Construction and Building Materials 250 (2020) 118890

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Technical feasibility of using recycled aggregates to produce eco-friendly

urban furniture
Zoraida Sánchez-Roldán a, María Martín-Morales a, Ignacio Valverde-Espinosa a, Montserrat Zamorano b,⇑
a
Department of Building Construction, University of Granada, High Technical School of Building Engineering, Fuentenueva Campus s/n, 18071 Granada, Spain
b
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Granada, High Technical School of Civil Engineering, Fuentenueva Campus s/n, 18071 Granada, Spain

h i g h l i g h t s

 Recycled aggregates were maximised in manufacturing eco-friendly urban furniture.

 Using recycled aggregates is technically feasible to produce concrete benches.
 Recycled benches put into service were as durable as conventional ones.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The construction sector is characterised by high resource consumption and waste production.
Received 21 October 2019 Consequently, current European policy aims for maximum use of available resources through converting
Received in revised form 23 March 2020 waste into new raw materials. In this context, using recycled aggregates in less demanding technical
Accepted 24 March 2020
applications, such as pieces for urban furniture, could help to maximise the use of these granular mate-
Available online 3 April 2020
rials. In this research, partial and total replacement of natural aggregates has been used to produced eco-
friendly benches that meet technical requirements, for surface characteristics, compression strength and
Keywords:
water absorption. Putting benches into service for 24 months has shown a slight decrease in compression
Recycling
Construction and demolition waste
strength and water absorption values for pieces produced with recycled aggregate; nevertheless, the val-
Recycled coarse aggregate ues were always within the technical requirements limits. These results and the small hanges measured
Recycled fine aggregate in other properties, such as density, carbonation, rebound index and ultrasonic velocity with similar val-
Total replacement ues to those pieces produced with natural aggregate, lead to the conclusion that using recycled aggre-
Urban furniture gates to produce urban furniture is technically feasible.
In-situ tested Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Industrial scale

1. Introduction society towards a circular economy [3,4]. In fact, member states

The construction sector is the higher consumer of non-
renewable natural resources, demanding nearly 2700 million tons
of aggregates each year [1]; in addition, it produces a large quantity
of waste, estimated at 923 million tons in 2016 [2]. For this reason,
this sector’s sustainability is crucial in the environmental policy of
the European Union (EU), which has the objective of promoting a
Abbreviations: EU, European Union; C&DW, construction and demolition waste;
RA, recycled aggregate; NA, natural aggregate; RC, recycled concrete; NFA, natural
fine aggregate; NCA, natural coarse aggregate; RFA, recycled fine aggregate; RCA,
recycled coarse aggregate; P-HR, bench manufactured with RA.
⇑ Corresponding author at: High Technical School of Civil Engineering, Fuente-
nueva Campus, 18071 Granada, Spain.
E-mail addresses: zorisaro@ugr.es (Z. Sánchez-Roldán), mariam@ugr.es
(M. Martín-Morales), valverde@ugr.es (I. Valverde-Espinosa), zamorano@ugr.es
(M. Zamorano).
must recycle 70% of construction and demolition waste (C&DW)
for 2020. Consequently, transforming C&DW into secondary mate-
rials represents a great opportunity [5] that contributes to optimal
waste management [6,7], improves resource efficiency and reduces
costs [3].
Currently, the use of recycled aggregates (RA) is widely studied
for its differences to natural aggregates (NA). One of the most
important differences is the greater water absorption of RA that
restricts its use to producing concrete, especially for fine fractions,
as a consequence of the cement mortar adhered to the surface [8–
10] and the presence of ceramic material and impurities [11,12].
Higher absorption reduces the amount of water available to be
combined with cement, with the consequent loss of fluidity and
negative effect on the mechanical properties of recycled concrete
(RC), among other deficiencies [13]; for this reason, the absorption
value is limiting for both aggregate and concrete [14].

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.118890
0950-0618/Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 Z. Sánchez-Roldán et al. / Construction and Building Materials 250 (2020) 118890

