alarm designated muster area
tubing
4.1 Job Limitations

LIMITED BULK CEMENT SILO CAPACITIES ON RIG
4.2 Job Specific Risk Assessment
Risk Identified Potential consequence of Risk reduction control Contingency plan

risk Measure
Choke/blockage of the Premature end of job Fluff silos /line before job. If possible have back up
bulk line flexible for bulk line.
191
Cementing Manual

Cementing Manual 2020

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Cementing Manual 2020

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

INSTITUTE OF DRILLING TECHNOLOGY

Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Limited

Cementation forms an integral part of successful well

1. Oil Well Cement 6-14

2. Cement Additives 15-25

3. Slurry Design and Testing of Cement 26-44

4. Rheology and Engineered Cementing Programme 45-56

5. Mechanical properties of Set Cement 57-65

6 Special Cements Formulations 66-88

7. Cementing Equipment 89-94

8. Mechanical Aids 95-103

9. Preparation of Wellbore before Casing And Cementation 104-106

10. Preparation For Cementing Operation 107-109

11. Recommended Practices: Dos and Don’ts 110-114

12. Types of Cementation 115-131

13. Secondary Cementation 132-144

14. Annular Gas Leakage 145-149

15. Cementing Calculations 150-159

16. Cement Evaluation 160-179

Figure No-1: Schematic view of Seeds being used in wells

Figure No-2: William Aspdin Son of Joseph Aspdin

Figure No. 3: Cementation job by using Top and

1. To bond and support the casing.

Squeeze cementing is commonly used to help:

1. In segregating hydrocarbon producing zones.

All efforts are directed to the success of this final operation.

API standards related to Cementing

Oil Well Cement

1.1 Chemistry of Oil Well Cements

Oil Well Cement

Crystalline Phases and Their Effect on Cement

Crystalline Phase Composition

Oil Well Cement

Oil Well Cement

1.2 Portland Cement Manufacturing process

Figure-1.2: Portland cement manufacturing process.

Oil Well Cement

1.3 Classification of Oil Well Cement

1.4 Hydration of Cement

1.5 Mechanism of Hydration

Oil Well Cement

Fig-1.3: Hydration phase of Oil Well Cement

Oil Well Cement

Fig-1.4: Heat liberated during hydration of C3S at different temperature

1.6 Hydration at Elevated Temperatures and Strength Retrogression

2CaO.SiO2.1 ¼ H2O + Ca(OH)2

Oil Well Cement

1.7 Prevention of Strength Retrogression at High Temperatures

2CaO.SiO2.1 ¼ H2O + 3SiO2 + 11 ¼ H2O 6(CaO.SiO2.2 ½ H2O) Monocalcium Silicate Hydrate.

1.8 Sulphate Resistance

API Classification of OWC as per API 10A

Oil Well Cement

Tricalcium silicate (C3S), maximum, NA NR NR NR 58 58

2.1.1 Calcium Chloride

2.1.2 Sodium Chloride

 Facilitates bonding in salt formations.

2.1.3 Sodium Silicate

2.2.3 Organic Acids (e.g. Tartaric and Citric Acid)

Fig 2.2: Alkylene Phosphonate Structure

2.3 Fluid Loss Additives

2.3.1 Principal Functions

2.4 Dispersants or Friction Reducers

Ageing effect on Thickening Time Ageing effect on free water

2.5 Light Weight Additives or Extenders

standard filtration medium (45-μm 325-mesh] screen supported on a 250-μm 60-mesh]