Simon Schuster Handbook For W - Lynn Quitman Troyka 8

How can I improve the grammar and vocabulary in my writing?
49a 847
(if you plan to work in an English-speaking environment or in a context where

English is used to communicate with other nonnative English speakers).
EXERCISE 48-5 Interview a professor in your major (or in a subject you are
thinking about majoring in). Ask him or her the following questions, and write a re-
port about the answers you receive. Compare your report with that of a classmate.
1. What kinds of writing do you assign to students in your classes?

2. How do students learn how to write these assignments?
3. (Choose one or two types of writing assignments that the professor men-
tions.) What are the important parts of this assignment? What steps do
students go through to complete this kind of assignment?
4. When you grade student writing, what aspects are most important to
you?
place?
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5. What kinds of writing do graduates in this major usually do in the work-
6. Can you show me some examples of student writing from your courses?
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For more help with your writing, grammar, and research,
go to www.mycomplab.com
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49
Handling Sentence-Level
Issues in English
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49a How can I improve the grammar and vocabulary

in my writing?
The best way to improve your English-language writing, including your gram-
mar and vocabulary, is by writing. Many students also find it helpful to read
as much as they can in English to see how other authors organize their writ-
ing, use vocabulary, and structure their sentences. Improving your writing in
a second language—or a first language, for that matter—takes time. You will
848 49b HANDLING SENTENCE-LEVEL ISSUES IN ENGLISH
probably find that your ability to communicate with readers improves dramat-
ically if you work on the ideas outlined in the previous chapter, including un-
derstanding the writing assignment and improving the organization and ideas
in your writing. Sometimes, though, readers may find it hard to understand
your ideas because of grammar or word choice problems in your sentences. In
other cases, readers may become distracted from your ideas because you have
a great many technical errors. We have designed this chapter to help you im-
prove in these areas.
49b How can I improve my sentence structure?

Sometimes students write sentences that are hard to understand because of
problems with overall sentence structure or length. For example, one student
wrote the following sentence, which contains sentence-level errors.
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When the school started, my first English class was English 1020 as a
grammar class, I started learning the basics of grammar, and at the same
time the basic of writing, I worked hard in that class, taking by the teacher
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advice, try to memorize a lot of grammar rules and at the same time mem-
orize some words I could use them to make an essay point.
To correct the structural and length errors, the student needs to do several
things to improve the sentence. She needs to break it into several shorter sen-
tences (Chapter 20). Also, she needs to revise her sentences so that they clearly
connect to each other. Additionally, she needs to work on her verb tenses in cer-
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tain phrases, such as “to make an essay point.” This means she needs to ask for
extra help at the writing center or from her instructor. After patient study and
work, her revision might look like this:
When school started, my first English class, English 1020, was a grammar
class, where I started learning the basics of grammar. At the same time, I
learned the basics of writing. I worked hard in that class, taking the teacher’s
advice and memorizing a lot of grammar rules. In addition, I memorized
some words I could use in my essays to make my points.
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EXERCISE 49-1 Many different revisions of the previous example of a

student’s uncorrected paragraph are possible. Write a different revision of that
student’s paragraph.
EXERCISE 49-2 A student wrote the following passage in a paper he

wrote about his experiences learning English. Rewrite the passage, improving the
student’s sentence structure and punctuation. In your revision of this passage, cor-
rect any errors that you see in grammar or spelling. Afterward, compare your
revision with a classmate’s. Then examine a piece of your own writing to see if
you need to revise any of your sentences because of problems with sentence
How can I find and correct errors in my own writing? 49d 849
structure. (While you are doing this, if you have any questions about correct
word order in English, see Chapter 52.)
I went to school in my country since I was three years old, I was in
Arabic and French school, and that’s was my dad choice because his second
language is French. So my second language at that time was French. In
my elementary school I started to learn how to make an essay in French
and Arabic. I learned the rules and it is too deferent from English. But later
on when I was in my high school I had two choices between English class
and science class so I choose the science because that’s was my major.
After I graduate I went to American university and I start studying English
and my first class was remedial English for people doesn’t know anything
about this language. I went to this class about two months and then I have
moved to a new place and I start from the beginning as an ESL student.
49c How can I improve my word choice (vocabulary)?
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An important aspect of writing in a second language is having enough vocab-
ulary to express your ideas. Many students enjoy learning more and more words
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to be able to communicate precise meanings. For example, one multilingual stu-
dent explains that she has improved her writing and made it more “desirable”
by using “words as tools.” She also says that by using “different words every
time” she “refreshes” her writing and “eliminates the routine” from it. You, too,
can experiment in your writing with new words that you hear and read in other
contexts. To help make sure you’re using a new word in the right way, we rec-
ommend the American Heritage English as a Second Language Dictionary, which
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is available in paperback and hardback. It can ease your way with English words
and expressions because it’s intended specifically for multilingual learners of
English.
49d How can I find and correct errors in my own writing?

Some multilingual writers find it easiest to find and correct their grammar er-
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rors by reading their writing aloud and listening for mistakes. This method is
often preferred by students who feel their spoken English is better than their
written English. Other writers like to ask a friend who is a native speaker of Eng-
lish to check their writing for grammatical mistakes. Still other multilingual
writers prefer to circle each place where they think they’ve made an error and
then use their handbook to check themselves.
Many multilingual writers like to keep a list of the types of grammar er-
rors they make so that they can become especially sensitive to errors when
proofreading their papers. The best system is to make a master list of the errors
in categories so that the checking can be as efficient as possible. Section 49j pro-
vides an example of how to track your errors in English.
850 49e HANDLING SENTENCE-LEVEL ISSUES IN ENGLISH
49e How can I correct verb form (tense) errors

in my writing?
Many multilingual writers consider verb-form errors the most difficult to cor-
rect. They want to be sure that their verb forms express the appropriate time
frame for the event or situation they’re describing. For a detailed discussion of
verb forms, see 15b–15f.
EXERCISE 49-3 Read the following passage in which a student describes

her experience learning to write in English. The student’s instructor has under-
lined errors related to time frames expressed by the verbs. Correct the under-
lined verbs, changing them to the correct time frames.
I must have started writing when I was nine years old. I remember my
father used to give us papers and watercolors and let us draw as much as
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we want. At the end, he made sure that we write comments about why
we have sketched the way we did. The only written thing that I find
dating to that period was a kind of comment about a picture which I
have sketched of a village enveloped in water.
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I don’t remember much about the kind of writing assignments we have
at school, whether in my native language Arabic, or in my second languages,
at that time, English and French. That period is a little bit hazy in my mind.
However, I remember that whenever we had the chance to go to school, we
made sure that we fill the playgrounds with creative farewell sentences
indicating that we have been there. It is our little game against the
witchcraft of war and against the will of the principal, who forgive us easily
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once we have recited the multiplication table or sing the national anthem.
If you struggle with errors in verb tense in your writing, try reading through
your draft once and circling all of the verbs. Then check each one in isolation.
49f How can I correct my errors

in subject-verb agreement?
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Subject-verb agreement means that a subject (a noun or a pronoun) and its verb
must agree in number and in person. In the following two sentences, notice the
difference in the way the subjects and the verbs that describe their actions agree:
Carolina runs charity marathons. They give her a sense of accomplishment.
For more information about subject-verb agreement, review Chapter 17.
To help you put subject-verb agreement rules into practice, try the next exercise.
EXERCISE 49-4 Examine the following student’s description of his expe-

riences learning English. The student’s instructor has underlined verbs that do not
agree with their subjects. Correct the underlined verb forms, changing them to
agree with their subjects.
How can I correct my preposition errors? 49h 851
I describe the way I learned English as a natural way, where one first
learn how to speak and communicate with others, before learning the
grammar rules that supports a language. When I arrived in the United
States, I works hard to improve my communications skills in English, trying
to speak even when the people does not understand me. Also, making
friends with native speakers help a person learn the language. One can
learn from them every single minute that one spend with them.
Do you have similar problems with subject-verb agreement in your own
writing? Examine something you’ve written recently to check whether your
subjects and verbs agree. Try underlining the subject and verb in each sentence
to isolate the words in the sentence that need to agree.
49g How can I correct my singular/plural errors?

In English, if you’re referring to more than one noun that is a count noun, you
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must make that noun plural, often by adding an -s ending. If you would like
more information on this topic, see Chapter 50. To help you recognize when
necessary plural forms are missing, try the next exercise.
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EXERCISE 49-5 In the following passage, a student comments on the
differences between writing in English and in Chinese. The student’s instructor
has underlined only the first two nouns that need to be plural. Read the pas-
sage, correct the two underlined nouns, and then find and correct the other
nouns in the passage that need to be plural.
English and Chinese have many similarity. They both have paragraph,
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sentence, and punctuation mark, like comma, full stops, and question
marks. The biggest difference is that English has an alphabet with letter,
while Chinese uses symbol for writing. My mother told me that about two
thousand year ago, people in China used picture to draw what they
wanted to say on turtle shells. Day after day, the pictures changed and
turned into the Chinese character.
Examine a piece of your own writing and make sure that you have used
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plural words correctly.
49h How can I correct my preposition errors?

Prepositions are words such as in, on, for, over, and about, which usually show
where, how, or when. For example, in the sentence She received flowers from her
friend for her birthday, the prepositions are from and for. Unlike some other
languages, English has many prepositions, and knowing which one to use can
be very difficult. You can find information about using prepositions in section
14h and in Chapter 53. To practice finding and correcting preposition errors
in your own writing, complete the next exercise.
852 49i HANDLING SENTENCE-LEVEL ISSUES IN ENGLISH
EXERCISE 49-6 In the following passage about one student’s learning

experiences as a second-language learner, the student’s instructor has underlined
problems with preposition use. Try to correct the preposition errors. In some
cases, more than one answer may be correct. If you can’t find the information you
need from Chapter 53 or in a dictionary, you might ask a native English speaker
for help.
I’ve always wanted to learn languages other than my native language.

I started taking English and French lessons of school and I liked the idea
of becoming fluent for at least one language. I thought English would
help me a lot to the future because it could help me communicate to
people from all over the world.
If prepositions are something you struggle with in your own writing, ask
an instructor or a native speaker of English to underline the errors in preposi-
tion usage in a piece of writing that you have done. Then go through your
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writing and correct the errors that have been underlined.
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49i What other kinds of errors might I make?
Depending on your language background and your prior experience with writ-
ing in English, you may make errors related to the use of articles (a, an, the),
word order (where to place adjectives and adverbs in sentences), and various verb
forms and noun forms (for example, problems with noncount nouns and help-
ing verbs). For example, the next sentence has a problem with one article and
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the order of an adjective: The New York City is a place exciting. The corrected
sentence is New York City is an exciting place.
Chapters 50 through 55 address grammar errors that are often made by
multilingual writers. Try to keep track of your most common errors and refer
to the relevant sections of this handbook for help.
49j
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How can I keep track of my most common errors?

One way of becoming more aware of the types of errors you make is to keep
track of the errors you often make in the papers you write. You can ask your
instructor or a tutor to help you identify such errors, and you can make a list
of them that you update regularly. Remember the passage from Exercise
49-3 about a student’s experiences learning to write? After the student exam-
ined the teacher’s comments on her paper, she made a list of her errors and in-
cluded a correction and a note about the error type for each. After making this
list of her errors, the student writer realized that many of her errors related to
verb form.
How can I improve my proofreading skills? 49k 853
Specific Error Correction Type of Error
as much as we want wanted verb form
that we write comments wrote verb form
about why we have sketched had verb form
which I have sketched had verb form
we fill the playground filled verb form
that we have been there had verb form
once we have recited had verb form
EXERCISE 49-7 Using one or more pieces of your writing, make an error list
similar to the previous one. (You could make this list on a sheet of paper or in an
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electronic file.) Examine the list. What are the most common types of errors that you
make? Once you have identified your common error types, refer to the relevant
proofreading exercises in the previous sections of this chapter and to the relevant
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ones in Chapters 50 through 55. Also, remember to keep your common errors in
mind when you proofread your future writing assignments. You might even keep a
master checklist that you can return to when you proofread your writing.
49k How can I improve my proofreading skills?

The most effective way to improve your proofreading skills is to practice fre-
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quently. Proofread your own writing and, after you have done so, ask your in-
structor, a tutor, or a friend who is a native English speaker to point out the
location of errors that you did not see on your own. If you know you often make
a particular kind of error, such as errors with subject-verb agreement (Chap-
ter 11), ask the person helping you to check for these problems specifically.
When you know which errors you’ve made, try to correct the errors without
help. Finally, have your instructor or tutor check your corrections.
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Another effective way to improve your proofreading skills is to exchange

your writing with a partner. You can check for errors in his or her writing and
he or she can check for errors in yours. You might find that, at first, it is easier
to find errors if you look for one kind of error at a time. Try Exercises 49-8 and
49-9 for more proofreading practice.
EXERCISE 49-8 The following passage was written by a bilingual student

about her experiences learning to write in English. After you read it, rewrite it,
correcting the linguistic errors you find.
I’ve always faced some problem in writing in English as it took me

some time to get used to it. Facing these complexities encourage me to
854 49k HANDLING SENTENCE-LEVEL ISSUES IN ENGLISH
developed my skills in English writing. My first class in English was about

grammar, spelling, and writing. I realize later that grammar is hard to
learn, so I knew I have to put in a lot of effort to understand it perfectly
and use it properly. I also had some difficulties for vocabulary, as it was
hard to understand the meaning of some word.
Another thing that helped me with my English was when my mother
enroll me in an English learning center that specialize in teach writing
skills. After a month of taking classes, my teacher saw some improvement
in my grammar and vocabulary. To test me, she asked me to write an
essay on how to be successful. I was really excite of it and started write it
immediately. After I finish my essay and my teacher check it, my teacher
suggested that I take a few more classes for her. She taught me how to
organized my ideas. After finishing these classes I realize that my writing
was getting much better with time.
EXERCISE 49-9
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In the following paragraph, a student describes the study
of English at private schools in Japan. After you read the paragraph, rewrite it,
correcting the errors that you find.
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Recently, the number of private language schools are increased in
Japan. These schools put special emphasize on oral communication skills.
In them, student takes not only grammars and reading classes, which
help them pass school examinations, but also speaking, listening classes.
They can also study English for six year, which is same period as in public
schools. Some of the teacher in these school are native speaker of English.
Since these teachers do not use Japanese in the class, the students have
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to use the English to participate it. They have the opportunity to use the
English in their class more than public school students. It is said that the
students who took English in private schools can speak English better
than those student who go to public schools.
The following chart contains information about errors that may be caused
by a difference between your native language and English. The chart does not
include all languages or all possible errors. Instead, it focuses on languages com-
monly spoken by ESOL students in the United States, and it includes errors
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that often cause significant difficulties for students.
ENGLISH ERRORS TRANSFERRED FROM OTHER LANGUAGES

Languages Error Topic Sample Errors Corrected Errors
Singulars and Plurals (Ch. 50)
Chinese, no (or optional) NO: She wrote YES: She wrote
Japanese, plural forms of many good essay. many good
Korean, Thai nouns, including NO: She typed two essays. YES: She
numbers paper. typed two papers.
continued >>
How can I improve my proofreading skills? 49k 855
Languages Error Topic Sample Errors Corrected Errors

Hebrew, Italian, use of plural with NO: We cared for YES: We cared for
Japanese, embedded five childrens. five children.
Spanish plurals
Italian, Spanish adjectives carry NO: They are YES: They are
plural Americans American
students. students.
Articles (Ch. 51)
Chinese, no article (a, an, NO: He ate YES: He ate a
Japanese, Hindi, the) but can de- sandwich. sandwich.
Korean, Russian, pend on whether
Swahili, Thai, article is definite/
Turkish, Urdu indefinite
Word Order (Ch. 52)
Arabic, Hebrew, verb before NO: Questioned YES: Avi
Russian, Spanish,
Tagalog
Chinese,
subject
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inverted word
Avi the teenagers.
NO: The book was

questioned the
teenagers.
YES: Was the
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Japanese, Hindi, order confused it heavy? book heavy?
Thai in questions
Chinese, sentence adverb NO: We will go YES: Possibly, we
Japanese, misplaced home possibly will go home now.
Russian, Thai now.
Gerunds, Infinitives, and Participles (Ch. 54)
French, German, no progressive NO: They talk YES: They are
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Greek, Hindi, forms or overuse while she talk. talking while she
Russian, Urdu of progressive is talking.
forms with NO: They are YES: They want to
infinitive wanting to talk talk now.
now.
Arabic, Chinese, omit forms of be NO: She happy. YES: She is happy.
Farsi, Russian
Chinese, no verb ending NO: She talk YES: She talks
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Japanese, Korean, changes for loudly. loudly.

Russian, Thai person & number
Arabic, Chinese, no or non- NO: He laugh YES: He laughed
Farsi, French, standard verb- yesterday. yesterday.
Thai, Vietnamese tense markers NO: They has YES: They arrived
arrived yesterday. yesterday.
Japanese, nonstandard NO: A car accident YES: A car accident
Korean, Russian, passives was happened. was caused by
Thai, Vietnamese the icy roads.

50
Singulars and Plurals
50a What are count and noncount nouns?

Count nouns name items that can be counted: a radio or radios, a street or
streets, an idea or ideas, a fingernail or fingernails. Count nouns can be SINGULAR
or PLURAL.
Noncount nouns name things that are thought of as a whole and not
split into separate, countable parts: rice, knowledge, traffic. There are two im-
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portant rules to remember about noncount nouns: (1) They’re never preceded
by a or an, and (2) they are never plural.
Here are several categories of noncount nouns, with examples in each
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category:
GROUPS OF SIMILAR clothing, equipment, furniture, jewelry, junk,

ITEMS luggage, mail, money, stuff, traffic,
vocabulary
ABSTRACTIONS advice, equality, fun, health, ignorance, infor-
mation, knowledge, news, peace, pollution,
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respect
LIQUIDS blood, coffee, gasoline, water
GASES air, helium, oxygen, smog, smoke, steam
MATERIALS aluminum, cloth, cotton, ice, wood
FOOD beef, bread, butter, macaroni, meat, pork
PARTICLES OR GRAINS dirt, dust, hair, rice, salt, wheat
SPORTS, GAMES, chess, homework, housework, reading, sailing,
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ACTIVITIES soccer
LANGUAGES Arabic, Chinese, Japanese, Spanish
FIELDS OF STUDY biology, computer science, history, literature,
math
EVENTS IN NATURE electricity, heat, humidity, moonlight, rain,
snow, sunshine, thunder, weather
Some nouns can be countable or uncountable, depending on their mean-

ing in a sentence. Most of these nouns name things that can be meant either
individually or as “wholes” made up of individual parts.
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How do I use determiners with singular and plural nouns? 50b 857
COUNT You have a hair on your sleeve. [In this sentence, hair is
meant as an individual, countable item.]
NONCOUNT Kioko has black hair. [In this sentence, all the strands of
hair are referred to as a whole.]
COUNT The rains were late last year. [In this sentence, rains is
meant as individual, countable occurrences of rain.]
NONCOUNT The rain is soaking the garden. [In this sentence, all the
particles of rain are referred to as a whole.]
When you are editing your writing (see Chapter 2), be sure that you have
not added a plural -s to any noncount nouns, for they are always singular in
form.
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Alert: Be sure to use a singular verb with any noncount noun that func-
tions as a SUBJECT in a CLAUSE.
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To check whether a noun is count or noncount, look it up in a dictionary
such as the Dictionary of American English (Heinle and Heinle). In this dic-
tionary, count nouns are indicated by [C], and noncount nouns are indicated
by [U] (for “uncountable”). Nouns that have both count and noncount mean-
ings are marked [C;U].
50b
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How do I use determiners with singular
and plural nouns?
Determiners, also called expressions of quantity, are used to tell how much or
how many with reference to NOUNS. Other names for determiners include
limiting adjectives, noun markers, and ARTICLES. (For information about arti-
cles—the words a, an, and the—see Chapter 51.)
Choosing the right determiner with a noun can depend on whether the
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noun is NONCOUNT or COUNT (see 50a). For count nouns, you must also de-
cide whether the noun is singular or plural. Quick Reference 50.1 lists many
determiners and the kinds of nouns that they can accompany.
Alert: The phrases a few and a little convey the meaning “some”: I have
a few rare books means “I have some rare books.” They are worth a little money
means “They are worth some money.”
Without the word a, the words few and little convey the meaning “almost
none”: I have few [or very few] books means “I have almost no books.” They are
worth little money means “They are worth almost no money.”
858 50b SINGULARS AND PLURALS
Quick Reference 50.1

Determiners to use with count and noncount nouns
GROUP 1: DETERMINERS FOR SINGULAR COUNT NOUNS
With every singular count noun, always use one of the determiners listed in
Group 1.
a, an, the a house an egg the car
one, any, some, any house each egg another car
every, each, either,
neither, another,
the other
my, our, your, his, your house its egg Connie’s car
her, its, their,
nouns with ’s or s’,
this, that
one, no, the first
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this house
one house
that egg
no egg
this car
the fifth car
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the second, etc.
GROUP 2: DETERMINERS FOR PLURAL COUNT NOUNS
All the determiners listed in Group 2 can be used with plural count nouns.
Plural count nouns can also be used without determiners, as discussed in
section 50b.
the the bicycles the rooms the idea
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some, any, both, some bicycles many rooms all ideas
many, more, most,
few, fewer, the
fewest, a lot of, a
number of, other,
several, all, all the
my, our, your, his, our bicycles her rooms student’s ideas
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her, its, their,

nouns with ’s or s’
these, those these bicycles those rooms these ideas
no, two, three, etc.; no bicycles four rooms the first ideas
the first, the second,
the third, etc.
continued >>
How do I use one of, nouns as adjectives, and states in names or titles? 50c 859
Quick Reference 50.1 (continued)
GROUP 3: DETERMINERS FOR NONCOUNT NOUNS

All the determiners listed in Group 3 can be used with noncount nouns (al-
ways singular). Noncount nouns can also be used without determiners, as dis-
cussed in section 47b.
the the rice the rain the pride
some, any, much, enough rice a lot of rain more pride
more, most, other,
the other, little, less,
the least, enough,
all, all the, a lot of
my, our, your, his, their rice India’s rain your pride
her, its, their,
nouns with ’s or s’
this, that r
this rice that rain this pride
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no, the first, the no rice the first rain no pride
second, the third, etc.
50c How do I use one of, nouns as adjectives, and states

in names or titles?
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ONE OF CONSTRUCTIONS
One of constructions include one of the and a NOUN or one of followed by a
DETERMINER-noun combination (one of my hats, one of those ideas). Always use
a plural noun as the OBJECT when you use one of the with a noun or one of with
an adjective-noun combination.
NO One of the reason to live here is the beach.
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YES One of the reasons to live here is the beach.