Consequently, optimizing the concrete production process could
make up for the negative aspects related to the use of RA, so results
of laboratory experiments could be transferred to a real or indus-
trial scale [15,16], mortars [17,18] or in road works [19,20]. The
application of RA in structural concrete requires the observance
of some technical requirements which often differ from country
to country. For example, the Structural Concrete Instruction
(EHE-08) limits the use of RA in Spain to those exclusively from
concrete residues; it also establishes a maximum replacement per-
centage of 20% by weight of coarse RA for the manufacture of con-
crete with a compressive strength value of 40 MPa [14].
Comparable restrictions are also included in the standards or
guidelines of other European countries, such as the United King-
dom (BS 8500–2 [21]), Portugal (LNEC E 471 [22]) or Norway (NB
26 [23]).
Consequently, the need to explore other possible construction
applications in which the type and characteristics of the RA are
not so limiting is justified, such as vibro-compressed prefabricated
concrete, paving stone, kerbs, blocks, tiles or hollow blocks [24–
27]. The studies consulted have shown the possibility of replacing
100% of NA with RA, both its fine and coarse fraction; in addition,
using recycled materials of highly variable composition, such as
ceramics [24,28], mixed [29,30], concrete [31,32], waste marble
[33] or the combination of various types of waste [29,34], is possi-
ble. However, to maintain the mechanical requirements, using
greater quantities of cement [25,35], or incorporating mineral
additives, either as a substitute for the cementitious material or
as a supplement [36,37], is necessary, resulting in increased CO2
emissions during the manufacturing process. Only a few studies
have assessed the characteristics of structural or prefabricated con-
crete produced with RA on an industrial scale to research its beha-
viour in use conditions, put into service in the short and long term
[24,28,30,38–40]. In this context, experimentation is necessary for
using RA for alternative applications on an industrial scale, which
would allow maximizing the use of the resources available in
C&DW within the framework of the circular economy [3,41] with-
out compromising the final products requirements. In this sense,
urban furniture, understood as the set of elements for decorative
applications in public space, such as benches, flowerpots or non-
structural concrete balustrades, is presented as a highly interesting
application field due to its great presence in any urban environ-
ment. In addition, its lower technical requirements would guaran-
tee a greater possible use of recycled materials without
compromising final performance [42]. Finally, these pieces would
be recyclable at the end of their useful life, allowing a growth mar-
ket for RA and some environmental benefits, such as reduced pri-
mary raw materials consumption, increased C&DW recycling
rates and reduced waste disposal in landfills.
Consequently, and to encourage society towards sustainability
in the field of urban furniture through recycling C&DW, this
research focused on producing non-structural concrete benches
incorporating RA on an industrial scale and putting them into ser-
vice to assess their technical feasibility under conventional use
conditions over two years. For all that, this research represents
an important contribution to the field of knowledge, as no pub-
lished full-scale experiences have been found to date.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Materials
The materials used to produce concrete benches are described
below:
 Aggregates. Two types of aggregates were used, natural (NA)
and recycled (RA), both fine (0/4 mm) and coarse (4/16 mm),
which were identified by the acronyms NFA, NCA, RFA and
RCA, respectively. The physical, mechanical and chemical prop-
erties, constituents of RCA, and the standards applied are sum-
marized in Table 1, according to the specifications established
in Article 28, Annexes 15 and 18 of EHE-08 [14], and the tech-
nical requirements of standard EN 12,620 [43,44]. NA was pro-
duced from limestone crushing from a local quarry in the Sierra
Elvira mountainous massif in Atarfe (Granada, Spain). RA was
obtained from different C&DW by crushing and screening, from
unselected mixtures and with unknown origins, deposited at
the Inertes Guhilar S.L treatment, recovery and elimination
plant, located in Alhendín (Granada, Spain). C&DW was

Table 1
Tests for characterising aggregates and reference standards [46–53]

Test EHE-08 [14] EN 12,620 [44] Standard

Particle size Designation Particle size domains for sand/D > 4 mm* – EN 933-1; EN 933-2;
Particle size distribution <1.5 CA; 6–16 FA 0.5–4 CA; 3–22 FA EN 933-2/1M [46,47]
Assessment of fines Fines content (<0.063 mm) <5 RCA* –
Particles smaller than 4 mm <10 RCA* –
Sand equivalent index >70 class of exposure type I, IIa ó IIb;>75 <30 to > 65 EN 933–8:2012 + A1;
other cases EN 933–8:2012-A1:2015/1M [48]
Constituents of RCA Rc – concrete – > 90 to < 50 EN 933–11; EN 933–11:2009/AC [49]
Ru - natural stone – –
Rb - clay masonry units < 5 RCA* < 10 to > 50
Ra - bituminous materials < 1 RCA* > 95 to < 1
Rg – glass –  2 to  25
X – others < 1.0 RCA* <1
FL - floating material in volume – < 0.2 to < 10
Oven-dry particle density (kg/dm3) – > 2.00 EN 1097–6 [50]
Water absorption, WA24h  5 5 RCA1* –
Resistance to fragmentation. Los Angeles test 40 15 to > 60 EN 1097–2 [51]
Water soluble chloride content <0.05 (reinforced concrete);<0.03 presstressed – EN 1744–1:2010 + A1 [52]
concrete;<0.15 consrete in mass
Water soluble sulphate content of RA – –
Acid soluble sulphate content – < 0.2 to > 1.3
Total sulphur content 0.8 < 0.2 to > 1.0
Organic matter Exent –
Acid soluble chloride content of RA <0.5 FA;<1 CA;1 RCA* – EN 1744–5 [53]
1
WA24h not exceeding 5% in ACR used in RC with>20% RA; (*) Limit value given in Annex 15 of EHE-08, applicable only to RA; (-) There is no restriction for this parameter
 Z. Sánchez-Roldán et al. / Construction and Building Materials 250 (2020) 118890 3

identified with LER code 17 01 07, according to the European
Waste List [45]. The results of the tests carried out on the aggre-
gates (Table 2 and Table 3) show that RA quality is similar to
NA, in all cases complying with the limits established. Despite
RA having shown a slightly higher value of bituminous material
than permitted by Instruction [14], the low ceramic material
content and absence of organic matter would guarantee its
use. Consequently, RA could be used to produce concrete for
non-structural applications.
 Cement. A white Portland cement with between 6% and 20%
limestone addition, resistance class 42.5 and high initial
strength, designated as BL II/A-L 42.5R UNE 80305, was used.
Its characteristics are defined in standard UNE 80,305 [54]
and in agreement with the harmonized standard in force: EN
197–1 [55], Instruction for the reception of cements [56], as
well as in the Instruction on Structural Concrete [14].
 Additive. A new generation superplasticizer based on modified
polycarboxylate, ChrysoÒfluid Optima 227, was used in accor-
dance with EN 934–1 [48] and EN 934–2 [57] and EN 934–2
[58]. It has been used to increase workability without modifying
the water content, as established in Article 29 ‘‘Additives” and
Annex 15 of the Instruction on Structural Concrete [14]; in addi-
tion, it was allowed to maintain the soft-type consistency
design values to compensate for the water demand required
by the RA.
 Steel. To avoid cracking in the concrete pieces manufactured on
an industrial scale, electro-welded mesh type reinforcing bars,
15  15 mm and 8 mm in diameter, were used; this material
complies with the requirements in Article 32 ‘‘Steels for passive
reinforcement” of EHE-08 [14].
urban furniture, benches were manufactured on an industrial scale.
Fig. 1a. shows the shape and dimensions of manufactured benches
that were placed in a public area at the Fuentenueva Campus of the
University of Granada to evaluate the evolution of their properties
over two years.
2.2.1.1. Concrete manufacturing. First, laboratory work was under-
taken to determine the optimum dosage to obtain the characteris-
tic strength, 35 MPa [59], recommended for prefabricated urban
furniture [42]. Second, three types of concrete were produced
using NA, recycled concrete replacing the coarse fraction (RC-C)
and RC with total replacement of aggregates (RC-T). RA was used
without pre-soaking, so a previous adjustment in additive content
was necessary to make up for the loss of free water in the mixture
due to the higher absorption and ensure a soft consistency for all
concrete samples, according to the results obtained in previous
works [60]. Table 4 shows the dosage, by weight, established for
each type of concrete manufactured. Finally, three types of con-
crete benches were produced using the optimal dosages previously
determined for NC, RC-C and RC-T, which were called P-NC, P-RC-C
and P-RC-T, respectively, as shown in Table 5. Two units of each
type were manufactured following the standard production line
used in the factory. For its production, the requirements that must
be satisfied by precast concrete products and finished products are
in EN 13,369 [61] and EN 13,198 [42] standards, respectively.
Pieces were demoulded one day after pouring and were stored
inside an industrial warehouse with relatively constant tempera-
ture and humidity conditions (Fig. 1b). To guarantee the best per-
formance and durability of the prefabricated benches, they were
put into service between the third and fourth month (Fig. 1c).

2.2. Methods 2.2.1.2. Technical feasibility of concrete benches. Two categories of

2.2.1. Manufacture and technical feasibility of concrete benches
A great variety of products are usually produced for urban fur-
niture; one of the most commonly used are benches. So, to assess
the feasibility of producing precast concrete with RA to be used for
tests were carried out to technically evaluate the benches pro-
duced; one was performed on the concrete produced and the other
on the benches themselves. These tests, the standards used and the
limit values recommended by EN 13,198 [42] are summarized in
Table 6. In the case of concrete produced for manufacturing the

Table 2
Results of tests for geometrical, mechanical, physical and chemical properties of aggregates.