NO One of her best friend has moved away.
YES One of her best friends has moved away.
The VERB in these constructions is always singular because it agrees with
the singular one, not with the plural noun: One of the most important inventions
of the twentieth century is [not are] television.
For advice about verb forms that go with one of the . . . who construc-
tions, see 17l.
860 50d SINGULARS AND PLURALS
NOUNS USED AS ADJECTIVES

ADJECTIVES in English do not have plural forms. When you use an adjective with
a PLURAL NOUN, make the noun plural but not the adjective: the green [not
greens] leaves. Be especially careful when you use a word as a MODIFIER that can
also function as a noun.
The bird’s wingspan is ten inches. [Inches is functioning as a noun.]

The bird has a ten-inch wingspan. [Inch is functioning as a modifier.]
Do not add -s (or -es) to the adjective even when it is modifying a plural
noun or pronoun.
NO Many Americans students are basketball fans.

YES Many American students are basketball fans.
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NAMES OR TITLES THAT INCLUDE THE WORD STATES
States is a plural word. However, names such as United States or Organization
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of American States refer to singular things—one country and one organization,
even though made up of many states. When states is part of a name or title re-
ferring to one thing, the name is a SINGULAR NOUN and therefore requires a
SINGULAR VERB.
NO The United States have a large entertainment industry.

NO The United State has a large entertainment industry.
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YES The United States has a large entertainment industry.
50d How do I use nouns with irregular plurals?

Some English nouns have irregularly spelled plurals. In addition to those dis-
cussed in section 31c, here are others that often cause difficulties.
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PLURALS OF FOREIGN NOUNS AND OTHER IRREGULAR NOUNS

Whenever you are unsure whether a noun is plural, look it up in a dictionary.
If no plural is given for a singular noun, add -s to form the plural.
Many nouns from other languages that are used unchanged in English
have only one plural. If two plurals are listed in the dictionary, look carefully
for differences in meaning. Some words, for example, keep the plural form
from the original language for scientific usage and have another, English-form
plural for nonscientific contexts: formula, formulae, formulas; appendix, appen-
dices, appendixes; index, indices, indexes; medium, media, mediums; cactus, cacti,
cactuses; fungus, fungi, funguses.
How do I use nouns with irregular plurals? 50d 861
Words from Latin that end in -is in their singular form become plural by
substituting -es: parenthesis, parentheses; thesis, theses; oasis, oases.
OTHER WORDS
Medical terms for diseases involving an inflammation end in -itis: tonsillitis,
appendicitis. They are always singular.
The word news, although it ends in s, is always singular: The news is
encouraging. The words people, police, and clergy are always plural even though
they do not end in s: The police are prepared.
EXERCISE 50-1 Consulting all sections of this chapter, select the correct
choice from the words in parentheses and write it in the blank.
EXAMPLE At the beginning of every school year, all (student, students) stu-
dents can expect (homework, homeworks) homework that teaches
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them about the toll-free No Bully hot line.
1. One of the main (reason, reasons) _______________ for such a hot line is
the change in tempers and violent capacities of (American, Americans)
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_______________ students.
2. Because students are often bullied by a fellow classmate when outside
the classroom, it is important that they receive (information, informations)
_______________ about how to react when confronted by such a threat.
3. Many a child in the (United State, United States) _______________ is in
danger not only of being teased and taunted by others but also of being
the victim of a crime in which (blood, bloods) _______________ is spilled,
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such as from assault or robbery.
4. Because (many, much) _______________ classrooms are unsupervised after
school, this (time, times) _______________ becomes especially dangerous.
5. In a moment of danger, (ignorance, ignorances) _______________ can be
deadly, so the No Bully hot line was set up to give students (advice,
advices) _______________ on how to handle bullying and other threaten-
ing situations.
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51
Articles
51a How do I use a, an, or the with singular

count nouns?
The words a and an are called indefinite articles. The word the is called the
DEFINITE ARTICLE. Articles are one type of DETERMINER. (For more on deter-
miners, see 14f; for other determiners, see Quick Reference 50.1 in 50b.) Ar-
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ticles signal that a NOUN will follow and that any MODIFIERS between the article
and the noun refer to that noun.
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a chair the computer
a brown chair the teacher’s computer
a cold, metal chair the lightning-fast computer
Every time you use a singular count noun, a COMMON NOUN that names
one countable item, the noun requires some kind of determiner; see Group 1
in Quick Reference 50.1 (in 50b) for a list. To choose between a or an and the,
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you need to determine whether the noun is specific or nonspecific. A noun
is considered specific when anyone who reads your writing can understand ex-
actly and specifically to what item the noun is referring. If the noun refers to
any of a number of identical items, it is nonspecific.
For nonspecific singular count nouns, use a (or an). When the singular
noun is specific, use the or some other determiner. Quick Reference 51.1 can
help you decide when a singular count noun is specific and therefore requires
the.
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Alert: Use an before words that begin with a vowel sound. Use a before
words that begin with a consonant sound. Go by the sound, not the spelling.
For example, words that begin with h or u can have either a vowel or a conso-
nant sound. Make the choice based on the sound of the first word after the ar-
ticle, even if that word is not the noun.
an idea a good idea
an umbrella a useless umbrella
an honor a history book
862
How do I use a, an or the with singular count nouns? 51a 863

When a singular count noun is specific and requires the
• Rule 1: A noun is specific and requires the when it names something
unique or generally and unambiguously known.
The sun has risen above the horizon. [Because there is only one sun
and only one horizon, these nouns are specific in the context of this
sentence.]
used in a representative or abstract sense.
Benjamin Franklin favored the turkey as the national bird of the
United States. [Because turkey and national bird are representative
references rather than references to a particular turkey or bird, they
are specific nouns in the context of this sentence.]
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defined elsewhere in the same sentence or in an earlier sentence.
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The ship Savannah was the first steam vessel to cross the Atlantic
Ocean. [Savannah names a specific ship.]
The carpet in my bedroom is new. [In my bedroom defines exactly
which carpet is meant, so carpet is a specific noun in this context.]
I have a computer in my office. The computer is often broken.
[Computer is not specific in the first sentence, so it uses a. In the
second sentence, computer has been made specific by the first
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sentence, so it uses the.]
that can be inferred from the context.
Monday, I had to call the technician to fix my computer again. [A
technician would be any of a number of individuals; the technician
implies the same person has been called before, and so it is specific
in this context.]
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One common exception affects Rule 3 in Quick Reference 51.1. A noun

may still require a (or an) after the first use if more information is added be-
tween the article and the noun: I bought a sweater today. It was a (not the) red
sweater. (Your audience has been introduced to a sweater but not a red sweater,
so red sweater is not yet specific in this context and cannot take the.) Other in-
formation may make the noun specific so that the is correct. For example, It
was the red sweater that I saw in the store yesterday uses the because the that
CLAUSE makes specific which red sweater the writer means.
864 51b ARTICLES
51b How do I use articles with plural nouns

and with noncount nouns?
With plural nouns and NONCOUNT NOUNS, you must decide whether to use the
or to use no article at all. (For guidelines about using DETERMINERS other than
articles with nouns, see Quick Reference 50.1 in 50b.) What you learned in 51a
about NONSPECIFIC and SPECIFIC NOUNS can help you choose between using the
or using no article. Quick Reference 51.1 in 51a explains when a singular count
noun’s meaning is specific and calls for the. Plural nouns and noncount nouns
with specific meanings usually use the in the same circumstances. However, a
plural noun or a noncount noun with a general or nonspecific meaning usu-
ally does not use the.
Geraldo grows flowers but not vegetables in his garden. He is thinking
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about planting corn sometime. [three nonspecific nouns]
PLURAL NOUNS
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A plural noun’s meaning may be specific because it is widely known.
The oceans are being damaged by pollution. [Because there is only one
possible meaning for oceans—the oceans on the earth—it is correct to use
the. This example is related to Rule 1 in Quick Reference 51.1.]
A plural noun’s meaning may also be made specific by a word, PHRASE, or

CLAUSE in the same sentence.
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Geraldo sold the daisies from last year’s garden to the florist. [Because the
phrase from last year’s garden makes daisies specific, the is correct. This ex-
ample is related to Rule 3 in Quick Reference 51.1.]
A plural noun’s meaning usually becomes specific by its use in an earlier

sentence.
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Geraldo planted tulips this year. The tulips will bloom in April. [Tulips is
used in a general sense in the first sentence, without the. Because the first
sentence makes tulips specific, the tulips is correct in the second sentence.
This example is related to Rule 3 in Quick Reference 51.1.]
A plural noun’s meaning may be made specific by the context.
Geraldo fertilized the bulbs when he planted them last October. [In the con-
text of the sentences about tulips, bulbs is understood as a synonym for
tulips, which makes it specific and calls for the. This example is related to
Rule 4 in Quick Reference 51.1.]
How do I use the with proper nouns and with gerunds? 51c 865
NONCOUNT NOUNS
Noncount nouns are always singular in form (see 50a). Like plural nouns, non-
count nouns use either the or no article. When a noncount noun’s meaning is
specific, use the before it. If its meaning is general or nonspecific, do not use the.
Kalinda served us rice. She flavored the rice with curry. [Rice is a noncount
noun. By the second sentence, rice has become specific, so the is used.
This example is related to Rule 3 in Quick Reference 51.1.]
Kalinda served us the rice that she had flavored with curry. [Rice is a non-
count noun. Rice is made specific by the clause that she had flavored
with curry, so the is used. This example is related to Rule 3 in Quick Refer-
ence 51.1.]
GENERALIZATIONS WITH PLURAL OR NONCOUNT NOUNS

Rule 2 in Quick Reference 51.1 tells you to use the with singular count nouns
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that carry general meaning. With GENERALIZATIONS using plural or noncount
nouns, omit the.
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NO The tulips are the flowers that grow from the bulbs.
YES Tulips are flowers that grow from bulbs.
NO The dogs require more care than the cats do.
YES Dogs require more care than cats do.
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51c How do I use the with proper nouns
and with gerunds?
PROPER NOUNS
PROPER NOUNS name specific people, places, or things (see 14b). Most proper
nouns do not require ARTICLES: We visited Lake Mead with Asha and Larry. As
shown in Quick Reference 51.2, however, certain types of proper nouns do re-
quire the.
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GERUNDS
GERUNDS are PRESENT PARTICIPLES (the -ing form of VERBS) used as nouns:
Skating is challenging. Gerunds are usually not preceded by the.
NO The constructing new bridges is necessary to improve traffic flow.
YES Constructing new bridges is necessary to improve traffic flow.
Use the before a gerund when two conditions are met: (1) The gerund is
used in a specific sense (see 51a), and (2) the gerund does not have a DIRECT
OBJECT.
866 51c ARTICLES

Proper nouns that use the
• Nouns with the pattern the . . . of . . .
the United States of America
the Republic of Mexico
the Fourth of July
the University of Paris
• Plural proper nouns
the United Arab Emirates
the Johnsons
the Rocky Mountains [but Mount Fuji]
the Chicago Bulls
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the Falkland Islands [but Long Island]
the Great Lakes [but Lake Superior]
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• Collective proper nouns (nouns that name a group)
the Modern Language Association
the Society of Friends
• Some (but not all) geographical features
the Amazon the Gobi Desert the Indian Ocean
• Three countries
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the Congo the Sudan the Netherlands
NO The designing fabric is a fine art. [Fabric is a direct object of

designing, so the should not be used.]
YES Designing fabric is a fine art. [Designing is a gerund, so the is not
used.]
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YES The designing of fabric is a fine art. [The is used because fabric is
the object of the preposition of and designing is meant in a spe-
cific sense.]
EXERCISE 51-1 Consulting all sections of this chapter, decide which of the
words in parentheses is correct and write it in the blank. If no article is needed,
leave the blank empty.
EXAMPLE For (a, an, the) _____ years, people have worked under (a, an, the)
the assumption that (a, an, the) the best remedy for (a, an, the) a
burn is butter.
How do I understand standard and inverted word order in sentences? 52a 867
1. This kind of treatment seems to be (a, an, the) _____ good idea because
butter looks and feels like ointment, but butter doesn’t contain (a, an,
the) _____ antibacterial property like ointment does.
2. In using butter to treat (a, an, the) _____ burns, you are coating (a, an, the)
_____ skin with debris that must be removed later to keep it from interfer-
ing with (a, an, the) _____ healing process.
3. In actuality, cold water without ice will not only ease (a, an, the) _____
pain but also prevent scarring and further damage.
4. In fact, (a, an, the) _____ person who keeps the finger submerged for at
least several minutes and as long as half an hour will have (a, an, the)
_____ least painful or scarred burn, according to doctors.
5. However, if (a, an, the) _____ burn is serious, (a, an, the) _____ first person
to be consulted should be a doctor.
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52
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Word Order
52a How do I understand standard and inverted word

order in sentences?
Es
In standard word order, the most common pattern for DECLARATIVE SEN-
TENCES in English, the SUBJECT comes before the VERB. (To understand these
concepts more fully, review 14l through 14p.)
SUBJECT VERB
That book was heavy.
With inverted word order, the MAIN VERB or an AUXILIARY VERB comes
before the subject. The most common use of inverted word order in English is
868 52a WORD ORDER
in forming DIRECT QUESTIONS. Questions that can be answered with a yes or no

begin with a form of be used as a main verb, with an auxiliary verb (be, do, have),
or with a MODAL AUXILIARY (can, should, will, and others; see Chapter 55).
QUESTIONS THAT CAN BE ANSWERED WITH A YES OR NO
MAIN VERB SUBJECT
Was that book heavy?
AUXILIARY
VERB SUBJECT MAIN VERB
Have you heard the noise?
MODAL
AUXILIARY VERB
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SUBJECT MAIN VERB
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Can you lift the book?
To form a yes-or-no question with a verb other than be as the main verb
and when there is no auxiliary or modal as part of a VERB PHRASE, use the ap-
propriate form of the auxiliary verb do.
AUXILIARY
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VERB SUBJECT MAIN VERB
Do you want me to put the book away?
A question that begins with a question-forming word such as why, when,

where, or how cannot be answered with a yes or no: Why did the book fall?
Some kind of information must be provided to answer such a question; the
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answer cannot be simply yes or no because the question is not “Did the book
fall?” Information on why it fell is needed: for example, It was too heavy for me.
INFORMATION QUESTIONS: INVERTED ORDER

Most information questions follow the same rules of inverted word order as yes-
or-no questions.
QUESTION
WORD MAIN VERB SUBJECT
Why is that book open?

How do I understand standard and inverted word order in sentences? 52a 869
QUESTION AUXILIARY
WORD VERB SUBJECT MAIN VERB
What does the book discuss?
QUESTION MODAL
WORD AUXILIARY SUBJECT MAIN VERB
When can I read the book?
INFORMATION QUESTIONS: STANDARD ORDER

When who or what functions as the subject in a question, use standard word
order.
QUESTION WORD:
SUBJECT
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MAIN VERB
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Who dropped the book?
QUESTION WORD:
SUBJECT MAIN VERB
What was the problem?

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Alert: When a question has more than one auxiliary verb, put the subject
after the first auxiliary verb.
FIRST SECOND
AUXILIARY SUBJECT AUXILIARY MAIN VERB
Would you have replaced the book?

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The same rules apply to emphatic exclamations: Was that book heavy! Did
she enjoy that book!
NEGATIVES
When you use negatives such as never, hardly ever, seldom, rarely, not only, or nor
to start a CLAUSE, use inverted order. These sentence pairs show the differences,
first in standard order and then in inverted order.
I have never seen a more exciting movie. [standard order]
Never have I seen a more exciting movie. [inverted order]
870 52b WORD ORDER
She is not only a talented artist but also an excellent musician.

Not only is she a talented artist, but she is also an excellent musician.
I didn’t like the book, and my husband didn’t either.
I didn’t like the book, and neither did my husband.
Alerts: (1) With INDIRECT QUESTIONS, use standard word order.

NO She asked how did I drop the book.
YES She asked how I dropped the book.
(2) Word order deliberately inverted can be effective, when used sparingly,
to create emphasis in a sentence that is neither a question nor an exclamation
(also see 9e).
52b r
How can I understand the placement of adjectives?
ADJECTIVES modify—describe or limit—NOUNS, PRONOUNS, and word groups
la
that function as nouns (see 14f ). In English, an adjective comes directly before
the noun it describes. However, when more than one adjective describes the
same noun, several sequences may be possible. Quick Reference 52.1 shows
the most common order for positioning several adjectives.

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Word order: cumulative adjectives
1. Determiners, if any: a, an, the, my, your, this, that, these, those, and so on
2. Expressions of order, including ordinal numbers, if any: first,
second, third, next, last, final, and so on
3. Expressions of quantity, including cardinal (counting) numbers, if
any: one, two, few, each, every, some, and so on
Es
4. Adjectives of judgment or opinion, if any: pretty, happy, ugly, sad, in-

teresting, boring, and so on
5. Adjectives of size or shape, if any: big, small, short, round, square, and
so on
6. Adjectives of age or condition, if any: new, young, broken, dirty, shiny,
and so on
7. Adjectives of color, if any: red, green, blue, and so on
8. Adjectives that can also be used as nouns, if any: French, Protestant,
metal, cotton, and so on
continued >>
How can I understand the placement of adverbs? 52c 871
9. The noun
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
a few tiny red ants
the last six Thai carvings
my fine old oak table
52c How can I understand the placement of adverbs?

ADVERBS modify—describe or limit—VERBS, ADJECTIVES, other adverbs, or en-
tire sentences (see 14g). Adverbs may be positioned first, in the middle, or last
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in CLAUSES. Quick Reference 52.2 summarizes adverb types, what they tell
about the words they modify, and where each type can be placed.
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Word order: positioning adverbs
ADVERBS • describe how something Nick carefully groomed the
OF MANNER is done dog
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• are usually in middle or Nick groomed the dog
last position carefully.
ADVERBS • describe when or how First, he shampooed the
OF TIME long about an event dog.
• are usually in first or He shampooed the dog first.
last position
• include just, still, already, He had already brushed the
and similar adverbs, dog’s coat.
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which are usually in

middle position
ADVERBS OF • describe how often an Nick has never been bitten
FREQUENCY event takes place by a dog.
• are usually in middle
position
• are in first position when Occasionally, he is scratched
they modify an entire while shampooing a cat.
sentence (see “Sentence
Adverbs” below)
continued >>
872 52c WORD ORDER
ADVERBS OF • describe how much or to Nick is extremely calm

DEGREE OR what extent about other around animals.
EMPHASIS modifiers [Extremely modifies calm.]
• are directly before the
word they modify
• include only, which is
easy to misplace (see 21a)
SENTENCE • modify the entire sentence Incredibly, he was once asked
ADVERBS rather than just one word to groom a rat.
or a few words
• include transitional words
and expressions (see 7g.1),
as well as such expressions
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as maybe, probably, possi-
bly, fortunately, unfortu-
nately, and incredibly
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• are in first position
Alert: Do not let an adverb separate a verb from its DIRECT OBJECT or
INDIRECT OBJECT.
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EXERCISE 52-1 Consulting all sections of this chapter, find and correct any
errors in word order.
1. A beautiful few flowers began to bloom in my garden this week.