Test/Aggregates RFA RCA NFA NCA

Geometrical properties
Particle size Designation FA-0/4-T-R CA-4/16-T-R FA-0/4-T-N CA-4/16-T-N
Particle size distribution Continuous Continuous Continuous Continuous
Assessment of fines Fines content (<0.063 mm) (%) 2.10 ± 0.18 0.30 ± 0.03 0.50 ± 0.002 0.09 ± 0.001
Particles smaller than 4 mm (%) – 6.65 ± 0.84* – –
Sand equivalent index 100 ± 2 – 70 ± 1 –
Mechanical and physical properties
Oven-dry particle density (kg/dm3) 2.26 ± 0.12 2.54 ± 0.02 2.61 ± 0.04 2.72 ± 0.06
Resistance to fragmentation. Los Angeles test – 34 ± 2 – 31 ± 1
Water absorption, WA24h (%) 5.2 ± 0.41 2.1 ± 0.11 1.0 ± 0.10 0.4 ± 0.05
Chemical properties
Water soluble chloride content (%) 0.021 ± 0.005 0.014 ± 0.001 0.001 ± 0.001 0.008 ± 0.003
Acid soluble chloride content of RA (%) 0.014 ± 0.003 0.012 ± 0.004 – –
Water soluble sulphate content of RA (%) 0.53 ± 0.09 0.48 ± 0.12 – –
Acid soluble sulphate content (%) 0.54 ± 0.10 0.43 ± 0.11 0.04 ± 0.01 0.10 ± 0.03
Total sulphur content (%) 0.63 ± 0.13 0.63 ± 0.09 0.10 ± 0.02 0.50 ± 0.04
Organic matter No contain No contain No contain No contain

(-) Test not performed or no restrictions for this parameter; (*) Value outside the established limits

Table 3
Results of classification test for the constituents of recycled coarse aggregate, and the category assigned using EN 12,620 [43]

Constituents of RCA Rc Ru Rc + Ru Rg Rb Ra X X + Rg FL**

Percentage passing by mass 89 ± 3 9.1 ± 0.9 98 ± 4 0.0 ± 0.0 0.2 ± 0.0 1.8 ± 0.2* 0.1 ± 0.0 0.1 ± 0.0 0.0 ± 0.0
Assigned category [43] Rc80 – Rcu95 Rg2- Rb10- Ra5- X1- XRg0.5- FL0.2-

(-) Test not performed or no restrictions for this parameter; (*) Value outside established limits; (**) Floating material, its content is measured in cm3/kg
4 Z. Sánchez-Roldán et al. / Construction and Building Materials 250 (2020) 118890

Fig. 1. (a) Concrete bench dimensions; (b) Benches curing; (c) Putting in service and concrete core extraction.

Table 4
Concrete mixtures dosification (dosage in weight).

Concrete NCA RCA NFA RFA Cement Mixing water Effective w/c Admixture (% respect cement Mixing time Slump
(kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) ratio weight) (min.) (cm)
NC 1200 – 800 – 350 158 0.45 0.50 10 6–9
RC-C – 1183 800 – 350 158 0.45 1.75 10 6–9
RC-T – 1183 – 800 350 158 0.45 3.00 10 6–9

Table 5
Designation of the concretes studied.

Concrete type and designation Fine fraction Coarse fraction Concrete Concrete core type
replacement, replacement, benche type by age = N*
NFA by RFA NCA by RCA
NC Natural or reference 0% 0% P-NC P-NC/N
RC-C Recycled 0% 100% P-RC-C P-RC-C/N
RC-T Recycled 100% 100% P-RC-T P-RC-T/N

(*) N = 1, 3, 6, 9, 12 or 24 months

benches, it was necessary to determine water absorption and com-
pression strength, according to EN 13,198 [42]; in addition, con-
crete had to comply with the requirements included in Annexes
15 and 18 of Instruction EHE-08 [14].
Eight tests were carried out on the benches put into use, either
in situ or on extracted core specimens, as seen in Table 6. The tests
on the finished product, according to EN 13198, allowed the eval-
uation of the geometric characteristics or dimensions, surface
appearance, compression strength and water absorption of
benches. In addition, the non-destructive tests of rebound number
and ultrasound velocity, included in the general standard for pre-
fabricated products [61], were carried out to develop a better
understanding of possible material alterations over time; likewise,
it was considered of interest to include the modulus of elasticity,
density and natural carbonation, as these are significant tests
according to studies carried out by various authors [39,62]. For
all this, a follow-up programme was established, which involved
a core extraction taken 1, 3, 6, 9, 12 and 24 months after manufac-
ture (Fig. 1c); to do this, a drill with a diamond tubular crown was
used perpendicular to the direction of concreting, as far as possible
from the ends of the piece and in areas where there was no rein-
forcement, in accordance with EN 12504–1 [63]. The slenderness
of cored specimens was similar to that of cylindrical specimens
(length/diameter ratio = 2) to be able to compare the results
obtained [64,65]; they were also conserved by immersing them
in water at 20 °C + 2 °C for the 48 h before the test, as per the tech-
nical regulations [63]. For identifying the core specimens, the des-
ignation for the type of concrete followed by the age of the
concrete in months (1, 3, 6, 9, 12 or 24) was used, explained in
Table 5. Six concrete core extractions and tests were conducted
to obtain the mean value and deviation of each property.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Concrete characterisation used to produce benches
This section summarises and analyses the values of the two lim-
iting properties of concrete used to produce non-structural prod-
ucts, water absorption and compression strength. The mean
values and their standard deviations are shown in Table 7 and they
have been analysed below.
3.1.1. Water absorption
Table 7 summarises the water absorption results for the con-
cretes produced, showing average values of 1.8, 2.3 and 1.7% in
the case of the RC-C, RC-T and NA samples, respectively. These val-
ues are below the maximum 6% established by the standard for
prefabricated elements EN 13,198 and they represent an increase
in absorption of 5.8 and 35.3%, strongly conditioned by the fraction
of the aggregate replaced and by the quality and nature of the
granular materials used [24,25,66]. The increases observed were
lower than those referenced in the literature consulted, with val-
ues ranging from 8.5% [67] to around 30% [68,69] in the case of
using RCA. The smaller increases in the parameter are related to
 Z. Sánchez-Roldán et al. / Construction and Building Materials 250 (2020) 118890 5