2. A neighbor asked me, “You did grow all these yourself?”
3. “Yes,” I replied, “the roses are my favorite husband’s, but the tulips are
my favorite.”
4. My neighbor, who extremely was impressed with my gardening efforts,
Es
decided to grow some flowers of her own.

5. Weeks later, as I strolled by her house, I saw her planting happily seeds
from her favorite type of plant—petunias.

53
Prepositions
Prepositions function with other words in PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES (14o).

Prepositional phrases usually indicate where (direction or location), how (by
what means or in what way), or when (at what time or how long) about the
words they modify.
This chapter can help you with several uses of prepositions, which func-
tion in combination with other words in ways that are often idiomatic—that
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is, peculiar to the language. The meaning of an IDIOM differs from the literal
meaning of each individual word. For example, the word break usually refers
to shattering, but the sentence Yao-Ming broke into a smile means that a smile
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appeared on Yao-Ming’s face. Knowing which preposition to use in a specific
context takes much experience in reading, listening to, and speaking the lan-
guage. A dictionary like the Dictionary of American English (Heinle and Heinle)
can be especially helpful when you need to find the correct preposition to use
in cases not covered by this chapter.
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53a How can I recognize prepositions?
Quick Reference 53.1 lists many common prepositions.

Common prepositions
Es
about around beside down inside

above as between during instead of
across at beyond except into
after because of but for like
against before by from near
along behind concerning in next
among below despite in front of of
continued >>
873
874 53b PREPOSITIONS
off outside since under within

on over through underneath without
onto past throughout unlike
on top of plus till until
opposite regarding to up
out round toward with
53b How do I use prepositions with expressions of time

and place?
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Quick Reference 53.2 shows how to use the prepositions in, at, and on to de-
liver some common kinds of information about time and place. Quick Refer-
ence 53.2, however, does not cover every preposition that indicates time or
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place, nor does it cover all uses of in, at, and on. Also, the Quick Reference does
not include expressions that operate outside the general rules. (Both these sen-
tences are correct: You ride in the car and You ride on the bus.)

Using in, at, and on to show time and place
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TIME
• in a year or a month (during is also correct but less common)
in 1995 in May
• in a period of time
in a few months (seconds, days, years)
• in a period of the day
Es
in the morning (afternoon, evening)

in the daytime (morning, evening) but at night
• at a specific time or period of time
at noon at 2:00 at dawn at nightfall
at takeoff (the time a plane leaves)
at breakfast (the time a specific meal takes place)
• on a specific day
on Friday on my birthday
continued >>
How do I use prepositions in phrasal verbs? 53c 875
PLACE
• in a location surrounded by something else
in the province of Alberta in the kitchen
in Utah in the apartment
in downtown Bombay in the bathtub
• at a specific location
at your house at the bank
at the corner of Third Avenue and Main Street
• on a surface
on page 20
on the second floor but in the attic or in the basement
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on Washington Street
on the mezzanine
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on the highway
53c How do I use prepositions in phrasal verbs?

Phrasal verbs, also called two-word verbs and three-word verbs, are VERBS that
combine with PREPOSITIONS to deliver their meaning. In some phrasal verbs,
the verb and the preposition should not be separated by other words: Look at
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the moon [not Look the moon at]. In separable phrasal verbs, other words in
the sentence can separate the verb and the preposition without interfering with
meaning: I threw away my homework is as correct as I threw my homework away.
Here is a list of some common phrasal verbs. The ones that cannot be sep-
arated are marked with an asterisk (*).
SELECTED PHRASAL VERBS

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ask out get along with* look into

break down get back look out for*
bring about get off look over
call back go over* make up
drop off hand in run across*
figure out keep up with* speak to*
fill out leave out speak with*
fill up look after* throw away
find out look around throw out
876 53d PREPOSITIONS
Position a PRONOUN OBJECT between the words of a separable phrasal verb:

I threw it away. Also, you can position an object PHRASE of several words be-
tween the parts of a separable phrasal verb: I threw my research paper away.
However, when the object is a CLAUSE, do not let it separate the parts of the
phrasal verb: I threw away all the papers that I wrote last year.
Many phrasal verbs are informal and are used more in speaking than in
writing. For ACADEMIC WRITING, a more formal verb is usually more appropri-
ate than a phrasal verb. In a research paper, for example, propose or suggest might
be a better choice than come up with. For academic writing, acceptable phrasal
verbs include believe in, benefit from, concentrate on, consist of, depend on, dream
of (or dream about), insist on, participate in, prepare for, and stare at. None of
these phrasal verbs can be separated.
EXERCISE 53-1 Consulting the preceding sections of this chapter and
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using the list of phrasal verbs in 53c, write a one- or two-paragraph description
of a typical day at work or school in which you use at least five phrasal verbs. After
checking a dictionary, revise your writing, substituting for the phrasal verbs any
more formal verbs that might be more appropriate for academic writing.
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53d How do I use prepositions with past participles?
PAST PARTICIPLES are verb forms that function as ADJECTIVES (54f ). Past par-
ticiples end in either -ed or -d, or in an equivalent irregular form (15d). When
past participles follow the LINKING VERB be, it is easy to confuse them with
PASSIVE verbs (15n), which have the same endings. Passive verbs describe actions.
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Past participles, because they act as adjectives, modify NOUNS and PRONOUNS
and often describe situations and conditions. Passive verbs follow the pattern
be + past participle + by: The child was frightened by a snake. An expression con-
taining a past participle, however, can use either be or another linking verb,
and it can be followed by either by or a different preposition.
• The child seemed frightened by snakes.
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• The child is frightened of all snakes.

Here is a list of expressions containing past participles and the prepositions
that often follow them. Look in a dictionary for others. (See 54b on using
GERUNDS after some of these expressions.)
SELECTED PAST PARTICIPLE PHRASES + PREPOSITIONS
be accustomed to be disappointed with (or in someone)

be acquainted with be discriminated against
be composed of be divorced from
be concerned/worried about be excited about
How do I use prepositions in expressions? 53e 877
be finished/done with be married to

be interested in be pleased/satisfied with
be known for be prepared for
be located in be tired of (or from)
be made of (or from)
53e How do I use prepositions in expressions?

In many common expressions, different PREPOSITIONS convey great differences
in meaning. For example, four prepositions can be used with the verb agree to
create five different meanings.
agree to means “to give consent”: I cannot agree to my buying you a new car.
agree about means “to arrive at a satisfactory understanding”: We cer-
r
tainly agree about your needing a car.
agree on means “to concur”: You and the seller must agree on a price for
the car.
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agree with means “to have the same opinion”: I agree with you that you
need a car.
agree with also means “to be suitable or healthful”: The idea of having
such a major expense does not agree with me.
You can find entire books filled with English expressions that include
prepositions. The following list shows a few that you’re likely to use often.
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SELECTED EXPRESSIONS WITH PREPOSITIONS
ability in different from involved with someone

access to faith in knowledge of
accustomed to familiar with made of
afraid of famous for married to
angry with or at frightened by opposed to
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authority on happy with patient with

aware of in charge of proud of
based on independent of reason for
capable of in favor of related to
certain of influence on or over suspicious of
confidence in interested in time for
dependent on involved in [something] tired of
54
Gerunds, Infinitives,
and Participles
PARTICIPLES are verb forms (see 15b). A verb’s -ing form is its PRESENT
PARTICIPLE. The -ed form of a regular verb is its PAST PARTICIPLE; IRREGULAR
VERBS form their past participles in various ways (for example, bend, bent; eat,
eaten; think, thought—for a complete list, see Quick Reference 15.4 in 15d).
Participles can function as ADJECTIVES (a smiling face, a closed book).
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A verb’s -ing form can also function as a NOUN (Sneezing spreads colds),
which is called a GERUND. Another verb form, the INFINITIVE, can also func-
tion as a noun. An infinitive is a verb’s SIMPLE or base FORM, usually preceded
la
by the word to (We want everyone to smile). Verb forms—participles, gerunds,
and infinitives—functioning as nouns or MODIFIERS are called VERBALS, as ex-
plained in 14e. This chapter can help you make the right choices among verbals.
54a How can I use gerunds and infinitives as subjects?

Gerunds are used more commonly than infinitives as subjects. Sometimes,
te
however, either is acceptable.
Choosing the right health club is important.
To choose the right health club is important.
Alert: When a gerund or an infinitive is used alone as a subject, it is
SINGULAR and requires a singular verb. When two or more gerunds or in-
finitives create a COMPOUND SUBJECT, they require a plural verb. (See 14l
Es
and 17e.)
54b When do I use a gerund, not an infinitive,

as an object?
Some VERBS must be followed by GERUNDS used as DIRECT OBJECTS. Other
verbs must be followed by INFINITIVES. Still other verbs can be followed by ei-
ther a gerund or an infinitive. (A few verbs can change meaning depending on
whether they are followed by a gerund or an infinitive; see 54d.) Quick Refer-
ence 54.1 lists common verbs that must be followed by gerunds, not infinitives.
878
When do I use a gerund, not an infinitive, as an object? 54b 879
Yuri considered calling [not to call] the mayor.

He was having trouble getting [not to get] a work permit.
Yuri’s boss recommended taking [not to take] an interpreter to the permit
agency.

Verbs and expressions that must be followed by gerunds
admit dislike object to
anticipate enjoy postpone
appreciate escape practice
avoid finish put off
consider give up quit
consist of
contemplate
delay
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include
mention
recall
resist
risk
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deny mind suggest
discuss miss tolerate
GERUND AFTER GO
The word go is usually followed by an infinitive: We can go to see [not go seeing]
a movie tonight. Sometimes, however, go is followed by a gerund in phrases
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such as go swimming, go fishing, go shopping, and go driving: I will go shopping
[not go to shop] after work.
GERUND AFTER BE + COMPLEMENT + PREPOSITION

Many common expressions use a form of the verb be plus a COMPLEMENT plus
a PREPOSITION. In such expressions, use a gerund, not an infinitive, after the
preposition. Here is a list of some of the most frequently used expressions in
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this pattern.
SELECTED EXPRESSIONS USING BE + COMPLEMENT + PREPOSITION
be (get) accustomed to be interested in

be angry about be prepared for
be bored with be responsible for
be capable of be tired of
be committed to be (get) used to
be excited about be worried about
880 54c GERUNDS, INFINITIVES, AND PARTICIPLES
We are excited about voting [not to vote] in the next presidential election.
Who will be responsible for locating [not to locate] our polling place?
Alert: Always use a gerund, not an infinitive, as the object of a preposi-

tion. Be especially careful when the word to is functioning as a preposition in
a PHRASAL VERB (see 53c): We are committed to changing [not to change] the
rules.
54c When do I use an infinitive, not a gerund,

as an object?
Quick Reference 54.2 lists selected common verbs and expressions that must
be followed by INFINITIVES, not GERUNDS, as OBJECTS.
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She wanted to go [not wanted going] to the lecture.
Only three people decided to question [not decided questioning] the speaker.
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Verbs and expressions that must be followed by infinitives
agree decline like promise
arrange demand manage refuse
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ask deserve mean wait
attempt expect need want
beg hesitate offer
claim hope plan
decide learn pretend
INFINITIVE AFTER BE + COMPLEMENT

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Gerunds are common in constructions that use a form of the verb be plus a
COMPLEMENT and a PREPOSITION (see 54b). However, use an infinitive, not a
gerund, when be plus a complement is not followed by a preposition.
We are eager to go [not going] camping.
I am ready to sleep [not sleeping] in a tent.
INFINITIVE TO INDICATE PURPOSE

Use an infinitive in expressions that indicate purpose: I read a book to learn more
about Mayan culture. This sentence means “I read a book for the purpose of
When do I use an infinitive, not a gerund, as an object? 54c 881
learning more about Mayan culture.” To learn delivers the idea of purpose more
concisely (see Chapter 11) than expressions such as so that I can or in order to.
INFINITIVE WITH THE FIRST, THE LAST, THE ONE

Use an infinitive after the expressions the first, the last, and the one: Nina is the
first to arrive [not arriving] and the last to leave [not leaving] every day. She’s al-
ways the one to do the most.
UNMARKED INFINITIVES
Infinitives used without the word to are called unmarked infinitives, or some-
times bare infinitives. An unmarked infinitive may be hard to recognize be-
cause it is not preceded by to. Some common verbs followed by unmarked
infinitives are feel, have, hear, let, listen to, look at, make (meaning “compel”),
notice, see, and watch.
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Please let me take [not to take] you to lunch. [unmarked infinitive]
I want to take you to lunch. [marked infinitive]
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I can have Kara drive [not to drive] us. [unmarked infinitive]
I will ask Kara to drive us. [marked infinitive]
The verb help can be followed by a marked or an unmarked infinitive. Ei-
ther is correct: Help me put [or to put] this box in the car.
Alert: Be careful to use parallel structure (see Chapter 10) correctly when
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you use two or more gerunds or infinitives after verbs. If two or more verbal
objects follow one verb, put the verbals into the same form.
NO We went sailing and to scuba dive.

YES We went sailing and scuba diving.
NO We heard the wind blow and the waves crashing.
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YES We heard the wind blow and the waves crash.

YES We heard the wind blowing and the waves crashing.
Conversely, if you are using verbal objects with COMPOUND PREDICATES, be

sure to use the kind of verbal that each verb requires.
NO We enjoyed scuba diving but do not plan sailing again.

[Enjoyed requires a gerund object, and plan requires an infinitive
object; see Quick References 54.1 and 54.2 in this chapter.]
YES We enjoyed scuba diving but do not plan to sail again.
882 54d GERUNDS, INFINITIVES, AND PARTICIPLES
54d How does meaning change when certain verbs

are followed by a gerund or an infinitive?
WITH STOP
The VERB stop followed by a GERUND means “finish, quit.” Stop followed by an
INFINITIVE means “interrupt one activity to begin another.”
We stopped eating. [We finished our meal.]

We stopped to eat. [We stopped another activity, such as driving, to eat.]
WITH REMEMBER AND FORGET

The verb remember followed by an infinitive means “not to forget to do some-
thing”: I must remember to talk with Isa. Remember followed by a gerund means
“recall a memory”: I remember talking in my sleep last night.
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The verb forget followed by an infinitive means “fail to do something”: If
you forget to put a stamp on that letter, it will be returned. Forget followed by a
gerund means “do something and not recall it”: I forget having put the stamps
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in the refrigerator.
WITH TRY
The verb try followed by an infinitive means “make an effort”: I tried to find
your jacket. Followed by a gerund, try means “experiment with”: I tried jogging
but found it too difficult.
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54e Why is the meaning unchanged whether a gerund
or an infinitive follows sense verbs?
Sense VERBS include words such as see, notice, hear, observe, watch, feel, listen to,
and look at. The meaning of these verbs is usually not affected by whether a
GERUND or an INFINITIVE follows as the OBJECT. I saw the water rise and I saw
the water rising both have the same meaning in American English.
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EXERCISE 54-1 Write the correct form of the verbal object (either a
gerund or an infinitive) for each verb in parentheses. For help, consult 54b
through 54e.
EXAMPLE People like (think) to think that they have a good memory, but
everybody shows signs of forgetfulness from time to time.
1. Think about (ride) ____________ the railroad to work on a rainy Monday
morning.
2. The comfortable reclining seats let passengers (take) ____________ a
relaxing nap on the way to work.
How do I choose between -ing and -ed forms for adjectives? 54f 883
3. Because of the rain, commuters are forced (bring) ____________ an

umbrella and a raincoat, along with their usual traveling items.
4. Once they reach their destination, passengers forget that they need their
umbrellas and raincoats (walk) ____________ the few blocks to work.
5. (Step) ____________ out into the rain makes the passengers suddenly real-
ize that they’ve left their umbrellas and raincoats on the train, which has
already left the station.
54f How do I choose between -ing and -ed forms

for adjectives?
Deciding whether to use the -ing form (PRESENT PARTICIPLE) or the -ed form
(PAST PARTICIPLE of a regular VERB) as an ADJECTIVE in a specific sentence can
be difficult. For example, I am amused and I am amusing are both correct in
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English, but their meanings are very different. To make the right choice, de-
cide whether the modified NOUN or PRONOUN is causing or experiencing what
the participle describes.
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Use a present participle (-ing) to modify a noun or pronoun that is the
agent or the cause of the action.
Micah described your interesting plan. [The noun plan causes what its
modifier describes—interest; so interesting is correct.]
I find your plan exciting. [The noun plan causes what its modifier
describes—excitement; so exciting is correct.]
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Use a past participle (-ed in regular verbs) to modify a noun or pronoun
that experiences or receives whatever the modifier describes.
An interested committee wants to hear your plan. [The noun committee

experiences what its modifier describes—interest; so interested is correct.]
Excited by your plan, they called a board meeting. [The pronoun they ex-
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periences what its modifier describes—excitement; so excited is correct.]
Here are frequently used participles that convey very different meanings,
depending on whether the -ed or the -ing form is used.
amused, amusing depressed, depressing

annoyed, annoying disgusted, disgusting
appalled, appalling fascinated, fascinating
bored, boring frightened, frightening
confused, confusing insulted, insulting
884 55 MODAL AUXILIARY VERBS
offended, offending reassured, reassuring

overwhelmed, overwhelming satisfied, satisfying
pleased, pleasing shocked, shocking
EXERCISE 54-2 Choose the correct participle from each pair in paren-
theses. For help, consult 54f.
EXAMPLE It can be a (satisfied, satisfying) satisfying experience to learn about

the lives of artists.
1. The artist Frida Kahlo led an (interested, interesting) _______________ life.

2. When Kahlo was eighteen, (horrified, horrifying) _______________ ob-
servers saw her (injured, injuring) _______________ in a streetcar accident.
3. A (disappointed, disappointing) _______________ Kahlo had to abandon
her plan to study medicine.
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4. Instead, she began to create paintings filled with (disturbed, disturbing)
_______________ images.
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5. Some art critics consider Kahlo’s paintings to be (fascinated, fascinating)
_______________ works of art, though many people find them (over-
whelmed, overwhelming) _______________.

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55
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Modal Auxiliary Verbs

AUXILIARY VERBS are known as helping verbs because adding an auxiliary verb
to a MAIN VERB helps the main verb convey additional information (see 15e).
For example, the auxiliary verb do is important in turning sentences into ques-
tions. You have to sleep becomes a question when do is added: Do you have to
sleep? The most common auxiliary verbs are forms of be, have, and do. Quick
References 15.6 and 15.7 in section 15e list the forms of these three verbs.
How do I convey abililty, necessity, and other conditions? 55a 885
MODAL AUXILIARY VERBS are one type of auxiliary verb. They include can,
could, may, might, should, had better, must, will, would, and others discussed in
this chapter. Modals differ from be, have, and do used as auxiliary verbs in the
specific ways discussed in Quick Reference 55.1. This chapter can help you
use modals to convey shades of meaning.

Modals versus other auxiliary verbs
• Modals in the present future are always followed by the SIMPLE FORM of a
main verb: I might go tomorrow.
• One-word modals have no -s ending in the THIRD-PERSON SINGULAR: She
could go with me; he could go with me; they could go with me. (The two-
word modal have to changes form to agree with its subject: I have to
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leave; she has to leave.) Auxiliary verbs other than modals usually change
form for third-person singular: I do want to go; he does want to go.
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• Some modals change form in the past. Others (should, would, must,
which convey probability, and ought to) use have + a PAST PARTICIPLE. I
can do it becomes I could do it in PAST-TENSE CLAUSES about ability. I
could do it becomes I could have done it in clauses about possibility.
• Modals convey meaning about ability, necessity, advisability, possibility,
and other conditions: For example, I can go means “I am able to go.”
Modals do not describe actual occurrences.
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55a How do I convey ability, necessity, advisability,
possibility, and probability with modals?
CONVEYING ABILITY
The modal can conveys ability now (in the present), and could conveys ability
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before (in the past). These words deliver the meaning “able to.” For the future,
use will be able to.
We can work late tonight. [Can conveys present ability.]