Table 6
Control tests for concrete benches.

Requirements Standard Límit EN 13,198 [42] Elements tested

Geometric and surface characteristics EN 13,198 [42] – In-situ
Hardened-state density 4 EN 12390–7 [62] – Concrete cores
Water absorption EN 13,369 [61]  7.5% 1 7%2 6%3 Standard samples/
Concrete cores
Mechanical Compressive strength EN 12390–2 [63], EN 12390–3 [64]; EN 12390–3:2009/ Exempt 1 30 MPa 2 Standard samples/
behaviour AC [65]; EN 12504–1 [66] 35 MPa 3 Concrete cores
Dynamic modulus of elasticity EN 14,146 [67] – Concrete cores
(resonance frequency) 4
Natural carbonation resistance 4 – – Concrete cores
Non- Surface hardness (rebound number) EN 12504-2 [68] – In-situ
destructive Ultrasonic pulse velocity EN 12504-4 [69] – In-situ
testing

(-) No restriction for this parameter.

1
For products for external use, not subjected to freeze–thaw conditions.
2
For products for external use, subjected to freeze–thaw conditions and without melting salts.
3
For products for external use, subjected to freeze–thaw conditions and with melting salts.
4
Requirement not contemplated in the EN 13,198 [42], nor in EN 13,369 [61].

Table 7
Results of the tests carried out in the laboratory phase.

Concrete Water absorption (%) Compressive strength 7 days Compressive strength 28 days Strength development,
(MPa) (MPa) 7–28 days (%)
Mean value Deviation Mean value Deviation Mean value Deviation
NC 1.7 0.06 41.97 0.74 49.15 1.79 85
RC-C 1.8 0.07 40.61 0.51 42.64 0.07 95
RC-T 2.3 0.08 34.76 1.05 39.08 0.68 89

the quality of the aggregates, as has been explained in the previous
section.
3.1.2. Compressive strength
The compression strength of the concretes manufactured was
evaluated at 7 and 28 days (Table 7). The results showed a lower
value of strength in the case of RC. In fact, the compressive strength
of the concrete RC-C was reduced by 3% and 13.2%, compared to
the values obtained in NC at 7 days (41.97 MPa) and 28 days
(49.15 MPa), respectively. In concrete RC-T, the percentage reduc-
tion was increased to 17.2 and 20.5% after 7 and 28 days, respec-
tively. The values obtained are within those published by other
authors, which ranged from 46% [70] to + 29% [71] at 7 days
and 37% [72] to + 40% [39] at 28 days in the case of the coarse
fraction replacement with RA. When the NA was totally replaced,
the loss of strength ranged from 4% [73] to 44% [74] in the first
few days of age, while after 28 days it decreased from 6% [75] to
30% [76,77]. The decreases obtained in this mechanical property
are attributed to the lower resistance to fragmentation observed
in the RA, in addition to its lower density and greater absorption
[78], as shown Table 2. Despite this, all the samples of concrete
manufactured with RA reached the compression strength required,
35 MPa to 28 days.
In relation to the evolution of resistance over time, the
growth observed at 7 days was faster than at 28 days. In the
case of RC, growth values reached 89 and 95% for RC-T and
RC-C respectively; both values were higher than the 85% of NC.
The results in agreement with other researches that have even
shown higher development percentages using super-plasticizing
additives [74], which confirms that the use of additives has a
positive effect on the development of RC initial strength, as well
as over time, working as an extended curing [38,79]. It is also
considered positive for the demoulding process and putting
pieces into service because it reduces the time interval between
production and use, making the production process of prefabri-
cated pieces more competitive.
3.2. Bench characterisation and follow-up
The laboratory results previously discussed showed the techni-
cal feasibility of using the selected RA to produce non-structural
concrete. For the tests carried out on the benches, the results have
been summarized in Table 8 and Fig. 2 to Fig. 11, and they have
been analysed bellow to evaluate their behaviour over time under
real conditions, as well as finding other complementary informa-
tion including geometric and surface characteristics.
3.2.1. Geometric and surface characteristics
The surface finish characteristics are considered an important
property in the case of prefabricated urban furniture due to its dec-
orative function. In this sense, the results showed that the dimen-
sions of the manufactured benches (Table 8) had no changes
between natural and recycled pieces, exhibiting parallelism and
flatness in the external volume and in the internal walls (Fig. 2).
Using RA did not affect the external appearance, homogeneity
and uniformity of colour and texture of the finished product;
except that a slightly darker colour was detected as RA content
increased (P-RC-T) and negligible surface imperfections at two
meters distance [42].
3.2.2. Hardened-state density
The results show, as in other studies [67,80], that the density
of RC was not affected by the incorporation of recycled material,
and did not progress after the first months of curing. Fig. 3
shows the average density values of the cores extracted from
the benches in service for two years of monitoring; it highlights
that after 28 days of fabrication, the density of concrete pro-
duced with recycled coarse fraction (P-RC-C) and total replace-
ment (P-RC-T) was, respectively, 3.8 and 4.8% lower than
pieces manufactured with NA (2,516 kg/dm3). However, at the
end of the monitoring period, these percentages were negligible
for both types of concrete.
6 Z. Sánchez-Roldán et al. / Construction and Building Materials 250 (2020) 118890