I could work late last night, too. [Could conveys past ability.]
I will be able to work late next Monday. [Will be able is the future tense;
will here is not a modal.]
Adding not between a modal and the MAIN VERB makes the CLAUSE nega-
tive: We cannot work late tonight; I could not work late last night; I will not be
able to work late next Monday.
886 55a MODAL AUXILIARY VERBS
Alert: You will often see negative forms of modals turned into
CONTRACTIONS: can’t, couldn’t, won’t, wouldn’t, and others. Because contrac-
tions are considered informal usage by some instructors, you will never be
wrong if you avoid them in ACADEMIC WRITING, except when you are reproduc-
ing spoken words.
CONVEYING NECESSITY
The modals must and have to convey a need to do something. Both must and
have to are followed by the simple form of the main verb. In the present tense,
have to changes form to agree with its subject.
You must leave before midnight.

She has to leave when I leave.
PRESENT TENSE r
In the past tense, must is never used to express necessity. Instead, use had to.
We must study today. We have to study today.
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PAST TENSE We had to [not must] take a test yesterday.
The negative forms of must and have to also have different meanings. Must
not conveys that something is forbidden; do not have to conveys that something
is not necessary.
You must not sit there. [Sitting there is forbidden.]
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You do not have to sit there. [Sitting there is not necessary.]
CONVEYING ADVISABILITY OR THE NOTION OF A GOOD IDEA

The modals should and ought to express the idea that doing the action of the
main verb is advisable or is a good idea.
You should go to class tomorrow morning.
In the past tense, should and ought to convey regret or knowing something
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through hindsight. They mean that good advice was not taken.
You should have gone to class yesterday.
I ought to have called my sister yesterday.
The modal had better delivers the meaning of good advice or warning or threat.
It does not change form for tense.
You had better see the doctor before your cough gets worse.
Need to is often used to express strong advice, too. Its past-tense form is needed to.
You need to take better care of yourself. You needed to listen.
How do I convey preferences, plans, and past habits with modals? 55b 887
CONVEYING POSSIBILITY
The modals may, might, and could can be used to convey an idea of possibility
or likelihood.
We may become hungry before long.
We could eat lunch at the diner next door.
For the past-tense form, use may, might, and could, followed by have and the
past participle of the main verb.
I could have studied French in high school, but I studied Spanish instead.
CONVEYING PROBABILITY
In addition to conveying the idea of necessity, the modal must can also convey
probability or likelihood. It means that a well-informed guess is being made.
Marisa must be a talented actress. She has been chosen to play the lead role
in the school play.
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When must conveys probability, the past tense is must have plus the past par-
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ticiple of the main verb.
I did not see Boris at the party; he must have left early.
EXERCISE 55-1 Fill in each blank with the past-tense modal auxiliary that
expresses the meaning given in parentheses. For help, consult 55a.
EXAMPLE I (advisability) should have gone straight to the doctor the instant I
felt a cold coming on.
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1. Since I (necessity, no choice) _______________ work late this past Monday,
I could not get to the doctor’s office before it closed.
2. I (advisability) _______________ fallen asleep after dinner, but I stayed
awake for a while instead.
3. Even after I finally got into bed, I (ability) _______________ not relax.
4. I (making a guess) _______________ not _______________ heard the alarm
the next morning, because I overslept nearly two hours.
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5. When I finally arrived at work, my boss came into my office and said, “Julie,
you (necessity) _______________ stayed home and rested if you are sick.”
55b How do I convey preferences, plans, and past habits

with modals?
CONVEYING PREFERENCES
The modal would rather expresses a preference. Would rather, the PRESENT
TENSE, is used with the SIMPLE FORM of the MAIN VERB, and would rather have,
the PAST TENSE, is used with the PAST PARTICIPLE of the main verb.
888 55c MODAL AUXILIARY VERBS
We would rather see a comedy than a mystery.

Carlos would rather have stayed home last night.
CONVEYING PLAN OR OBLIGATION

A form of be followed by supposed to and the simple form of a main verb de-
livers a meaning of something planned or of an obligation.
I was supposed to meet them at the bus stop.
CONVEYING PAST HABIT

The modals used to and would express the idea that something happened repeat-
edly in the past.
I used to hate going to the dentist.
I would dread every single visit.
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Alert: Both used to and would can be used to express repeated actions in
the past, but would cannot be used for a situation that lasted for a period of time
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in the past.
NO I would live in Arizona.
YES I used to live in Arizona.
55c How can I recognize modals in the passive voice?

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Modals use the ACTIVE VOICE, as shown in sections sections 55a and 55b. In
the active voice, the subject does the action expressed in the MAIN VERB (see 15n
and 15o).
Modals can also use the PASSIVE VOICE (15p). In the passive voice, the doer
of the main verb’s action is either unexpressed or is expressed as an OBJECT in
a PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE starting with the word by.
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PASSIVE The waterfront can be seen from my window.

ACTIVE I can see the waterfront from my window.
PASSIVE The tax form must be signed by the person who fills it out.
ACTIVE The person who fills out the tax form must sign it.
EXERCISE 55-2 Select the correct choice from the words in parentheses
and write it in the blank. For help, consult 55a through 55c.
EXAMPLE When I was younger, I (would, used to) used to love to go bicycle
riding.
How can I recognize modals in the passive voice? 55c 889
1. You (ought to have, ought have) __________________ called yesterday as

you had promised you would.
2. Judging by the size of the puddles in the street outside, it (must be
rained, must have rained) __________________ all night long.
3. Ingrid (must not have, might not have been) __________________ as early
for the interview as she claims she was.
4. After all the studying he did, Pedro (should have, should have been)
__________________ less frightened by the exam.
5. I have to go home early today, although I really (cannot, should not)
__________________ leave before the end of the day because of all the
work I have to do.
EXERCISE 55-3 Select the correct choice from the words in parentheses
and write it in the blank. For help, consult 55a through 55c.
EXAMPLE
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We (must have, must) must study this afternoon.
1. Unfortunately, I (should not, cannot) __________________ go to the movies

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with you because I have to take care of my brother tonight.
2. Juan (would have, would have been) __________________ nominated class
valedictorian if he had not moved to another city.
3. You (ought not have, ought not to have) __________________ arrived while
the meeting was still in progress.
4. Louise (must be, must have been) __________________ sick to miss the
party last week.
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5. Had you not called in advance, you (may not have, may not have been)
__________________ aware of the traffic on the expressway.

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TERMS GLOSSARY
This glossary defines important terms used in this handbook, including the ones that
are printed in small capital letters. Many of these glossary entries end with parentheti-
cal references to the handbook section(s) or chapter(s) where the specific term is fully
discussed.
absolute phrase A phrase containing a adverb A word that describes or limits

subject and a participle that modifies an en- (modifies) verbs, adjectives, other adverbs,
tire sentence. (14n) The semester [subject] phrases, or clauses: loudly, very, nevertheless,
being [present participle of be] over, the cam- there. (14g, Chapter 18)
pus looks deserted. adverb clause A dependent clause begin-
abstract A very short summary that pre- ning with a subordinating conjunction that
sents all the important ideas of a longer piece establishes the relationship in meaning be-
of writing. Sometimes appears before the
main writing, as in APA style.
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abstract noun A noun that names some-
thing not knowable through the five senses:
tween the adverb clause and its independent
clause. An adverb clause modifies the in-
dependent clause’s verb or the entire inde-
pendent clause. Also see clause, conjunction.
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idea, respect. (14b) (14p)
academic writing Writing you do for col- agreement The required match of num-
lege classes, usually intended to inform or to ber and person between a subject and verb or
persuade. (1d) a pronoun and antecedent. A pronoun that
action verbs Strong verbs that increase the expresses gender must match its antecedent
impact of your language and reduce wordi- in gender also. (Chapter 17)
ness. Weak verbs, such as be or have, increase analogy An explanation of the unfamiliar
wordiness. (11e) in terms of the familiar. Like a simile, an
analogy compares things not normally asso-
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active reading Reading for critical under-
standing, using such strategies as making ciated with each other; but unlike a simile,
interpretations; looking for bias or omissions; an analogy does not use like or as in making
assessing evidence, reasoning processes, claims the comparison. Analogy is also a rhetorical
of cause and effect; applying the reading to strategy for developing paragraphs. (3i, 21d,
other contexts; and so on. 41b)
active voice An attribute of verbs showing analysis A process of critical thinking that
that the action or condition expressed in the divides a whole into its component parts in
verb is done by the subject, in contrast with order to understand how the parts interre-
the passive voice, which conveys that the ac- late. Some times called division, analysis is
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tion or condition of the verb is done to the also a rhetorical strategy for developing para-
subject. (15n, 15o) graphs. (3i, 4b, 40h, 41f )
adjective A word that describes or limits analytic frameworks Systematic ways of
(modifies) a noun, a pronoun, or a word investigating a work. (40c)
group functioning as a noun: silly, three. (14f, antecedent The noun or pronoun to
Chapter 18) which a pronoun refers. (16l–16s, 7o–7t)
adjective clause A dependent clause, also
APA style See documentation style.
known as a relative clause. An adjective clause
modifies a preceding noun or pronoun and appeals to reason Tools a writer uses to
begins with a relative word (such as who, convince the reader that the reasoning in an
which, that, or where) that relates the clause argument is sound and effective; there are
to the noun or pronoun it modifies. Also see three types—logical, emotional, and ethical
clause. (14p) appeals. (5j)
891
892 T GL TERMS GLOSSARY
apply In writing, to examine how a partic- bibliographic notes In a note system of

ular theory, interpretation, or perspective documentation, a footnote or endnote gives
explains or fits—or doesn’t—a specific the bibliographic information the first time
situation or reading. a source is cited. (35f, 36d.2, Chapter 38)
appositive A word or group of words that bibliography A list of sources used or con-
renames a preceding noun or noun phrase: sulted for research writing. (Chapters 36, 37,
my favorite month, October. (14n) and 38)
argument A rhetorical attempt to convince block style Style used in writing business
others to agree with a position about a topic letters. Block style uses no indents, single
open to debate. (1c, Chapter 5) spacing within paragraphs and double spac-
argument to the person (also known as ing between paragraphs. All lines start flush
“ad hominum”) A logical fallacy that in- left, which means at the left margin. (43f )
volves finding fault with an individual rather blog Shortened form of “Web log,” a kind
than more properly with the argument he or of online journal. (46e)
she has made. Example: Don’t believe Smith’s
views on the environment because he dresses so body paragraphs Paragraphs that provide
strangely. the substance of your message in a sequence
that makes sense. (3d)
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articles Also called determiners or noun
markers, articles are the words a, an, and the.
A and an are indefinite articles, and the is a
definite article; also see determiner. (14f,
Boolean expressions In a search engine,
symbols or words such as And, Or, Not, and
Near that let you create keyword combina-
tions that narrow and refine your search.
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Chapter 51)
(34l)
assertion A statement. In a thesis state-
ment, an assertion expresses a point of view borders Lines used to set apart sections of
about a topic; in an argument, an assertion text. (45e)
states the position you want to argue. brainstorming Listing all ideas that come
(2d, 5d) to mind on a topic and then grouping the
assessing reasoning processes Judging ideas by patterns that emerge.
whether the claims made in a piece of writ- bureaucratic language Sometimes called
ing are justified by the evidence, reasons, ex-
te
bureaucratese; language that is overblown or
planations, and thinking presented. Often overly complex. (12l)
involves asking whether certain facts or state-
ments actually lead to certain conclusions. business writing Writing designed for
business, including letters, memos, resumes,
audience The readers to whom a piece of job application letters, and e-mail messages.
writing is directed; the three types include (1d, 3a, Chapter 43)
general audience, peer audience, and specialist
audience. (1d) case The form of a noun or pronoun in a
specific context that shows whether it is
auxiliary verb Also known as a helping verb, functioning as a subject, an object, or a pos-
an auxiliary verb is a form of be, do, have,
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sessive. In modern English, nouns change

can, may, will, or certain other verbs, that form in the possessive case only (city = form
combines with a main verb to help it express for subjective and objective cases; city’s =
tense, mood, and voice. Also see modal aux- possessive-case form). Also see pronoun case.
iliary verb. (15e) (16a–16k)
balanced sentence A sentence composed cause and effect The relationship between
of two parallel structures, usually two inde- outcomes (effects) and the reasons for them
pendent clauses, that present contrasting (causes). Cause-and-effect analysis is a
content. (10b) rhetorical strategy for developing paragraphs.
base form See simple form. (3i, 4h, 4i)
bias In writing, a distortion or inaccuracy chronological order Also called time order,
caused by a dislike or hatred of individuals, an arrangement of information according to
groups of people, or ideas. (4c.2) time sequence; an organizing strategy for
TERMS GLOSSARY T GL 893
sentences, paragraphs, and longer pieces of collective noun A noun that names a group
writing. (3h) of people or things: family, committee. Also
citation Information that identifies a source see noncount noun. (14b, 17j, 17t)
quoted, paraphrased, summarized, or re- colloquial language Casual or conversa-
ferred to in a piece of writing; in-text citations tional language. Also see slang. (12h)
appear within sentences or as parenthetical comma fault See comma splice.
references. Also see documentation. (Chapters
34 and 35) comma splice The error that occurs when
only a comma connects two independent
civic writing Writing done to influence clauses; also called a comma fault. (Chap-
public opinion or to advance causes for the ter 20)
public good. (44d)
common noun A noun that names a gen-
claim States an issue and then takes a posi- eral group, place, person, or thing: dog,
tion on a debatable topic related to the issue. house. (14b)
A claim is supported with evidence and rea-
sons, moving from broad reasons to specific comparative form The form of a descrip-
data and details. (5d) tive adjective or adverb that shows a differ-
ent degree of intensity between two things:
classical argument An argument with a bluer, less blue; more easily, less easily. Also see
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six-part structure consisting of introduction,
thesis statement, background, evidence and
reasoning, response to opposing views, and
conclusion. (5e)
positive form, superlative form. (18e)
comparison and contrast A rhetorical
strategy for organizing and developing para-
graphs by discussing similarities (comparison)
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classification A rhetorical strategy for para- and differences (contrast). It has two patterns:
graph development that organizes infor- point-by-point and block organization. (3i)
mation by grouping items according to
complement An element after a verb that
underlying shared characteristics. (3i)
completes the predicate, such as a direct ob-
clause A group of words containing a subject after an action verb or a noun or adjec-
ject and a predicate. A clause that delivers tive after a linking verb. Also see object
full meaning is called an independent (or complement, predicate adjective, predicate
main) clause. A clause that lacks full mean- nominative, subject complement. (14n)
ing by itself is called a dependent (or
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complete predicate See predicate.
subordinate) clause. Also see adjective clause,
adverb clause, nonrestrictive element, noun complete subject See subject.
clause, restrictive element. (14p) complex sentence See sentence types.
cliché An overused, worn-out phrase that compound-complex sentence See sentence
has lost its capacity to communicate effec- types.
tively: flat as Kansas, ripe old age. (12i) compound construction A group of nouns
climactic order Sometimes called emphatic or pronouns connected with a coordinating
order, an arrangement of ideas or other kinds conjunction. (16d)
of information from least important to most compound noun See subject.
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important. (3h, 5e )
compound predicate See predicate.
clip art Refers to pictures, sketches, and
other graphics available on some word proc- compound sentence See coordinate sen-
essing programs. (45f ) tence, sentence types.
clustering See mapping. compound subject See subject. (14l, 17e)
coherence The clear progression from one compound word Two or more words
idea to another using transitional expres- placed together to express one concept. (31g)
sions, pronouns, selective repetition, or par- conciseness An attribute of writing that is
allelism to make connections between ideas. direct and to the point. (Chapter 11)
(3g) concrete noun A noun naming something
collaborative writing Students working to- that can be seen, touched, heard, smelled, or
gether to write a paper. (Chapter 6) tasted: smoke, sidewalk. (14b)
conjunction A word that connects or oth- cumulative sentence The most common
erwise establishes a relationship between two structure for a sentence, with the subject and
or more words, phrases, or clauses. Also see verb first, followed by modifiers adding de-
coordinating conjunction, correlative conjunc- tails; also called a loose sentence. (9q)
tion, subordinating conjunction. (14i) dangling modifier A modifier that attaches
conjunctive adverb An adverb, such as its meaning illogically, either because it is
therefore or meanwhile, that communicates a closer to another noun or pronoun than to
logical connection in meaning. (14g) its true subject or because its true subject is
connotation An idea implied by a word, not expressed in the sentence. (21d)
involving associations and emotional over- declarative sentence A sentence that
tones that go beyond the word’s dictionary makes a statement: Sky diving is exciting. Also
definition. (12d) see exclamatory sentence, imperative sentence,
contraction A word where an apostrophe interrogative sentence. (14k)
takes the place of one or more omitted let- deduction, deductive reasoning The
ters. (27d) process of reasoning from general claims to
coordinate adjectives Two or more adjec- a specific instance. (4i)
tives of equal weight that modify a noun.
definite article See articles.
(24e)
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coordinate sentence Two or more inde-
pendent clauses joined by either a semicolon
or a comma with coordinating conjunction
showing their relationship; also called a
definition A rhetorical strategy in which
you define or give the meaning of words or
ideas. Includes extended definition. (3i)
demonstrative pronoun A pronoun that
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compound sentence. Also see coordination. points out the antecedent: this, these; that,
(9d) those. (14c, 14f )
coordinating conjunction A conjunction denotation The dictionary definition of a
that joins two or more grammatically equiv- word. (12e.1)
alent structures: and, or, for, nor, but, so, yet. dependent clause A clause that cannot
(14i, 20b) stand alone as an independent grammatical
coordination The use of grammatically unit. Also see adjective clause, adverb clause,
equivalent forms to show a balance or se- noun clause. (14p, 19b)
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quence of ideas. (9d, 9e)
description A rhetorical strategy that ap-
correlative conjunction A pair of words peals to a reader’s senses—sight, sound,
that joins equivalent grammatical structures, smell, taste, and touch. (3i)
including both . . . and, either . . . or,
neither . . . nor, not only . . . but (or but also). descriptive adjective An adjective that
(14i) names the condition or properties of the
count noun A noun that names an item or
noun it modifies and (except for a very few,
items that can be counted: radio, streets, idea, such as dead and unique) has comparative
fingernails. (14b, 50a) and superlative forms: flat, flatter, flattest.
critical reading A parallel process to criti- descriptive adverb An adverb that names
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cal thinking where you think about what the condition or properties of whatever it
you’re reading while you’re reading it. (4d) modifies and that has comparative and su-
perlative forms: happily, more happily, most
critical response Formally, an essay sum-
happily. (14g)
marizing a source’s central point or main
idea. It includes a transitional statement that determiner A word or word group, tradi-
bridges this summary and the writer’s syn- tionally identified as an adjective, that lim-
thesized reactions in response. (4f ) its a noun by telling how much or how many
critical thinking A form of thinking where about it. Also called expression of quantity,
you take control of your conscious thought limiting adjective, or noun marker. (14f, 50b,
processes. (4a, 4b, 40g) Chapter 51)
diction Word choice. (12d)
cumulative adjectives Adjectives that
build meaning from word to word: distinc- digital portfolio A collection of several
tive musical style. (24e) texts in electronic format that you’ve chosen
to represent the range of your skills and abil- and paragraphs. Drafts are versions—first or
ities. (1f ) rough, revised, and final—of one piece of
direct address Words naming a person or writing. (2g)
group being spoken to. Written words of di- edited American English English language
rect address are set off by commas. (24g) The usage that conforms to established rules of
answer, my friends, lies with you. Go with grammar, sentence structure, punctuation,
them, Gene. and spelling; also called standard American
direct discourse In writing, words that re- English. (12b)
peat speech or conversation exactly and so editing A part of the writing process in
are enclosed in quotation marks. (22e, 24g, which writers check the technical correct-
28b) ness of grammar, spelling, punctuation, and
direct object A noun or pronoun or group mechanics. (2j)
of words functioning as a noun that receives ellipses Punctuation consisting of three pe-
the action (completes the meaning) of a tran- riods that shows material has been omitted.
sitive verb. (14m) Example: (1) That person playing the loud
direct question A sentence that asks a music should leave. (2) That person . . . should
question and ends with a question mark: Are leave.
you going? (23a, 23c) elliptical construction The deliberate
direct quotation See quotation.
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direct title A title that tells exactly what the
essay will be about. (2i)
omission of one or more words in order to
achieve conciseness in a sentence. (14p, 22h,
11d.3)
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emotional appeal Rhetorical strategy
discovery draft A first draft developed which employs the use of descriptive lan-
from focused freewriting. (2g) guage and concrete details or examples
disclaimer A statement appended to the top to create a mental picture for readers, lead-
or bottom of e-mails designed to protect the ing them to feel or understand the im-
company from legal liability. (43d) portance of a claim. Greek name is
documentation The acknowledgment of pathos. (5g)
someone else’s words and ideas used in any essential element See restrictive element.
piece of writing by giving full and accurate ethical appeal Rhetorical strategy intended
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information about the person whose words to reassure readers that the writer is author-
were used and where those words were itative, honest, fair, likable, and so on. Greek
found. For example, for a print source, doc- name is ethos. (5g)
mentation usually includes names of all
authors, title of the source, place and date ethnography A research method that in-
of publication, and related information. volves careful observation of a group of peo-
(35a–35k, Chapters 36–38) ple or a setting, often over a period of time.
Ethnography also refers to the written work
documentation style A system for provid- that results from this research.
ing information about the source of words, in-
formation, and ideas quoted, paraphrased, euphemism Language that attempts to
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or summarized from some source other than blunt certain realities by speaking of them
the writer. Documentation styles discussed in “nice” or “tactful” words. (12k)
in this handbook are MLA, APA, CM, CSE, evaluate A step in the critical thinking
and COS. (33h, Chapters 36–38) process where you judge the quality of the
document design A term for the place- material you are assessing. (4b, 4c.3, 4g)
ment of tables, graphs, and other illustra- evidence Facts, data, examples, and opin-
tions on printed and online material. ions of others used to support assertions and
(Chapter 45) conclusions. Also see sources. (4g)
double negative A nonstandard negation exclamatory sentence A sentence begin-
using two negative modifiers rather than ning with What or How that expresses strong
one. (18c) feeling: What a ridiculous statement! (14k)
drafting A part of the writing process in expletive The phrase there is (are), there was
which writers compose ideas in sentences (were), it is, or it was at the beginning of a
clause, changing structure and postponing future progressive tense The form of the
the subject: It is Mars that we hope to reach. future tense showing that a future action will
[Compare: We hope to reach Mars]. (11c) continue for some time: I will be talking. (15j)
expository writing See informative writing. future tense The form of a verb, made
expressive writing Writing that re- with the simple form and either shall or
flects your personal thoughts and feel- will, expressing an action yet to be taken or
ings. (1b) a condition not yet experienced: I will talk.
(15g)
faulty parallelism Grammatically incorrect
gender The classification of words as mas-
writing that results from nonmatching gram-
matical forms linked with coordinating con- culine, feminine, or neutral. (17s, 12f )
junctions. (10e) gender-free language See gender-neutral
language.
faulty predication A grammatically illogi-
cal combination of subject and predicate. gender-neutral language Also called
(22g) gender-free language or nonsexist language, it
uses terms that do not unnecessarily say
field research Primary research that in- whether a person is male or female, as with
volves going into real-life situations to ob- police officer instead of policeman. (17s,
serve, survey, interview, or be part of some 12f )
activity. (32c)
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figurative language Words that make con-
nections and comparisons and draw on one
image to explain another and enhance mean-
generalization A broad statement without
details. (1c)
gerund A present participle functioning as
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ing. (12c) a noun: Walking is good exercise. Also see
verbal. (14e, 51c, Chapter 54)
finite verb A verb form that shows tense,
mood, voice, person, and number while ex- helping verb See auxiliary verb.
pressing an action, occurrence, or state of homonyms Words spelled differently that
being. sound alike: to, too, two. (31f )
first person See person. home page The opening main page of a
Web site that provides access to other pages
focused freewriting A technique that may
on the site categories. (46d)
start with a set topic or may build on one
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sentence taken from earlier freewriting. (2g) HTML (Hyper Text Markup Language) A
computer program language used for Web
formal outline An outline that lays out the pages. (46c)
topic levels of generalities or hierarchies that
marks them with Roman numerals, letters, hyperbole See overstatement.
numbers indented in a carefully prescribed hyperlink Connection from one digital
fashion. (2f ) document to another online. (46d)
frames A part of a Web page that functions idiom A word, phrase, or other construc-
independently of the other parts of the page. tion that has a different meaning from its lit-
(Chapter 46) eral meaning: He lost his head. She hit the
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freewriting Writing nonstop for a period ceiling. (Chapter 53)

of time to generate ideas by free association illogical predication See faulty predication.
of thoughts. Also see discovery draft. (2g) imperative mood The mood that expresses
fused sentence See run-on sentence. commands and direct requests, using the
simple form of the verb and often imply-
future perfect progressive tense The
ing but not expressing the subject, you: Go.
form of the future perfect tense that de- (15l)
scribes an action or condition ongoing until
some specific future time: I will have been talk- imperative sentence A sentence that gives
ing. (15j) a command: Go to the corner to buy me a
newspaper. (14k, 19b.3)
future perfect tense The tense indicating
that an action will have been completed or incubation The prewriting technique
a condition will have ended by a specified of giving ideas time to develop and clarify.
point in the future: I will have talked. (15i) indefinite article See articles, determiner.
indefinite pronoun A pronoun, such as all, informative writing Writing that gives in-
anyone, each, and others, that refers to a non- formation and, when necessary, explains it;
specific person or thing. (14c, 14f, 17i) also known as expository writing. (1b)
independent clause A clause that can intensive pronoun A pronoun that ends in
stand alone as an independent grammatical -self and that emphasizes its antecedent. Also
unit. (14p) called reflexive pronoun: Vida himself argued
indicative mood The mood of verbs used
against it. (14c)
for statements about real things or highly interjection An emotion-conveying word
likely ones: I think Grace is arriving today. that is treated as a sentence, starting with a
(15l, 22d) capital letter and ending with an exclama-
tion point or a period: Oh! Ouch! (14j, 24j)
indirect discourse Reported speech or con-
versation that does not use the exact struc- interrogative pronoun A pronoun, such
ture of the original and so is not enclosed in as whose or what, that implies a question:
quotation marks. (22e, 24h) Who called? (14c, 19b)
indirect title Hints at an essay’s topic; tries interrogative sentence A sentence
to catch the reader’s interest by presenting a that asks a direct question: Did you see that?
puzzle that can be solved by reading the (14k)
essay. (2i)
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indirect object A noun or pronoun
or group of words functioning as a noun
that tells to whom or for whom the ac-
in-text citation Source information placed
in parentheses within the body of a research
paper. Also see citation, parenthetical refer-
ence. (36b, 37b)
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tion expressed by a transitive verb was done. intransitive verb A verb that does not take
(14m) a direct object. (15f )
indirect question A sentence that reports a invention techniques Ways of gathering
question and ends with a period: I asked if ideas for writing. Also see planning.
you are leaving. (23a, 23c, 48a) inverted word order In contrast to stan-
indirect quotation See quotation. dard order, the main verb or an auxiliary verb
comes before the subject in inverted word
induction The reasoning process of arriv- order. Most questions and some exclama-
ing at general principles from particular facts tions use inverted word order. (17h, 9r,
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or instances. (4h) Chapter 51)
inductive reasoning A form of reasoning irony Words used to imply the opposite of
that moves from particular facts or instances their usual meaning. (12c)
to general principles. (4h) irregular verb A verb that forms the past
inference What a reader or listener under- tense and past participle in some way other
stands to be implied but not stated. (4d) than by adding -ed or -d. (15d)
infinitive A verbal made of the simple form jargon A particular field’s or group’s spe-
of a verb and usually, but not always, to that cialized vocabulary that a general reader is
functions as a noun, adjective, or adverb. In- unlikely to understand. (12k)
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finitives without the word to are called journalist’s questions Who? What? When?
unmarked (or bare) infinitives. (14e, 15k, Where? Why? How? Traditionally, every
Chapter 54) news story should answer these questions.
infinitive phrase An infinitive, with its justify When used as a design term, it refers
modifiers and object, that functions as a to aligning text evenly along both the left
noun, adjective, or adverb. Also see verbal and right margins. (45c)
phrase. (14e) key terms In an essay, the words central to
informal language Word choice that cre- its topic and its message. (5d)
ates a tone appropriate for casual writing or keywords The main words in a source’s
speaking. (1d, 12g) title or the words that the author or editor
informal outline Non-traditional outline has identified as central to that source. Use
that doesn’t follow the rules of a formal out- keywords in searching for sources online or
line. (2f ) in library databases. (34c)
layout The arrangement of text, visuals, is headed with lines for “To,” “From,” and
color, and space on a page. (45g) “Subject” and uses the rest of its space for its
levels of formality Word choices and sen- message. (43e)
tence structures reflecting various degrees of metaphor A comparison implying similar-
formality of language. A formal level is used ity between two things. A metaphor does not
for ceremonial and other occasions when sty- use words such as like or as, which are used
listic flourishes are appropriate. A medium in a simile and which make a comparison
level, neither too formal nor too casual, is explicit: a mop of hair (compare the simile
acceptable for most academic writing. (12b) hair like a mop). (12d)
levels of generality Degrees of generality misplaced modifier Describing or limit-
used to group or organize information or ing words that are wrongly positioned in a
ideas as you write, as when moving from the sentence so that their message is either illog-
most general to the most specific. Con- ical or relates to the wrong word or words.
versely, levels of specificity move from the Also see squinting modifier. (21a)
most specific to the most general.
mixed construction A sentence that unin-
levels of specificity Degrees of specificity tentionally changes from one grammatical
used to group or organize information or structure to another, incompatible one, so
ideas as you write, as when moving from the that the meaning is garbled. (22f )
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most specific to the most general. Con-
versely, levels of generality move from the
most general to the most specific.
limiting adjective See determiner.
mixed metaphors Incongruously com-
bined images. (12c)
MLA style See documentation style, paren-
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thetical reference.
linking verb A main verb that links a sub-
ject with a subject complement that renames modal auxiliary verb One of a group of
or describes the subject. Linking verbs, nine auxiliary verbs that add information
sometimes called copulative verbs, convey a such as a sense of needing, wanting, or hav-
state of being, relate to the senses, or indicate ing to do something or a sense of possibility,
a condition. (15a, 15c) likelihood, obligation, permission, or abil-
logical appeal Rhetorical strategy that in- ity. (15e, Chapter 55)
tended to show readers that the reasoning modified block style An alternative to
depends on formal reasoning, including pro- block style, in modified block style the lines
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viding evidence and drawing conclusions for the inside address and the body begin
from premises. Greek name is logos. (5g) flush left but the heading, closing, and sig-
logical fallacies Flaws in reasoning that nature begin about halfway across the page.
lead to illogical statements. (4i) (43f )
main clause See independent clause. modifier, modify A word or group of
main verb A verb that expresses action, oc- words functioning as an adjective or adverb
currence, or state of being and that shows to describe or limit another word or word
mood, tense, voice, number, and person. group. Also see misplaced modifier. (14n,
(14d, 15b) Chapter 18, 9d)
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mapping An invention technique based on mood The attribute of verbs showing a

thinking about a topic and its increasingly speaker’s or writer’s attitude toward the ac-
specific subdivisions; also known as clustering tion by the way verbs are used. English has
or webbing. three moods: imperative, indicative, and sub-
junctive. Also see imperative mood, indica-
margins The boundaries of a page, which tive mood, subjunctive mood. (15l, 15m)
means the white space or blank areas at the
top, bottom, and sides of a paper or screen. multimodal The use of a combination of
(45c) words and images. (4l)
mechanics Conventions governing matters narrative A rhetorical strategy that tells a
such as the use of capital letters, italics, ab- story; a narrative deals with what is or what
breviations, and numbers. (Chapter 30) has happened. (3i)
memo or memorandum A brief form of navigation bar The set of links on every
business correspondence with a format that Web page that allows users to get back to the
site’s home page and to major parts of the object complement A noun or adjective
site. (46c) renaming or describing a direct object after
netiquette Coined from the word eti- verbs such as call, consider, name, elect, and
quette, netiquette is good manners when think: I call the most obsessive joggers fanatics.
using e-mail, the Internet, and online sites (14n)
such as bulletin boards, chatrooms, etc. objective case The case of a noun or pro-
(43d) noun functioning as a direct or indirect ob-
noncount noun A noun that names a thing ject or the object of a preposition or of a
that cannot be counted: water, time. Also see verbal. A few pronouns change form to show
collective noun. (14b, Chapters 50 and 51) case (him, her, whom). Also see case. (Chap-
ter 16)
nonessential element See nonrestrictive
outline Technique for laying out ideas for
element.
writing. An outline can be formal or infor-
nonrestrictive clause See nonrestrictive mal. (2f )
element. overstatement Deliberate exaggeration for
nonrestrictive element A descriptive emphasis; also called hyperbole. (12c)
word, phrase, or dependent clause that pro- paragraph A group of sentences that work
vides information not essential to under-
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standing the basic message of the element it
modifies and so is set off by commas. Also
see restrictive element. (24f )
together to develop a unit of thought. They
are the structured elements of an essay, which
is composed of an introductory paragraph,
body paragraphs, and a concluding paragraph.
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nonsexist language See gender-neutral lan- Also see shaping. (Chapter 3)
guage. paragraph arrangement Ordering sen-
nonspecific noun A noun that refers to any tences by specific techniques to communi-
of a number of identical items; it takes the cate a paragraph’s message. (3h)
indefinite articles a, an. (51a) paragraph development Using specific,
nonstandard English Language usage concrete details (RENNS) to support a gen-
other than what is called edited American eralization in a paragraph; rhetorical strate-
English. (12b) gies or patterns for organizing ideas in
paragraphs. (3f, 3i)
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noun A word that names a person, place,
thing, or idea. Nouns function as subjects, parallelism The use of equivalent grammat-
objects, or complements. (14b) ical forms or matching sentence structures
noun clause A dependent clause that func- to express equivalent ideas and develop co-
tions as a subject, object, or complement. herence. (Chapter 10)
(14p) paraphrase A restatement of someone else’s
noun complement See complement.
ideas in language and sentence structure dif-
ferent from those of the original. (35i)
noun determiner See determiner.
parenthetical reference Information en-
noun phrase A noun and its modifiers closed in parentheses following quoted, par-
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functioning as a subject, object, or comple- aphrased, or summarized material from a

ment. (14o) source to alert readers to the use of material
number The attribute of some words indi- from a specific source. Parenthetical refer-
cating whether they refer to one (singular) ences, also called in-text citations, function
or more than one (plural). (15a, 17b, 22b, together with a list of bibliographic infor-
Chapter 49) mation about each source used in a paper to
document the writer’s use of sources. Also
object A noun, pronoun, or group of words see citation. (36b)
functioning as a noun or pronoun that re-
ceives the action of a verb (direct object); tells participial phrase A phrase that contains
to whom or for whom something is done a present participle or a past participle and
(indirect object); or completes the mean- any modifiers and that functions as an adjec-
ing of a preposition (object of a preposition). tive. Also see verbal phrase. (14o)
(14m) passive construction See passive voice.
passive voice The form of a verb in which and the emphasis—for the end; also called a
the subject is acted on; if the subject is men- climactic sentence. (9q)
tioned in the sentence, it usually appears as periodical A publication such as a newspa-
the object of the preposition by: I was fright- per, magazine, or journal that is published
ened by the thunder. [Compare the active at a regular interval, that is “periodically.”
voice: The thunder frightened me.] The pas-
sive voice emphasizes the action, in contrast person The attribute of nouns and pro-
to the active voice, which emphasizes the doer nouns showing who or what acts or experi-
of the action. (15n) ences an action. First person is the one
speaking (I, we); second person is the one
past participle The third principal part of being spoken to (you, you); and third person
a verb, formed in regular verbs, like the past is the person or thing being spoken about
tense, by adding -d or -ed to the simple form. (he, she, it, they). All nouns are third person.
In irregular verbs, it often differs from the (15a, 17b)
simple form and the past tense: break, broke,
broken. (14e, 15b, 54f ) personal pronoun A pronoun that refers
to people or things, such as I, you, them, it.
past perfect progressive tense The past (14c, 16n)
perfect tense form that describes an ongoing
condition in the past that has been ended by personality The sense of the writer that
talking. (15j)
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something stated in the sentence: I had been
past perfect tense The tense that de-

comes through his or her writing; for exam-
ple, friendly, bossy, shy, assertive, concerned,
angry, and so on.
persuasive appeal Rhetorical strategies
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scribes a condition or action that started in
the past, continued for a while, and then which appeal to the emotions, logic, or ethics
ended in the past: I had talked. (15g, 15i) of readers. (5g)
past progressive tense The tense that persuasive writing Writing that seeks to
shows the continuing nature of a past action: convince the reader about a matter of opin-
I was talking. (15j) ion. It is also known as argumentative writ-
ing. (Chapter 5)
past subjunctive The simple past tense in
the subjunctive mood. (15m) phrasal verb A verb that combines with
one or more prepositions to deliver its mean-
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past tense The tense that tells of an action ing: ask out, look into. (53c)
completed or a condition ended. (15g)
phrase A group of related words that does
past-tense form The second principal part not contain both a subject and a predicate
of a verb, in regular verbs formed by adding and thus cannot stand alone as an independ-
-d or -ed to the simple form. In irregular ent grammatical unit. A phrase functions as
verbs, the past tense may change in several a noun, verb, or modifier. (14o)
ways from the simple form. (15b, 15d)
plagiarism A writer’s presenting another
peer-response group A group of students person’s words or ideas without giving credit
formed to give each other feedback on writ- to that person. Documentation systems
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ing. (Chapter 6) allow writers to give proper credit to sources

perfect infinitive Also called present perfect in ways recognized by scholarly communi-
participle, a tense used to describe an action ties. Plagiarism is a serious offense, a form
that occurs before the action in the main of intellectual dishonesty that can lead to
verb. (15k) course failure or expulsion. (Chapter 35)
perfect tenses The three tenses—the pres- planning An early part of the writing
ent perfect (I have talked), the past perfect process in which writers gather ideas. Along
(I had talked), and the future perfect (I will with shaping, planning is sometimes called
have talked)—that help show complex time prewriting. (Chapter 2)
relationships between two clauses. (15g, 15i) plural See number.
periodic sentence A sentence that begins podcasts Brief sound files that are shared
with modifiers and ends with the independ- over the Internet, somewhat like online radio
ent clause, thus postponing the main idea— broadcasts. (46g).
positive form The form of an adjective or present perfect progressive tense The
adverb when no comparison is being ex- present perfect tense form that describes
pressed: blue, easily. Also see comparative something ongoing in the past that is likely
form, superlative form. (18e) to continue into the future: I have been talk-
possessive case The case of a noun or pro- ing. (15j)
noun that shows ownership or possession: present perfect tense The tense in-
my, your, their, and so on. Also see case, pro- dicating that an action or its effects, begun or
noun case. (Chapter 16, 27a–27c) perhaps completed in the past, continue into
predicate The part of a sentence that con- the present: I had talked. (15g, 15i)
tains the verb and tells what the subject is present progressive tense The present-
doing or experiencing or what is being done tense form of the verb that indicates some-
to the subject. A simple predicate contains thing taking place at the time it is written or
only the main verb and any auxiliary verbs. spoken about: I am talking. (15j)
A complete predicate contains the verb, its
modifiers, objects, and other related words. present subjunctive The simple form of
A compound predicate contains two or more the verb for all persons and numbers in the
verbs and their objects and modifiers, if any. subjunctive mood. (15m)
(14l) present tense The tense that describes
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predicate adjective An adjective used as a
subject complement: That tree is leafy. (14n)
predicate nominative A noun or pronoun
used as a subject complement: That tree is a
what is happening, what is true at the mo-
ment, and what is consistently true. It uses
the simple form (I talk) and the -s form in
the third-person singular (he, she, it talks).
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maple. (14n) (15g, 15h)
prediction A major activity of the reading prewriting All activities in the writing
process, in which the reader guesses what process before drafting. Also see planning,
comes next. (4c) shaping.
premises In a deductive argument ex- primary sources Firsthand work: write-
pressed as a syllogism, statements presenting ups of experiments and observations by the
the conditions of the argument from which researchers who conducted them; taped ac-
the conclusion must follow. (4h) counts, interviews, and newspaper accounts
preposition A word that conveys a relation-
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by direct observers; autobiographies, diaries,
ship, often of space or time, between the and journals; expressive works (poems,
noun or pronoun following it and other plays, fiction, essays). Also known as pri-
words in the sentence. The noun or pronoun mary evidence. Also see secondary source.
following a preposition is called its object. (32a, 32d)
(14h, Chapter 53)
process A rhetorical strategy in writing that
prepositional phrase A preposition and
reports a sequence of actions by which some-
the word it modifies. Also see phrase, prepo- thing is done or made. (3i)
sition. (14h, 14o)
presentation style The way you deliver progressive forms Verb forms made in all
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what you have to say. Memorization, read- tenses with the present participle and forms
ing, mapping and speaking with notes are of the verb be as an auxiliary. Progressive
different types of presentation styles. (42h) forms show that an action, occurrence, or
state of being is ongoing. (15g, 15j)
present infinitive Names or describes an
activity or occurrence coming together ei- project proposal A piece of writing in-
ther at the same time or after the time extended to persuade readers that a future proj-
pressed in the main verb. (15k) ect is worth doing and that the writer has
present participle A verb’s -ing form. Used the ability and resources to complete the
with auxiliary verbs, present participles func- project successfully.
tion as main verbs. Used without auxiliary pronoun A word that takes the place of
verbs, present participles function as nouns a noun and functions in the same ways
or adjectives. (14e, 15b, 55f ) that nouns do. Types of pronouns are
present perfect participle See perfect in- demonstrative, indefinite, intensive, interrog-
finitive. ative, personal, reciprocal, reflexive, and
relative. The word (or words) a pronoun reading process Critical reading that
replaces is called its antecedent. (14c, Chap- requires the reader to read for literal meaning,
ter 16) to draw inferences, and to evaluate. (4c)
pronoun-antecedent agreement The reasons Statements or ideas presented in
match in expressing number and person— order to provide support for a claim.
and for personal pronouns, gender as well— reciprocal pronoun The pronouns each
required between a pronoun and its other and one another referring to individual
antecedent. (17o–17t) parts of a plural antecedent: We respect each
pronoun case The way a pronoun changes other. (14c)
form to reflect its use as the agent of action References In many documentation styles,
(subjective case), the thing being acted upon including APA, the title of a list of sources
(objective case), or the thing showing owner- cited in a research paper or other written
ship (possessive case). (16a–16k) work. (33h, 33i, 34c, 35f )
pronoun reference The relationship be- reflexive pronoun A pronoun that ends in
tween a pronoun and its antecedent. -self and that refers back to its antecedent:
(16l–16s) They claim to support themselves. (14c)
proofread The act of reading a final draft regular verb A verb that forms its past
r
to find and correct any spelling or mechan-
ics mistakes, typing errors, or handwriting
illegibility; the final step of the writing
process. (2k)
tense and past participle by adding -ed or
-d to the simple form. Most English verbs
are regular. (15b, 15d)
relative adverb An adverb that introduces
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proper adjective An adjective formed an adjective clause: The lot where I usually
from a proper noun: Victorian, American. park my car was full. (14g)
(30e)
relative clause See adjective clause.
proper noun A noun that names specific
relative pronoun A pronoun, such as who,
people, places, or things and is always
capitalized: Dave Matthews, Buick. (14b, which, that, whom, or whoever, that intro-
30e, 51c) duces an adjective clause or sometimes a
noun clause. (14c)
proposal of solution A piece of writing in-
RENNS Test See paragraph development.
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tended to persuade readers that a particular
problem is best solved by the solution ex- (3f )
plained in that writing. research question The controlling ques-
tion that drives research. (33c)
public writing Writing intended for readers
outside of academic and work settings. research writing Also called source-based
(Chapter 44) writing, a process in three steps: conducting
research, understanding and evaluating the
purpose The goal or aim of a piece of writ- results of the research, and writing the re-
ing: to express oneself, to provide information, search paper with accurate documentation.
to persuade, or to create a literary work. (1b) (Chapter 33)
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quotation Repeating or reporting another respond In writing, to provide your reac-