ates new cement hydration products beyond those already formed,

which is equivalent to extended curing, as other authors confirmed
[79,81].
If the values of absorption are related to climatic conditions
(Fig. 5) of the area where the pieces were put into service
(Fig. 4), it was possible to observe that their evolution was condi-
tioned by curing, both in the factory and in use conditions. During
the first 3 months, the evolution was marked by curing carried out
in the factory (periodic irrigation with water, under conditions of
stable humidity and temperature, similar of the laboratory). How-
ever, after it was put into service, the absorption values were
affected by environmental conditions; the rainfall in the 6th month
led to a turning point in its development, with a decrease in the
values obtained, mainly in RC. From the 6th to the 12th month,
the absorption coefficients showed few significant changes in all
cases. Finally, from the 12th to the 24th month, water absorption
in NC hardly varied, while in RC there was a sharp decrease. There-
fore, the percentage of variation obtained from 28 days (Fig. 4) to
the two-year follow-up was a decrease of 45 and 48% in P-RC-C
and P-RC-T, respectively, and of 15% in P-NC. The result obtained
is justified because, in addition to the possible effect that climatic
conditions may have had on the curing process and the effect of the
additive, with the passage of time, the natural carbonation of the
material began, decreasing porosity at the edge of the carbonated
samples mainly due to the precipitation of calcium carbonate
inside its porous system, and consequently, reducing the water
absorption capacity of concretes manufactured with RA [82,83].

3.2.4. Mechanical behaviour

Fig. 2. Bench images at two meters distance.
3.2.3. Water absorption
Fig. 4 shows the water absorption coefficients of the cores
extracted from the prefabricated benches. All values were lower
than the 6% established in standard EN 13,198 [42] (Table 3),
although increasing with the percentage of NA replaced. However,
at 24th month, a large decrease in water absorption was shown,
which was 30% lower for both P-RC-C and P-RC-T benches, com-
pared to P-NC (3.06%). This result is explained mainly by the higher
additive percentage used in the industrial process (2.5% in P-RC-C
and 4% in P-RC-T) to get adequate concrete workability. The dis-
persing effect of additives based on modified polycarboxylate cre-
The analysis of the mechanical behaviour of the material con-
tained in the manufactured pieces was evaluated using the com-
pressive strength test on the extracted cores and the resonance
frequency method [84], results shown Fig. 6 and Fig. 7 in
respectively.
Fig. 6 shows the influence of using RA, and the evolution of
compression strength over the two years of monitoring. A strength
decrease was observed in the case of the P-RC benches in compar-
ison with the P-NC. The decrease was higher with total NA replace-
ment, reaching a reduction of 9.3% for P-RC-T after 28 days, while
this value was only 4.7% for P-RC-C; after 24 months similar values
were reached (11.7% and 10.3%, respectively). The observed
decrease in strength has been explained by the presence of a
greater number of weak points in the RC (aggregate-paste interfa-
cial unions), among other factors [85,86]. Despite this, the values
obtained in P-HR benches exceeded the minimum value required
(35 MPa) [42].
The values of compressive strength were also related to the
climatic conditions (Fig. 5) of the area where the pieces were
put into service (Fig. 6). As in the case of water absorption, the

Table 8
Dimensions of the manufactured benches (value declared by the manufacturer).