person’s words. Direct quotation repeats an- tion to a reading or idea, with reasons and
other’s words exactly and encloses them in explanations for your response.
quotation marks. Indirect quotation reports
another’s words without quotation marks ex- restrictive clause See restrictive element.
cept around any words repeated exactly from restrictive element A word, phrase, or
the source. Both direct and indirect quotation dependent clause that contains informa-
require documentation of the source to avoid tion that is essential for a sentence to deliver
plagiarism. Also see direct discourse, indirect its message. Do not set off with commas.
discourse. (Chapter 28, 35h) (24f )
readers Readers are the audiences for writ- revising, revision A part of the writing
ing; readers process material they read on the process in which writers evaluate their rough
literal, inferential, and evaluative levels. (4c) drafts and, based on their assessments,
rewrite by adding, cutting, replacing, mov- sentence outline Type of outline in which
ing, and often totally recasting material. (2i) each element is a sentence. (2f )
rhetoric The area of discourse that focuses sentence types A grammatical classifica-
on the arrangement of ideas and choice of tion of sentences by the kinds of clauses they
words as a reflection of both the writer’s pur- contain. A simple sentence consists of one in-
pose and the writer’s sense of audience. dependent clause. A complex sentence con-
(Chapter 1) tains one independent clause and one or
rhetorical strategies In writing, various more dependent clauses. A compound-com-
techniques for presenting ideas to deliver plex sentence contains at least two independ-
a writer’s intended message with clarity and ent clauses and one or more dependent
impact. Reflecting typical patterns of hu- clauses. A compound or coordinate sentence
man thought, rhetorical strategies include contains two or more independent clauses
arrangements such as chronological and joined by a coordinating conjunction. Sen-
climactic order; stylistic techniques such as tences are also classified by their grammati-
parallelism and planned repetition; and cal function; see declarative sentence,
patterns for organizing and developing exclamatory sentence, imperative sentence, in-
writing such as description and definition. terrogative sentence. (14k, 14q, 9f )
(3i) sentence variety Writing sentences of var-
r
Rogerian argument An argument tech-
nique adapted from the principles of com-
munication developed by the psychologist
Carl Rogers. (5j)
ious lengths and structures; see coordinate
sentence, cumulative sentence, periodic sen-
tence, sentence types. (9a)
serif Font types that are characterized by
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role The position the writer is emphasizing little “feet” or finishing lines at the top and
for a given task; for example, student, client, bottom of each letter. (45c)
taxpayer, parent, supervisor, helper, critic, or server A computer that is always online
so on. and available to Internet users. (46b)
run-on sentence The error of running in-
sexist language Language that unneces-
dependent clauses into each other without sarily communicates that a person is male or
the required punctuation that marks them female. For example, fireman is a sexist term
as complete units; also called a fused sentence that says only males fight fires, while fire
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or run-together sentence. (Chapter 20) fighter includes males and females. (17s, 12f)
sans serif Font types that do not have lit-
shaping An early part of the writing process
tle “feet” or finishing lines at the top and
bottom of each letter. (45c) in which writers consider ways to organize
their material. Along with planning, shap-
search engine An Internet-specific software ing is sometimes called prewriting.
program that can look through all files at In-
ternet sites. (34l) shift Within a sentence, an unnecessary
abrupt change in person, number, subject,
secondary source A source that reports, voice, tense, mood, or direct or indirect dis-
analyzes, discusses, reviews, or otherwise course. (22a–22c)
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deals with the work of someone else, as op-

posed to a primary source, which is some- simile A comparison, using like or as, of
one’s original work or firsthand report. A otherwise dissimilar things. (12c)
reliable secondary source should be the simple form The form of the verb that
work of a person with appropriate creden- shows action, occurrence, or state of being
tials, should appear in a respected publica- taking place in the present. It is used in the
tion or other medium, should be current, singular for first and second person and in
and should be well reasoned. (34a, 34i) the plural for first, second, and third person.
second person See person. It is also the first principal part of a verb. The
simple form is also known as the dictionary
sentence See sentence types.
form or base form. (15b)
sentence fragment A portion of a sentence
that is punctuated as though it were a com- simple predicate See predicate.
plete sentence. (Chapter 19) simple sentence See sentence types.
simple subject See subject. subject complement A noun or adjective

simple tenses The present, past, and fu- that follows a linking verb, renaming or de-
ture tenses, which divide time into present, scribing the subject of the sentence; also
past, and future. (15g, 15h) called a predicate nominative. (14n)
singular See number. subjective case The case of the noun or
pronoun functioning as a subject. Also see
slang A kind of colloquial language, it is case, pronoun case. (Chapter 16)
coined words and new meanings for exist-
ing words, which quickly pass in and out of subject tree Shows you visually whether
use; not appropriate for most academic writ- you have sufficient content, at varying levels
ing. (12a) of generality or specificity, to start a first draft
slanted language Language that tries of your writing. A subject tree also visually
to manipulate the reader with distorted facts. demonstrates whether you have a good bal-
(12g) ance of general ideas and specific details.
source-based writing See research writing. subject-verb agreement The required
match between a subject and a verb in ex-
sources Books, articles, print or Internet pressing number and person. (17b–17n)
documents, other works, and persons pro-
viding credible information. In research writ- subjunctive mood A verb mood that ex-
and 35)
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ing, often called outside sources. (Chapters 34
spatial order An arrangement of informa-

presses wishes, recommendations, indirect
requests, speculations, and conditional state-
ments. I wish you were here. (15l, 15m)
subordinate clause See dependent clause.
la
tion according to location in space; an or-
ganizing strategy for sentences, paragraphs, subordinating conjunction A conjunction
and longer pieces of writing. (3h) that introduces an adverb clause and ex-
specific noun A noun understood to be expresses a relationship between the idea in it
actly and specifically referred to; uses the def- and the idea in the independent clause. (14i,
inite article the. (51a) 20c.4, Chapter 9)
split infinitive One or more words coming subordination The use of grammatical
between the two words of an infinitive. (14b) structures to reflect the relative importance
squinting modifier A modifier that is con- of ideas. A sentence with logically subordi-
te
sidered misplaced because it is not clear nated information expresses the most impor-
whether it describes the word that comes be- tant information in the independent clause
fore it or the word that follows it. (21a) and less important information in depend-
ent clauses or phrases. (Chapter 9)
standard American English See edited
American English. summary A brief version of the main mes-
sage or central point of a passage or other
standard word order The most common discourse; a critical thinking activity preced-
order for words in English sentences: The ing synthesis. (35j)
subject comes before the predicate. Also see
inverted word order. (9r, Chapter 52) superlative form The form of an adjective
Es
stereotype A kind of hasty generalization

or adverb that expresses comparison among
(a logical fallacy) in which a sweeping claim three or more things: bluest, least blue; most
is made about all members of a particular easily, least easily. (18e)
ethnic, racial, religious, gender, age, or polit- syllogism The structure of a deductive ar-
ical group. (4i) gument expressed in two premises and a
subject The word or group of words in a conclusion. The first premise is a generalized
sentence that acts, is acted upon, or is de- assumption or statement of fact. The second
scribed by the verb. A simple subject includes premise is a different assumption or state-
only the noun or pronoun. A complete subject ment of fact based on evidence. The conclu-
includes the noun or pronoun and all its sion is also a specific instance that follows
modifiers. A compound subject includes two logically from the premises. (4h)
or more nouns or pronouns and their mod- synonym A word that is very close in mean-
ifiers. (14l) ing to another word: cold and icy. (12d)
synthesis A component of critical think- transitive verb A verb that must be fol-
ing in which material that has been summa- lowed by a direct object. (15f )
rized, analyzed, and interpreted is connected understatement Figurative language in
to what is already known (one’s prior knowl- which the writer uses deliberate restraint for
edge) or to what has been learned from other emphasis. (12c)
authorities. (4b, 4f )
unity The clear and logical relationship
tag question An inverted verb-pronoun between the main idea of a paragraph and
combination added to the end of a sentence, the evidence supporting the main idea.
creating a question that asks the audience to (3d, 3e)
agree with the assertion in the first part of
the sentence. A tag question is set off from unstated assumptions Premises that are
the rest of the sentence with a comma: You implied but not stated. (4h)
know what a tag question is, don’t you? (24g) usage A customary way of using language.
tense The time at which the action of the (Chapter 13)
verb occurs: the present, the past, or the fu- valid Correctly and rationally derived; ap-
ture. Also see perfect tenses, simple tenses. plied to a deductive argument whose con-
(15g–15k) clusion follows logically from the premises.
tense sequence In sentences that have Validity applies to the structure of an argu-
ships. (15k)
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more than one clause, the accurate match-
ing of verbs to reflect logical time relation-
thesis statement A statement of an essay’s

ment, not its truth. (4i)
variety In writing, the presence of differ-
ent types or lengths of sentences, a diverse
vocabulary, kinds of examples or evidence,
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central theme that makes clear the main idea, and so on.
the writer’s purpose, the focus of the topic, verb Any word that shows action or occur-
and perhaps the organizational pattern. (2d) rence or describes a state of being. Verbs
third person See person. change form to convey time (tense), attitude
title The part of an essay that clarifies the (mood), and role of the subject (voice, either
overall point of the piece of writing. It can be active or passive). Verbs occur in the predicate
direct or indirect. (2i) of a clause and can be in verb phrases, which
may consist of a main verb, auxiliary verbs,
tone The writer’s attitude toward his or her and modifiers. Verbs can be described as
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material and reader, especially as reflected by transitive or intransitive, depending on
word choice. (1d, Chapter 8) whether they take a direct object. Also see
topic The subject of discourse. (1b) voice. (Chapter 15)
topic sentence The sentence that expresses verbal A verb part functioning as a noun,
the main idea of a paragraph. A topic sen- adjective, or adverb. Verbals include in-
tence may be implied, not stated. (3e) finitives, present participles (functioning as
Toulmin model A model that defines the adjectives), gerunds (present participles func-
essential parts of an argument as the claim tioning as nouns), and past participles. (15e,
(or main point), the support (or evidence), and Chapter 54)
Es
the warrants (or assumptions behind the main verbal phrase A group of words that con-
point). (5h) tains a verbal (an infinitive, participle, or
transition The connection of one idea to gerund) and its modifiers. (14o)
another in discourse. Useful strategies within verb phrase A main verb, any auxiliary
a paragraph for creating transitions include verbs, and any modifiers. (14o)
transitional expressions, parallelism, and the
planned repetition of key terms and phrases. verb tense Verbs show tense (time) by
In a long piece of writing, a transitional para- changing form. English has six verb tenses.
graph is the bridge between discussion of two (15g)
separate topics. Also see critical response. visual design Refers to the appearance of
(3g.1, 3j) a document (how it looks), as opposed to its
transitional expressions Words and content (what it says). (45a)
phrases that signal connections among ideas voice An attribute of verbs showing
and create coherence. (3g.1) whether the subject acts (active voice) or is
acted on (passive voice). Verbs are sometimes contribute to meaning. The opposite of
referred to as strong or action verbs or weak conciseness. (11a)
verbs. (15n–15p)
World Wide Web The Web, a user-friendly
warrants One of three key terms in the computer network allowing access to infor-
Toulmin model for argument; refers to im- mation in the form of text, graphics, and
plied or inferred assumptions. They are sound on the Internet. (Chapter 46)
based on authority, substance, and motivation.
(5h) working bibliography A preliminary list
of useful sources in research writing. (33i)
Web See World Wide Web.
Works Cited In MLA documentation style,
webbing See mapping.
the title of a list of all sources cited in a re-
Web page On the Internet, a file of infor- search paper or other written work. (36a)
mation. Such a file is not related in length to
a printed page, as it may be a paragraph or writer’s block The desire to start writing,
many screens long. (46c) but not doing so. (2h)
Web site One page or a home page that writing process Stages of writing in which
provides links to a collection of documents a writer gathers and shapes ideas, organizes
or files related to the home page. (46c) material, expresses those ideas in a rough
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Web structure The organization of the
content and documents that site creators in-
clude in a Web project. (46d)
draft, evaluates the draft and revises it, edits
the writing for technical errors, and proof-
reads it for typographical accuracy and legi-
bility. The stages often overlap; see planning,
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white space The part of a document that shaping, drafting, revising, editing, proofread-
has neither text nor visuals. (45g) ing. (Chapters 1 and 2)
wiki A Web site that allows multiple read- writing situation The beginning of the
ers to change its content. (46f ) writing process for each writing assignment
wordiness An attribute of writing that is as defined by four elements: topic, purpose,
full of empty words and phrases that do not audience, special requirements. (1b)
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myspace.com logo. Courtesy of Myspace.com (page 3).
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Blogger logo, courtesy of Google (page 3).
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tors Without Borders (page 3).
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Excerpt from “My Mother’s Blue Bowl” in Anything We Love Can Be Saved:
A Writer’s Activism by Alice Walker, Random House, 1997 (page 6).
dan-lifeonwimbleyisalnd.blogspot.com, reprinted with permission of Dan
Graybill (page 7).
“Diamonds” from Mammoth Book of Fascinating Information by Richard B.
Manchester, 1980, A&W Visual Books (pages 7-8).
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Excerpt from Give Students Broad Education, not Narrow Vocational Tracks,
reprinted with permission of Debra Humphreys (pages 8-9).
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1985, pp. 46–54. Copyright © 1985. Reprinted by permission of James S.
Trefil (pages 9–10).
The Economics of Attention, Richard Lanham, Copyright © 2007 The Uni-
versity of Chicago Press (page 10).
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English. Reprinted with permission (page 14).
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results for “art,” reprinted with permission of the University of Denver
(page 16).
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Haworth, Marie Claire, July 2005. Copyright © 2005. Reprinted by permis-
sion of Abigail Haworth (page 79).
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in Understanding Music, 3rd edition by Jeremy Yudkin. Copyright © 2002.
Reprinted by permission of Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ
(page 80).
C. M. Millward, “The Arrival of the English,” from A Biography of the
English Language, 2nd editon by C.M. Millward. Copyright © 1996. Re-
printed with permission of Heinle, a division of Thomson Learning: www
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by David Mamet. Copyright © 1998 by Columbia University Press (page 81).
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son MD, with Miriam Z. Klipper. Copyright © 1975 by William Morrow &
Company. Reprinted by permission of Harper Collins, Publishers (page 84).
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Excerpt from “Clean House: Getting Laid Off from His Job Gave This
Franchise a Fresh Start” by Sara Wilson in Entrepreneur, August 2005. Copy-
right © 2005. Reprinted by permission of Entrepreneur Magazine, www
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tion by Nancy Bonvillain. Copyright © 2006. Reprinted by permission of
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Hillerman and Barney Hillerman (page 89).
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edition by Donald M. Kagan, Frank M. Turner & Steven Ozment. Copyright
© 2005. Reprinted by permission of Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River,
NJ (pages 90–91).
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Essays in Trauma & Memory by Michael Lambek and Paul Antze. Copyright ©
1996. Reprinted by permission of Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
(page 91).
Linda Weltner, “Stripping Down to Bare Happiness,” reprinted with per-
mission of Linda Weltner (pages 92–93).
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in Psychology Today Magazine, October 1971. Copyright © 1971 by Sussex
Publishers, Inc. Reprinted by permission (page 94).
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Owen, Inc. and William Sonoma, Inc. Reprinted by permission of the publisher
(page 97).
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Upper Saddle River, NJ (page 98).
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son Lurie. Reprinted by permission of Melanie Jackson Agency, Inc (page 100).
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by Deborah Tannen. Reprinted by permission of HarperCollins Publishers
(page 101).
Palma (page 122).

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Council (page 136).
The “Art. Ask for More.” advertisement is provided courtesy of Americans
for the Arts, 2008 (page 137).
Doctors Without Borders ad, reprinted with permission of Doctors With-
out Borders (page 147).
Emily Hiestand, excerpt from Angela the Upside-Down Girl by Emily
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Hiestand. Reprinted by permission of Beacon Press, Boston (page 179).
General Social Survey (conducted by NORC at the University of Chicago),
table generated using the publicly available online data analysis system SDA
at the University of California, Berkeley, accessible at http://sda.berkeley.edu
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2004 (page 205).
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(page 206).
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Inc. All rights reserved (page 615).
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School of Public and International Affairs at Princeton University and The
Brookings Institution (page 794).
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INDEX
A topic selection for, 25–28
a, an, 265. See also Articles (a, an, the) topic sentences, 80
usage, 265 transitional expressions in, 86
Abbreviations, 493–98 accept, except, 265
addresses, 496 Acronyms, 494
eras, 495 capitalization of, 490
etc., 497–98 Active reading, 108–109
MLA style, 496, 497 Active voice, 333
months, 494 passive voice changed to, 245–46
names and terms, 496 Addition, expressions of
period in, 418–19 conjunctive adverbs,
scholarly writing, 496,
497
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standard practices for using, 493–94
symbols, 495
293
Addresses
292
coordinating conjunctions and,
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times, 494–95 abbreviations in, 496
titles, 495–96 commas in, 437–38
Abridged dictionary, 255 Ad hominem fallacy, 128, 825
Absolute adjectives, 375 Adjective clauses
Absolute phrases, 302 definition of, 305–6
Abstract nouns, 287 relative adverbs and, 291
Abstracts subordinating conjunctions with,
APA documentation, 664, 680, 685 224
te
MLA documentation, 613 Adjectives, 290–91
Abstract words, 257 absolute, 375
Academic Search Premier, 554 and adverbs, differences between,
Academic writing. See also College writ- 370–71
ing capitalization of, 487
audience for, 10–15 comparative forms, 374–76,
auxiliary verbs in, 321 374, 375
use of commas in, 425, 427, 429 cumulative, 870–71
use of contractions in, 456 definition of, 290
Es
etc. and, 497 function of, 370

use of exclamation points in, 421 -ing versus -ed forms, 883–84
faulty predication, 414 limiting (See Determiners)
language to avoid in, 261, linking verbs and, 372–73
261–262 nouns as, 860
level of formality in, 261 placement of, 870, 870–71
professor, spelling of, 419 predicate, 300
use of semicolons in, 445 proper, 487, 490
sentence fragments in, 378 superlative forms, 374–76
sentence variety and emphasis in, 229 Advanced searches, 546
third-person singular form and, 314 Adverb clauses, 395
tone, 5 definition of, 304–305
913
INDEX A a.m., p.m., 266, 494
Ambiguity fallacy, 130
Adverb clauses (cont.) American English
subordinating conjunctions with, definition of, 252
223–24 edited, 252–53
Adverbs, 291–92 American Heritage English as a Second
and adjectives, differences between, Language Dictionary, 849
370–71 American Psychological Association
comparative forms, 374–76, 374, (APA) documentation style, 656–98
375 abstracts, writing guidelines, 664
conjunctive, 292, 292, 391 content notes, 664–65
definition of, 291 definition of, 658–59
of degree or emphasis, 872 directory, 656–58
descriptive, 291 format guidelines for research papers,
of frequency, 871 684–86
function of, 370 guidelines for in-text citations, 660–64
linking verbs and, 372–73 model student essay, 686–98
of manner, 871 parenthetical in-text citations, 659–60
placement of, 871–72,
relative, 291
sentence, 872
superlative forms, 374–76
r 871–72 References list, 656–58, 665–70,
665–68
in research writing, 533
among, amongst, between, 266
la
of time, 871 amoral, immoral, 267
Advertisements amount, number, 267
APA documentation, 681, 683 Amounts, subject-verb agreement and,
MLA documentation, 628 361–62
advice, advise, 265 an. See a, an; Articles (a, an, the)
affect, effect, 265 Analogy
Afterword as figurative language, 253
APA documentation, 673 as rhetorical strategy, 100
te
CM documentation, 708 Analysis, 204
Agenda, meeting, 777 in critical thinking, 108
aggravate, irritate, 266 of data, 194–95
Agreement, 352–69 elements of, 112, 194
definition of, 352 in humanities, 732
first person, 353 of images, 132–39, 132–33
grammatical, 353 portfolio, 832–34
number, 353 as rhetorical strategy, 98
pronoun-antecedent, 364–69 writing process for, 194–95
Es
second person, 353 and

subject-verb, 352–64 pronoun-antecedent agreement and,
third person, 353 365
ain’t, 266 subjects joined by, 356, 356
all ready, already, 266 and/or, 267
all right, 266 slash in, 478
all together, altogether, 266 Annotated bibliography, 209, 535, 570
allude, elude, 266 Antecedents, 245, 345
allusion, illusion, 266 as collective nouns, 368–69
Almanacs, 557 as indefinite pronouns, 366–67
a lot, 266 pronoun reference and, 346
a lot of, lots, lots of, 277 with who, that, which, 360–61
914
Anthology, works in A INDEX
APA documentation, 672
CM documentation, 707 thesis statement, 143–44
CSE documentation, 721 tone of, 151–53
MLA documentation, 598, 607–608 topic selection, 142–43
Anxiety, overcoming, 765–66 Toulmin model for, 148–50,
anymore, 267 148–149
anyone, any one, 267 Argument to the person, 128
anyplace, 267 Art, works of
anyways, anywheres, 267 APA documentation, 683
Apostrophes, 454–59 MLA documentation, 627
with contractions, 456 Articles (a, an, the), 290
errors with, 457–59, 458 capitalization and, 487
plurals and, 457 definite, 290
with possessive indefinite pronouns, as determiners, 291
457 the and gerunds, 865–67
with possessive nouns, 454–55 indefinite, 290, 862
with possessive pronouns, 455 with noncount nouns, 865
roles of, 454
Appeals
r
ambiguity and equivocation, 130
emotional, 146–47
parallelism with, 237–38
with plural nouns, 864
proofreading for, 416
the and proper nouns, 865, 866
la
ethical, 148 with singular count nouns, 862–63,
logical, 146 863
persuasive, 146, 146 Articles (in publications)
Appeal to ignorance fallacy, 129–30 APA documentation, 673, 674–75
Application, essays of, 207–209 CM documentation, 709–11
Appositives, 301–302 CSE documentation, 722–23
cases and, 339–40 locating, 554, 556
colons and, 449, 450, 452 MLA documentation, 612–13
te
use of dash with, 470 as, as if, as though, like, 267–68
definition of, 301 as, than, pronoun case after, 343
apt, likely, liable, 267 Asides
Arguments use of dash with, 470
cause-and-effect, 141 as if, subjunctive mood and, 331–32
claim in, 140, 143–44 as regards, with regard to, in regard to, re-
classical, 144 garding, 275
definition, 141 Assertion, 39
definition of, 140 Assumptions, unstated, 125
Es
evaluation, 141 assure, ensure, insure, 268

irrelevant, 127 as though, subjunctive mood and, 331–32
proposal, 141 as to, 268
support for, 146 Asynchronous discussions, 175
Arguments, written, 140–63 Atlases, 557–58
audience and, 150 Audience, 4
definition of, 140 adapting presentation for, 757
model student paper, 155–63 analyzing, 12
opposing arguments, dealing with, argument and, 150
153–54 defining, 10–12
revising, 155 general educated, 13
Rogerian argument, 150–51 informed, 757
915
INDEX A B Bible, MLA documentation, 598, 610
Bibliographic notes, MLA documenta-
Audience (cont.) tion, 629
instructor as, 14–15 Bibliographic note system, 700–701,
jargon and, 263 702–704
mixed, 757 guidelines for, 704–13
specialist, 13–14 Bibliography, 558, 568
uninformed, 757 annotated, 209, 535, 570
Authoritative sources, 560 working, 532, 533–35, 570
Authors’ names Biographical reference works, 558
APA documentation, 661–62 Block organization, 99, 99
CM documentation, 702, Block style
704–706 in business letters, 774
MLA documentation, 595–97, features of, 776
606–607 modified, 774
Auxiliary verbs, 312, 319–21, paragraphs, 75
319–20 Blogs, 2, 7, 19, 31, 562
in academic writing, 321 APA documentation, 681
be as, 320–21,
modal, 321, 884–89
320
r
modal auxiliary verbs versus,
-s, -es endings, 354
885
guidelines for,
MLA documentation, 624

825
informal writing in, 212
public writing and, 796

la
awful, awfully, 268 writing, 823–24
a while, awhile, 268 Body paragraphs, 78–79, 82–83
effective, characteristics of, 79
B RENNS Test to develop, 82,
Background information 83
in argument essay, 145 Boldface, 803
in informative writing, 43 Book catalog, 548
backup, back up, 268 by author, 548, 549
te
bad, badly, 268–69 by subject, 548, 550
linking verbs and, 372–73 by title, 548, 549–50
Balance, in document design, 799 Books, documentation styles
Balanced sentence, 235 APA documentation, 670–72, 674
Bare infinitives, 881 CM documentation, 704–706, 708
Bar graphs, 806 CSE documentation, 721
be MLA documentation, 609–10
as auxiliary, 320–21, 320 Boolean expressions, 547, 547–48,
forms of, 320 564
Es
gerunds after, 879–80 Venn diagram and, 548

infinitive after, 880 Borders, 805–806
been, being, 269 Brackets, 473–74
Begging the question, 127 addition of information with, 474
being, been, 269 pointing out errors with, 474
being as, being that, 269 examples of, 577
beside, besides, 269 within parentheses, 474
better, had better, 269 quotations with, 473–74
between, among, amongst, 266 use of, 473–74
bias, biased, 269 Brainstorming, 30, 32–34
Bias, recognizing in writing, 120–21, breath, breathe, 269
120 bring, take, 269
916
Broadening topic, 28 B C INDEX
Brochures, APA documentation, 682
Browser, 545 published and released materials,
Browsing, topic selection, 36–38 490
Buildings, capitalization of, 489 questions in a series, 484
Bulleted and numbered lists, 803 with quotations, 486–87
Bureaucratic language, 264 religious terms, 490
Business letters, writing, 773–74 school courses, 489
block and modified formats, 774 scientific terms, 489
colons in salutations, 451 seasons, 489
guidelines for, 774 small words in titles, 484
sample, 775 titles, 488
Business writing, 767–88 capitol, capital, 270
e-mail, 769–71 Card-stacking, 129
job application letter, 785–88 Case
legal considerations, 768–69 appositives and, 339–40
meeting agenda, 777 linking verbs and, 340–41
meeting minutes, 777–79 objective, 335
memos, 772–73
policies concerning, 768,
proposals, 781–82
reports and manuals, 780–81
r 768
possessive, 335
pronouns, 335
subjective, 335
Case studies, 186–88
la
resumes, 782–85, 782–83 definition of, 186
sentence fragments in, 378 elements of, 187
but, however, yet, 269–70 observation and, 520
in social sciences, 748
C writing process for, 187–88
calculate, figure, 270 Catalog of U.S. Government Publications,
Call number, 550 559
can, may, 270 Catalogs, 545
te
can’t hardly, can’t scarcely, 270 use of, 545–48
Capitalization, 484–91, 488–90 Cause, expressions of
acronyms, 490 coordinating conjunctions and,
adjectives, 487, 490 293
buildings, 489 subordinating conjunctions and,
after colon, 484–85 294
computer terms, 490 Cause-and-effect
of first word in sentence, 484 analysis, paragraph development by,
in formal outline, 485 100–102
Es
groups of people, 488 arguments, 141

historical events and documents, critical thinking about, 117–19,
489 118
holidays, 489 Cause or reasons, expressions of
languages, 489 subordinating conjunctions,
letter parts, 490 224
listed items, 485–86 censor, censure, 270
names, 488 Chaining method, 544
nouns, 487 chairman, chairperson, chair, 270
organizations, 488 Charts
within parentheses, 486 APA documentation, 676
places, 488 incorporating, 806–807
917
INDEX C Coherence in writing
achieving, techniques for, 85
Charts (cont.) creating in paragraphs, 79, 84
MLA documentation, 625 among paragraphs, 88–89
pie, 806 parallel structures, 88
Checklist, revision, 55–56 pronouns and, 87
Chicago Manual (CM) documentation repetition of key words and, 87
style, 699–724 revising for, 54–55
bibliographic note system, 700–701, transitional expressions and, 85–86,
702–704 85
citing graphics in, 704 Collaborative presentations, 765–66
definition of, 700 Collaborative writing, 164–69,
directory, 699–700 167–68
guidelines for bibliographic notes, definition of, 164
704–13 guidelines for, 167–68
in research writing, 533 Collective nouns, 287
Choice, expressions of antecedents as, 368–69
coordinating conjunctions and, College libraries, 23
293
subordinating conjunctions,
r
subordinating conjunctions and, 225
choose, chose, 270
294
College writing
about experiences, 178–82
observations, writing about, 182–90
quantitative data, writing about, 190
la
Chronological order, paragraph arrange- readings, writing about, 196–210
ment, 90–91 sources for, 177–78
Circular reasoning, 127 types of, 176–77
cite, site, 270 Colloquial language, 261
Claim. See also Thesis statement Colons, 449–53
in argument, 140 introducing appositives, 450
Classical arguments, 144 capitalization after, 484–85
structure of, 145 errors with, 452–53
te
Classification, as rhetorical strategy, between independent clauses, 451
98–99 with lead-in words, 452
Clauses, 304–308 introducing lists, 450
adjective, 305–306 patterns, 449
adverb, 304–305 quotation marks with, 467
dependent, 304, 305 introducing quotations, 450
elliptical, 307–308 standard formats requiring, 451
independent, 304, 304 uses of, 449
nonrestrictive, 351 Color, highlighting text with, 803
Es
noun, 306–307 The Columbia Gazetteer of the World,

parallelism of, 235–36 557
restrictive, 351 Columns, 795
shortening for conciseness, 247–48 Comma fault, 390
Clichés, 262–63 Commas, 422–44
Climactic sentences, for variety and em- clarifying meaning with, 439–40
phasis, 230 with contrast expressions, 435
Clip art, 807 with coordinate adjectives, 423,
Closed compound words, 512 430–31, 442
Closed stacks, 550 with coordinating conjunctions,
Close reading, 108–109 423, 424–26, 441
cloth, clothe, 270 in correspondence, 438
918
with cumulative adjectives, 423, C INDEX
430
with dates, 437 regular forms of, 374–75
with direct address, 435 complement, compliment, 271
avoiding errors with, 443–44 Complements, 300–301, 300
with interjections, 427 object, 300
after introductory elements, 423 subject, 300, 311
with introductory elements, 426–28 Complete compound subjects, 297
avoiding misuse, 440–43 Complete predicate, 297
with names, places, addresses, Complete subject, 297, 300
437–38 Complex sentences, 309
with nonrestrictive elements, Compound-complex sentences, 309
423, 432–34, 432, Compound construction, 337–39
433 Compound predicates, 297, 381
with numbers, 438–39 fragments and, 386–87
with parenthetical expressions, 434 Compound sentences, 308–309
with prepositions, 441 structure of, 220–21
quotation marks with, 467 Compound words
with quotations, 442
with quoted words,
with restrictive elements,
432–34,
r
432, 442
424, 435–37
423,
closed, 512
definition of, 511–12
hyphenated, 481,
open, 511
482, 512
la
role of, 422, 423–24 spelling, 503
separating elements with, 442–43 Comprehension, reading, 108–11
in series, 423, 428–30, 441–42 comprise, include, 271
with subordinating conjunctions, 441 Computers
with tag sentence, 435 communication using, 18
Comma splices creating documents, 15–16
conjunctive adverbs and transitional finding resources using, 16–17
expressions and, 397–400 forms of writing enabled by, 18–22
te
correcting, 392–97, 393 managing work using, 17–18
correcting with coordinating conjunc- plagiarism, 16
tions, 394–95 Computer terms, capitalization of,
correcting with period, 392–93 490
correcting with semicolon, 393–94 Conciseness, 242–51
creating, 425 clauses, shortening, 247–48
definition of, 390–91 definition of, 242
recognizing, 391–92, 391–92 elliptical constructions in, 248
revising into dependent clause, expletive constructions, avoiding, 244,
Es
395–97 245
Common knowledge, 572 mixed sentences and, 413
Common nouns, 287 passive voice, avoiding, 244, 245–46
Communication, using computers, 18 phrases, shortening, 248–49
Company names, subject-verb agreement repetition, eliminating, 246–47
with, 363 revising for, 246–49
Comparison sentences, combining, 247
conjunctive adverbs and, 292 sentence structures and, 244–46
and contrast, as rhetorical strategy, unnecessary words and phrases, cut-
99–100 ting, 242–44, 242–43
irregular forms of, 375 verbs’ effect on, 249–51
in mixed sentences, 415–16 words, cutting, 248–49
919
INDEX C use of dash with, 470
subordinating conjunctions and, 225,
Concluding paragraphs, 103–104 294
in argument essay, 145 Coordinate adjectives
effective, 103–104 commas with, 423, 430–31, 442
in informative writing, 43 tests for, 431
strategies to use/avoid, 103, Coordinate sentences. See Compound
104 sentences
Concrete nouns, 287 Coordinating conjunctions, 293,
Concrete words, 257 293
Condition, expressions of commas with, 423, 424–26,
subordinating conjunctions, 225, 441
294 correcting comma splices and run-on
Confused words, spelling of, sentences with, 394–95
506–11 meaning conveyed by, 221
Congressional Information Service (CIS), parallelism with, 237
559 semicolons with, 446
Conjunctions, 293–94 Coordination
coordinating, 293,
correlative, 293
definition, 293
r
293 effective, 221–22
of sentences, 220
used with subordination, 228–29
Copyrights, observing, 807–808
la
subordinating, 293, 294 (See also Correlative conjunctions, 293
Subordinating conjunctions) parallelism with, 237
Conjunctive adverbs, 292, 292, Correspondence, commas in, 438
391 could care less, 271
between independent clauses, could of, 271
397–400 Council of Science Editors (CSE) docu-
semicolons and, 445 mentation style, 714–24
Connotation of words, 254, 255 citation-name system, 720
te
definition of, 255 citation-sequence system, 715–16
conscience, conscious, 271 definition of, 714–15
consensus of opinion, 271 directory, 714
Content Management Software (CMS), end references, 715
824 in-text references, 715
Content notes, 536, 570, 584 name-year system, 719
APA documentation, 664–65 reference guidelines, 720–24
MLA documentation, 629 Count nouns, 287, 375, 856–57
Context, of purpose, 4 articles with singular, 862–63,
Es
continual(ly), continuous(ly), 271 863

Contractions couple, a couple of, 271
apostrophe with, 456 Cover letter, 785
common, 456 criteria, criterion, 271
possessive pronouns versus, 456 Critical reading, 108–11, 119–22, 123
Contrast active reading, 108–109
commas with, 435 close reading, 108–109
and comparison, as rhetorical strategy, evaluative reading, 123
99–100 inferences of reader, 119–22
conjunctive adverbs and, 292 systematic approach to, 110–11
coordinating conjunctions and, Critical responses, 201–204
293 elements of, 203
920
student example, 201–203 C D INDEX
writing process for, 203–204
Critical thinking, 105–108, 567 Deductive reasoning
cause-and-effect, assessing, 117–19, compared to inductive reasoning,
118 124–26
elements of, 107 recognizing and using, 125–26
process, steps in, 107–108 Definite articles, 290
summary in, 107 Definition
synthesis in, 108, 122–23 extended, 98
Critique (criticism) paragraph development by, 98
accepting from peer-response groups, Definition arguments, 141
173–74, 174 Demographic Yearbook, 557
in humanities, 731–32 Demonstrative adjectives, list of,
in peer-response groups, 171–73 291
CSE documentation style. See Council of Demonstrative pronouns, 288
Science Editors (CSE) documenta- Denotation of words, 254, 255
tion style Dependent clauses, 351
Cultural analysis, writing, 736, 737 creating with relative pronouns,
732
Cumulative adjectives
commas with,
r
Cultural framework, of analytic essay,
423, 430
396–97
creating with subordinating conjunc-
tions, 395–96
definition of, 304, 305
la
tests for, 431 semicolons and, 449
word order and, 870–71 sentence fragments and, 377, 380
Cumulative sentences, 230–31 subordinate sentence and, 223
Curriculum, writing across, 726–28 subordinating conjunctions and, 226
subordination with, 222–23
D Description, paragraph development by,
Dangling modifiers, 404–405 96
avoiding, 404–405 Descriptive adverbs, 291
te
proofreading for, 406 Descriptors, 546
Dashes, 469–71 Design, visual. See Visual design
for asides, 470–71 Determiners, 290, 291
for emphasis, 469–70 with singular and plural nouns, 857,
quotation marks with, 467–68 858–59
data, 271 Dialectal language, 262
Data, analysis of, 194–95 Dialogue, quotation marks in, 463–64
Databases Diction
using Boolean expressions, 547, connotation of words, 254, 255
Es
547–48 definition of, 254

definition of, 545 denotation of words, 254, 255
general, 554 in presentations, 760
using guided searches, 546 Dictionaries, 255, 558
using keywords, 546 abridged, 255
finding periodicals with, 553–54 for multilingual students, 845
specialized, 554 specialized, 255
use of, 545–48 unabridged, 255
Dates, commas with, 437 Dictionary, 22
Declarative sentences, 229, 295 The Dictionary of American Biography,
Deconstructionist framework, of analytic 558
essay, 732 Dictionary of American English, 857
921
INDEX D E in disciplines, 729–30
in-text citations, 658
different from, different than, 271 plagiarism, avoiding, 569, 570
Digital age, writing in, 15–18 use with quotations, 461, 462
Digital portfolios, 20, 21 requirements for, 573–74
creating, 835–36 Documentation style
Direct address, 345 definition of, 568
commas with, 435 for humanities, 733
you, use in, 349–50 for natural sciences, 750
Direct discourse, 410–12 in research writing, 533
capitalization in, 487 for social sciences, 749
commas with, 442 using word processing programs, 15–16
quotation marks in, 464 Document design, 136, 796–811
Direct object, 298 balance, 799
Direct observations, 522 borders in, 805–806
as source, 177 checklist for, 799
Direct quotations emphasis, 799
APA documentation, 659 fonts, 800–803
Disciplines
comparing, 726–30,
r
use of quotation marks in, 460, 461
Direct title, 54
727
incorporating graphics, 806–807
headings in, 804–805
highlighting text, 803–804
page layout, 808–10
la
documentation in, 729–30 with text, 800–804
humanities, 726 unity, 799
natural sciences, 727, 728 variety, 799
primary sources, 728 using white space, 810
secondary sources, 728 Documents, creating, using word
social sciences, 727–28, 727 processing software, 15–16
writing across curriculum, 726–28 don’t, 272
writing assignments in various, 729 Double negatives, 371–72
te
Disclaimers, 769 Drafting
Discourse defining, 47
direct (See Direct discourse) example of, 58–74
indirect (See Indirect discourse) final draft, 70–74
shifts in sentences, 410–12 first draft, 47–49, 58–64
Discovery draft, 48, 688. See also research paper, 517, 538–39,
Drafting 539–40
Discussion revising stage of, 51–56
asynchronous, 175 rough draft, 49
Es
online, 174–75, 175 second draft, 64–70