Dimensions (m) Declared value P-NC-1 P-NC-2 P-RC-C-1 P-RC-C-2 P-RC-T-1 P-RC-T-2
Mean Dev. Mean Dev. Mean Dev. Mean Dev. Mean Dev. Mean Dev.
Plant Width 0.600 0.603 0.001 0.602 0.005 0.603 0.003 0.603 0.004 0.605 0.000 0.604 0.003
Long 1.900 1.899 0.001 1.901 0.001 1.896 0.002 1.900 0.000 1.899 0.001 1.901 0.001
Elevation Outside height 0.500 0.500 0.005 0.499 0.001 0.503 0.009 0.500 0.002 0.499 0.001 0.501 0.005
Interior height 0.380 0.379 0.005 0.376 0.003 0.381 0.007 0.377 0.002 0.378 0.003 0.379 0.004
Rear left leg thickness 0.120 0.116 0.004 0.118 0.005 0.118 0.005 0.117 0.004 0.117 0.005 0.117 0.004
Front left leg thickness 0.120 0.116 0.006 0.118 0.005 0.117 0.005 0.117 0.005 0.117 0.005 0.117 0.005
Rear right leg thickness 0.120 0.116 0.005 0.117 0.004 0.116 0.005 0.118 0.005 0.116 0.004 0.115 0.005
Front right leg thickness 0.120 0.117 0.005 0.116 0.005 0.116 0.005 0.115 0.005 0.117 0.005 0.115 0.005
Interior rear length 1.660 1.667 0.010 1.666 0.008 1.662 0.009 1.665 0.010 1.666 0.008 1.669 0.008
Interior front length 1.660 1.666 0.010 1.668 0.010 1.663 0.010 1.668 0.010 1.664 0.010 1.668 0.009
Rear seat thickness 0.120 0.122 0.003 0.124 0.003 0.123 0.002 0.124 0.001 0.121 0.002 0.123 0.001
Front seat thickness 0.120 0.121 0.001 0.121 0.001 0.121 0.001 0.121 0.000 0.121 0.001 0.121 0.002
 Z. Sánchez-Roldán et al. / Construction and Building Materials 250 (2020) 118890 7

Fig. 3. Density of cored specimens tested.

Fig. 4. Water absorption of cores and the maximum value established in EN 13198 [42].

Fig. 5. Rainfall (mm and days) and maximum relative humidity during the monitoring period in the city of Granada (http://www.ugr.es/~velilla/meteo-albayzin/resumen.
htm).
8 Z. Sánchez-Roldán et al. / Construction and Building Materials 250 (2020) 118890

Fig. 6. Resistance of the cores extracted from each concrete analysed. Minimum strength limit of 35 MPa for the most unfavourable condition [42]

Fig. 7. Modulus of elasticity for the evaluated concretes, calculated on the test cored specimens.

evolution of the resistances was conditioned by the curing sys-
tem, first in the factory, and after, by its exposure to use condi-
tions, with a turning point at 6th months with the maximum
values of strength (due to precipitations). The percentage of total
variation obtained, from 28 days to 24th months, was 11.5% in P-
RC-C, 8.6% in P-RC-T and 6.1% in P-NC (Fig. 6). In-situ concrete
gains little strength after 28 days [87,88], but its evolution over
time can also depend on the stability in the particular test site
conditions and the possible deterioration of the recycled material
over time [89].
Finally, the analysis of the values obtained for the elasticity
dynamic modulus (Fig. 7) in the cores extracted confirmed the
results discussed for compressive strength. This parameter
decreased with the percentage of RA used and was affected by
curing conditions [73,89–93]. This result was explained by the
important rigidity loss in the case of concrete manufactured with
recycled fine fraction (P-HR-T), due to the increase of weak
points inside pieces. Likewise, the degradation of the mortar
adhered to the RA produced discontinuities between the cement
matrix and the aggregates, generating a greater number of fragile
points and, consequently, favouring the deterioration process of
the material over time and the worsening of its mechanical
behaviour.
3.2.5. Carbonation weathering
To analyse the durability of the pieces manufactured and
exposed to use conditions, their natural carbonation was analysed.
The natural carbonation of the concrete surface, exposed to the
open air without any type of protection, is a slow but progressive
physicochemical phenomenon; in the case of pieces without struc-
tural reinforcement, the densification of the hydrated cement
matrix and the pores structure refining (due to the precipitation
of the formed calcium carbonates) can improve surface hardness,
strength and impermeability [82,83,94].
Fig. 8 shows the irregular carbonation front of some of the cores
extracted from the tested pieces after breaking and applying 1%
phenolphthalein. The presence of coarse aggregates, close to sur-
face, prevented its progress as a perfectly straight line [87,95].
Likewise, the lower portions of the cores show greater carbonation
than the upper ones, which corresponds with the area of the bench
most protected and not directly exposed to rain.
Fig. 9 shows the measured carbonation depth and the forward
speed of the front at 12 and 24 months; previous measures were
not included because this phenomenon is non-existent in
younger ages. The results show higher carbonation resistance
in the case of RC compared to HN, with the improvement per-
centages of 35% for P-RC-C and 20% for P-RC-T. In relation to
 Z. Sánchez-Roldán et al. / Construction and Building Materials 250 (2020) 118890 9

Fig. 8. Natural carbonation of the cores extracted from the seat of the manufactured benches.

Fig. 9. Speed and depth of natural carbonation of the cores tested at 12 and 24 months.

Fig. 10. Rebound number of the tested concretes obtained in-situ.

the development of the carbonation over time, the highest speed sons [79,80,87,96]: the use of superplasticiser, the carbonation
was observed in the P-HR-T bench, with an increase of 20% after of the RA closest to the surface prevents the access of CO2
two years, compared to 14% for P-NC and 10% for P-RC-C. The (Fig. 8), the longer factory curing time of the pieces and the
improvement observed in RC could be justified for several rea- age of exposure progresses.
10 Z. Sánchez-Roldán et al. / Construction and Building Materials 250 (2020) 118890
Fig. 11. Ultrasonic pulse velocity determined in-situ on the tested benches.
3.2.6. Non-destructive testing
The study of surface hardness, thanks to non-destructive tech-
niques applied in-situ, has made it possible to analysis of the matu-
rity of the concrete over time [62,97,98]. Fig. 10 and Fig. 11 show
the evolution of the results obtained for measuring the rebound
index and the speed of ultrasonic impulses in the studied precast
concrete benches.
Fig. 10 shows the insignificant influence of RA on the rebound
index, both after 28 days and two years. In relation to the evolution
over time, in the bench P-NC, the rebound index grew up to
6 months, then gradually decreased until the end of the monitoring
period. In the case of benches P-RC, a slight increase (9%) in this
parameter was detected from 28 days to 24 months, with higher
values with total replacement of NA. Nevertheless, this test only
measures the properties related to the surface area of the material
(2–3 cm) [62,99], so these results were attributed to the carbona-
tion observed in the tested pieces, which increased the hardness
of the bench surface.
Fig. 11 shows that the ultrasonic velocity slightly decreased
with incorporation of RA, with percentages of variation insignifi-
cant for both types of RC in comparison to NC at 28 days; at the
end of the two years, a 5% maximum observed in the piece P-HR.
Compared to the over time, the ultrasound speed showed little sig-
nificant changes; in the case of the piece manufactured with NA,
the speed tended to decrease, with a final value 2% lower than that
obtained after 28 days. Instead, a slight gradual increase of ultra-
sonic velocity was observed at the end of the monitoring period
for P-RC-C and P-RC-T, compared to the values obtained at 28 days.
This improvement is directly related to the anomaly presented in
the water absorption coefficient of RCs at 24 months, resulting in
a more compact material that allowed waves to pass through it
quickly [62,100].
4. Conclusions
The conducted study revealed the technical feasibility of the
RAs selected to produce precast concrete for non-structural uses,
even in the most unfavourable external use conditions; generally,
using the coarse fraction showed better behaviour compared to
the results obtained when using together RFA and RCA.
Exposing the benches under real use conditions for 24 months,
showed a decrease of compression strength and absorption in the
case of pieces manufactured with RA, as a consequence of the dete-
rioration produced and the surface carbonation of the material,
respectively. The trend in the changes observed in the rest of the
properties analysed (density, carbonation, rebound number and
ultrasonic velocity) were not significant and their values were sim-
ilar to those obtained from pieces made using NA. Despite this,
benches produced with RA complied with the technical require-
ments established by the specific regulations in terms of shape,
external appearance, weather resistance, compression strength
and water absorption.
This research demonstrates the technical feasibility of manufac-
turing pieces of urban furniture with total or partial replacement of
the NA by RA and increases the field of applications of RA, with the
consequent environmental benefits according to the Circular Econ-
omy strategy established by the European Union.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Zoraida Sánchez-Roldán: Conceptualization, Methodology,
Investigation, Formal analysis, Writing - original draft, Writing -
review & editing, Visualization. María Martín-Morales: Conceptu-
alization, Methodology, Investigation, Validation, Formal analysis,
Writing - review & editing, Visualization, Supervision. Ignacio
Valverde-Espinosa: Conceptualization, Methodology, Investiga-
tion, Validation, Formal analysis, Writing - review & editing, Visu-
alization, Supervision. Montserrat Zamorano: Conceptualization,
Methodology, Investigation, Validation, Formal analysis, Writing -
review & editing, Visualization, Supervision, Project
administration.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the staff of INERTES GUHILAR S.L.
(Alhendín, Spain), and PREFADUR (Padul, Spain) for their help in
this study. Also, the Departments of Building Construction and
Civil Engineering and research group TEP-968 ‘‘Tecnologías para
la Economía Circular” (Technologies for Circular Economy) of Gran-
ada University.
 Z. Sánchez-Roldán et al. / Construction and Building Materials 250 (2020) 118890 11

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