synchronous, 175 starting, 48
Disembodied quotation, 578 subject tree and, 44
disinterested, uninterested, 272 thesis statement, 168
Displayed list, 485–86 thesis statement, research writing,
Division, 98 537–38
do in writing process, 25
as auxiliary, 320–21
forms of, 320 E
Documentation each
common knowledge, 572 pronoun-antecedent agreement and,
definition of, 568 365
922
E INDEX
verbs with, 356–57
-ed, -d endings netiquette, 769, 770–71
in informal speech, 315 emigrate, immigrate, 272
-ing versus, in adjectives, 883–84 Emotional appeals, 146–47
Edited American English, defined, Emphasis. See also Sentence variety and
252–53 emphasis
Editing, 56–57, 57 dashes for, 469–70
collaborative writing, 168 in document design, 799
research paper, 517 italics for, 493
revising versus, 56 Emphasis, expressions of, conjunctive ad-
strategies for multilingual students, verbs and, 292
846 Empirical research, 195
Web pages, 821–22 Empirical studies, 195–96
using word processing programs, 56 definition of, 195
in writing process, 25 sections of, 195–96
Editorials, Letters to the editor, 794 enclose, inclose, enclosure, inclosure, 272
APA documentation, 675 Encyclopedia Britannica, 557
CM documentation, 709–10
r
Educator’s Reference Desk, 563
effect, affect, 265
Encyclopedia of Banking and Finance, 558
Encyclopedia of Chemistry, 558
Encyclopedias, general, 557
End punctuation, 418–22
la
Effect, expressions of exclamation points, 420–22
coordinating conjunctions and, periods, 418–19
293 question marks, 419–20
subordinating conjunctions and, End references, 715
294 English errors transferred from other lan-
Either-or fallacy, 129 guages, 852–53, 854–55
Electronic books ensure, assure, insure, 268
APA documentation, 677–78 enthused, 272
te
Electronic media, using, 761–62 Equivocation fallacy, 130
Electronic sources Eras, abbreviations for, 495
APA documentation, 676–77 Essay exams, 209–10
CSE documentation, 723–24 Essays
MLA documentation, 599–600 of application, 207–209
elicit, illicit, 272 coherence in, 54–55
Ellipsis points, 475–77 personal, 178–81
with poetry, 477 shaping, 75
with prose, 475–76 unity in, 54–55
Es
quotations and, 577 Essential element, 432

use of, 475–77 etc., 272
Elliptical clauses, 307–308 use of, 497–98
Elliptical constructions, 415 Ethical appeals, 148
conciseness and, 248 Ethnographies, 188–90
elude, allude, 266 definition of, 188
E-mail messages elements of, 188
APA documentation, 663 observation and, 520
business, 769–71 in social sciences, 748
CM documentation, 712 writing process for, 188–89
content, 771–72 Ethos, 758
MLA documentation, 624 Euphemisms, 261, 263
923
INDEX E F F
Fact books, 557
Evaluation Facts, recognizing in writing, 112–13
in critical thinking, 108 Facts on File, 557
of evidence, 115, 116–17 False analogy, 127
of images, 132 False cause, 128
in reading process, 123 False or irrelevant authority, 129
in research writing, 540, 541 farther, further, 273
of secondary source, 115 Faulty parallelism, 237
of sources, 559–60, 560 Faulty predication, mixed sentences and,
of web sources, 565, 566 413–15
Evaluation arguments, 141 Feedback, giving, 169–73
Evaluative reading, 123 Feminist framework, of analytic essay,
every 732
pronoun-antecedent agreement and, fewer, less, 273
365 Field research, 518–22
verbs with, 356–57 gathering data, 521–22
everyday, every day, 272 interviewing, 520–21
everyone, every one, 273
everywheres, 273
Evidence
in argument essay,
r
145, 154
observations, 520
surveying, 519
Fields of study, subject-verb agreement
and, 361–62
la
defining, 113 Figurative language, 253–54
evaluating, 115, 116–17 definition of, 253
evaluating, in research papers, 540, types of, 253
541 figure, calculate, 270
primary sources, 113–16, 114 File Transfer Protocol (FTP), 823
secondary sources, 113–16, 114 Film, videotapes, DVDs
Examples APA documentation, 682–83
extended, 97 CM documentation, 713
te
paragraph development by, 97 MLA documentation, 626
Exams, essay, 209–10 Final draft, example of, 70–74
except, accept, 265 First draft, 47–49
Exclamation points, 420–22 example of, 58–64
overuse of, 421 firstly, secondly, thirdly, 273
quotation marks with, 467–68 First person, agreement in, 353
use of, 420 FirstSearch database, 546
Exclamatory sentences, 229, 296 Focused freewriting, 32, 48
Experiences, writing about, 178–82 Fonts, 800–803
Es
Experiments, use in social sciences, 747 sans serif, 800

Expert method, 543 serif, 800
Explanatory words, 435 Foreign nouns
Expletive constructions, 244, 245, 349 plurals of, 860–61
avoiding, 244, 245 (See also spelling, 504
Conciseness) Foreword
explicit, implicit, 273 APA documentation, 673
Expressions, with prepositions, 877 CM documentation, 708
Expressive writing, 5–6 Formal analysis, writing, 735–36,
Extended definition, 98 736
Extended example, 97 Formalist framework, of analytic essay,
External business reports, 780–81 732
924
Formality, 212 F H INDEX
level of, in academic writing, 261
Formal outlines, 44, 45–47 go, say, 273
former, latter, 273 Goals, writing, for multilingual students,
Fractions, slashes in, 478 846–47
Freewriting, 29 gone, went, 273
defining, 31–32 good, well, 273
focused, 32, 48 linking verbs and, 373
Function words, parallelism and, 237–38 good and, 273
further, farther, 273 got, have, 274
Fused sentence, 390 Government Printing Office (GPO), 559
Future perfect progressive, 325, 326 Government publications
Future perfect tense, 325 APA documentation, 674
Future tense, 323, 324 CM documentation, 708–709
sequence and, 328 locating, 559
G Grammar
Gale Virtual Reference Library, 557, 58 improvements for multilingual stu-
Gazetteers, 557–58
in business e-mail, 771 r

Gender-neutral language, 258–60
indefinite pronouns and, 408

dents, 847–48
word processing programs and, 16
Graphics, incorporating, 806–807
la
charts, graphs, tables, 806–807
in presentations, 769 clip art, 807
stereotypes and, 258 photographs, 807
General databases, 554 on Web, 819–20
General educated audience, 13 Graphs
General encyclopedias, 557 bar, 806
Generalizations, 8, 26 incorporating, 806–807
General Reference Center Gold, 554 line, 806
General reference works, 557–58 Groups of people, capitalization of,
te
almanacs, year books, fact books, 557 488
atlases and gazetteers, 557–58 Guided searches, 546
bibliographies, 558 Guilt by association, 128
biographical, 558
dictionaries, 558 H
general encyclopedias, 557 had better, better, 269
General-to-specific paragraph arrange- Handbook for writers, 22
ment, 91 hardly, 274
General words, 257–58 Hasty generalization, 127
Es
Genres, 176 have

Gerunds as auxiliary, 320
the and, 865–67 forms of, 320
after be, 879–80 have, got, 274
after go, 879 have, of, 274
-ing ending and, 343 have got, have to, have got to, 274
as objects, 878–80 Headings
phrases, 303 capitalization of, 484
with stop, 882 style choices for, 805
as subjects, 878 using, 804–805
verbs followed by, 879 Helping verbs, 884. See also Auxiliary
.gif, 819 verbs
925
INDEX H I Idiomatic expressions, it, usage of, 349
ie, ei rule, 505
he/she, s/he, his/her, 274 if, subjunctive mood and, 331–32
Highlighting text, 803–804 if, whether, 274–75
boldface, 803 illicit, elicit, 272
bulleted and numbered lists, 803 Illogical predication, 414
color, 803 illusion, allusion, 266
indentation, 804 Illustration, 97
italics, 803 Images
justifying, 803–804 persuasive, 134–35
margins, 804 viewing critically, 131–33
underlining, 803 immigrate, emigrate, 272
his/her, he/she, s/he, 274 immoral, amoral, 267
historic, historical, 274 Imperative mood, 330–31, 409
Historical events and documents, capital- Imperative sentences, 229, 296
ization of, 489 fragments and, 381
Holidays, capitalization of, 489 Implications, 121
Home page, 815 implicit, explicit, 273
Homonyms
definition of, 506
spelling, 506,
hopefully, 274
r
506–11, 511
imply, infer, 275
Importance, paragraph arrangement and,
92
inclose, enclose, enclosure, inclosure, 272
la
however, but, yet, 269–70 include, comprise, 271
HTML (Hyper Text Markup Language), incredible, incredulous, 275
817 Incubation, 38
Humanities Indefinite adjectives, list of, 291
analytic frameworks in, 732–33 Indefinite articles, 290, 862
definition of, 730 Indefinite pronouns, 288
documentation style for, 733 agreement with, 358–60, 359
primary/secondary sources, 730 antecedents as, 366–67
te
sample student essay, 738–45 common, 359
writing assignments in, 726, 727, fragments and, 381
731–32 gender-neutral language and, 408
humanity, humankind, humans, mankind, plural, 359–60, 367
274 possessive, 457
Hyperlinks, 816 singular, 359, 367, 368
Hyphenated compound words, 512 Indentation, 804
Hyphens, 480–83 Independent clauses, 220, 295, 304
with compound words, 481, 482 colons and, 449, 451, 452
Es
at end of line, 480 conjunctive adverbs between,

with prefixes and suffixes, 480–81, 397–400
481 with coordinating conjunctions, 221
proofreading for errors, 502, 503 definition of, 304
spelled-out numbers with, 501, fragments and, 383, 385–86
501 semicolons between, 444, 445–46
use of, 480 sentence fragments and, 377
subordinating conjunctions and, 226,
I 293
Ideas for writing, 30. See also Topic subordination with, 222–23
selection transitional expressions between,
Identifiers, 546 397–400
926
Indexes, periodical, 554 I INDEX
Indicative mood, 330, 409
Indirect discourse, 410–12 Instructors’ expectations, understanding,
commas with, 442 842–43
quotation marks in, 464 insure, ensure, assure, 268
Indirect object, 298 Intellectual property, plagiarism and, 568
Indirect questions, 307, 419 Intensive pronouns, 288, 345
period in, 418 Intentional fragments, recognizing,
Indirect sources, MLA documentation, 388–89
598 Interjections, 294–95
Indirect title, 54 commas with, 427
Inductive reasoning, compared to deduc- definition of, 294
tive reasoning, 123–24, 124 Interlibrary loan, 559
Inference, in reading process, 108, Internal business reports, 780
119–22, 120 International Encyclopedia of Film, 558
Infinitives Internet, browsing, 527
bare, 881 Internet Public Library, 563
after be, 880 Internet searches, 37
forming, 313
function of, 313
indicating purpose, 880–81
as objects, 880–81
r using keywords, 561
search engines, 561, 564
using subject directories, 563–64,
564
la
parallelism with, 237–38 tips for, 561
perfect, 329 using URL, 561
present, 329 Internet Service Provider (ISP), 822
pronouns before, 343 Internet sources
with remember and forget, 882 CM documentation, 711–12
split, 401–402 guidelines for avoiding plagiarism,
as subjects, 878 571–72
unmarked, 881 MLA documentation, 618–25
te
as verbals, 289 types of, 562
verbs followed by, 880 Interpretations, 185–85, 204
Informal outlines, 44, 45 elements of, 185–86
Informal writing, 212 in humanities, 731
Information questions, 868–70 writing process for, 186, 735,
Informative writing, 6–8, 8 735
elements in, 43 Interrogative adjectives, list of, 291
thesis statement, 40 Interrogative pronouns, 288, 380
Informed audience, 757 Interrogative sentences, 229, 295
Es
-ing Interrupting words, parentheses and,

-ed versus, in adjectives, 883–84 471–72
pronouns with, 343–44 Interviews
Initialisms APA documentation, 682
capitalization of, 490 CM documentation, 712
punctuation in, 494 conducting research, 521
in lieu of, 275 in field research, 520–21, 521
in regard to, with regard to, as regards, re- MLA documentation, 626
garding, 275 use in social sciences, 747
inside of, outside of, 275 In-text citations. See also Parenthetical
Instant messaging, 36 documentation
Instructor, role as audience, 14–15 APA documentation, 658
927
INDEX I L .jpeg, 819–20
Jumping on the bandwagon fallacy, 129
In-text citations (cont.) Justifying text, 803–804
guidelines for, 660–64
MLA style, 593 K
In-text references, 715 Keywords, 546, 550, 555, 558, 561
Intransitive verbs, 312, 322–23 kind, sort, 276
Introduction kind of, sort of, 276
CM documentation, 708 L
portfolio, 832–34 Lab reports, 195–96
Introductory elements, commas with, definition of, 195
423, 426–28 sections of, 195–96
Introductory paragraphs, 76–78 Language
in argument essay, 145 to avoid in academic writing, 261,
effective, 76–78 261–62
in informative writing, 43 bureaucratic, 264
strategies to use/avoid, 76–77 clichés, 262–63
thesis statement in, 76
448–49
Invention techniques, 30
r
Introductory phrases, semicolons and,
colloquial,
dialectal, 262
euphemisms,
261
figurative, 253–54,
261, 263
253
la
Inverted word order, 357–58, 867–70 gender-neutral, 258–60
Irony, as figurative language, 253 jargon, 263
irregardless, 276 pretentious, 261
Irregular nouns, 860–61 regional, 262
Irregular plurals, 860–61 sarcastic, 261
Irregular verbs, 315, 316–18, sexist, 258, 259–60
319 slanted, 261
common, 316–18 Languages, capitalization of, 489
te
Irrelevant argument, 127 later, latter, 276
irritate, aggravate, 266 latter, former, 273
is when, is where, 276 lay, lie, 276
it using, 322
pronouns and, 348 Layout. See Page layout
usage, 348–49, 349 Lead-in words, colons and, 452
Italics, 491–93 Learning resource centers, 23
highlighting text with, 803 leave, let, 276
MLA style, 491 Lectures or speeches
Es
quotation marks versus, 491, 492 APA documentation, 682

for special emphasis, 493 MLA documentation, 626
for titles of work, 492 Legal sources
its, it’s, 276 APA documentation, 676
J less, fewer, 273
Jargon, 263 Letter parts, capitalization of,
Job application letter, writing, 785–88 490
Journal Letters, published or unpublished
personal, 5 APA documentation, 676
writing, 31 CM documentation, 713
Journalist’s questions, 34–35 MLA documentation, 625
928
Letters to the editor, 793–94, 795 L M INDEX
CM documentation, 709–10 Logical appeal, 146
MLA documentation, 612 Logical fallacies, 126–31
LexisNexis, 557 ambiguity and equivocation, 131
LexisNexis Academic, 554 appeal to ignorance, 130–31
liable, apt, likely, 267 argument to the person, 128
Libraries, college, 23 avoiding, 126–27
Library of Congress Online Catalog, 549 begging the question, 127
Library of Congress Subject Headings card-stacking, 130
(LCSH), 550 either-or fallacy, 130
Library sources, 531, 532, 545 false analogy, 127
books, 548–50 false cause, 128
periodicals, 551–56, 551–52 false or irrelevant authority, 129
reference works, 556–58 guilt by association, 128
lie, lay, 276 hasty generalization, 127
using, 322 irrelevant argument, 127
like, as, as if, as though, 267–68 jumping on the bandwagon, 129
likely, apt, liable, 267
Limiting adjectives, 290
Limiting words, placing, 401
Line graphs, 806
r red herring (ignoring the question),
128
self-contradiction, 128
taking something out of context, 130
la
Linking verbs, 311, 312–13 lots, lots of, a lot of, 277
adjectives and adverbs with, 372–73
case and, 340–41 M
informal speech and, 314 Main verbs, 288, 312
pronoun after, 340 forms of, 313–14
subject-verb agreement with, 360 Managing work, using computers, 17–18
Lists mankind, humanity, humans, humankind,
bulleted and numbered, 803 274
te
capitalization in, 485–86 Manuals, business, 780–81
displayed, 485–86 Mapping, 29
parallelism in, 240–41 in topic selection, 35
parentheses and, 472 Maps
semicolons in, 449 APA documentation, 676, 682
Literacy narratives, 181–82 CSE documentation, 724
elements of, 181 MLA documentation, 625
writing process for, 181–82 Margins, setting, 804
Literature, writing about, 734 Marxist framework, of analytic essay,
Es
papers, types of, 735–36 732

research papers, 748 Masculine pronouns, avoiding, 368
rules for, 737–38 Mass nouns, 287. See also Noncount
strategies for, 734–35 nouns
Live performances may, can, 270
APA documentation, 683 maybe, may be, 277
MLA documentation, 627 may of, might of, 277
Location, expressions of media, 277
subordinating conjunctions, 294 Medical terms, singular versus plural form
subordinating conjunctions and, 225 and, 861
Location of places. See Place, expres- Meeting agenda, writing, 777
sions of Meeting minutes, writing, 777–79
929
INDEX M formal outlines, 45
formatting research paper, 634–55
Memoirs, 178–81 italics in, 491
definition of, 178 model student research paper, 629–34
elements of, 179–80 parenthetical documentation, 568,
writing process for, 180–81 589, 593–600
Memos parenthetical references with brackets,
definition of, 772 474
formatting and writing, 772–73 use of quotation marks, dialogue,
preparation guidelines, 773 463–64
Metaphors use of quotation marks, long quota-
clichés as, 262 tions, 461
as figurative language, 253 use of quotation marks, poetry,
mixed, 253 462–63
Metasearch engine, 564 use of quotation marks, short quota-
Microfiche, MLA documentation, 625 tions, 460
might of, may of, 277 in research writing, 530, 533
Minutes, meeting, 777–79 spelled-out numbers, 498–99
Mixed audience, 757

Mixed metaphor, 253
as figurative language,
r
Misplaced modifiers, 231, 400–401
254
style changes, 592
Works Cited list, 568, 589–91,
600–629, 600–603
Modified block style, 774
la
Mixed sentences, 412–16 features of, 776
comparisons in, 415–16 Modifiers, 301
definition of, 412–13 avoiding strings of nouns as, 376–77
elliptical constructions and, 415 dangling, 404–405
faulty predication and, 413–15 definition of, 301, 400
proofreading, 416 double negatives, 371–72
MLA documentation style. See Modern misplaced, 400–401
Language Association (MLA) docu- for sentence variety and emphasis, 231
te
mentation style Modifiers, misplaced, 231
Modal auxiliary verbs, 321, 884–89 definition of, 400
auxiliary verbs versus, 885 limiting words, placing, 401
conveying ability with, 885–86 proofreading for, 406
conveying advisability or notion of split infinitives, 401–402
good idea with, 886 squinting, 400–401
conveying necessity with, 886 Mood, of verb, 330–33
conveying past habit, 888 definition of, 330
conveying plan or obligation, 888 function of, 330
Es
conveying possibility with, 887 imperative, 330, 409

conveying preferences with, 887–88 indicative, 330, 409
conveying probability with, 887 shifts in, 409–10
recognizing in passive voice, 888–89 subjunctive, 331, 409
Modern Language Association (MLA) morale, moral, 277
documentation style, 589–655 most, 277
abbreviations, 496, 497 Ms., 277
content or bibliographic notes in, 629 Multilingual students
definition of, 592–93 classroom interaction and, 845–46
directory, 589–91 dictionaries, use of, 845
double quotation marks, 462 editing strategies for, 846
electronic sources, 599–600 errors by, 852–53, 854–55
930
understanding instructors’ expecta- M N INDEX
tions, 842–43
long-term writing goals for, 846–47 Navigation bar, 818
message for, 838–39 Negative choice, expressions of, coordi-
organization of writing, 843–44 nating conjunctions and, 293
past writing experiences, use of, Netiquette, 769, 770–71
841–42 Noncount nouns, 287, 375,
in peer-response groups, 844–45 856–57
sentence-level issues for, 847–55 articles with, 865
writing essays in US colleges, 840–47 Nonessential element, 432
writing instruction for, 840–41 Nonrestrictive clauses, 351
Multimedia, use in presentations, Nonrestrictive elements, commas with,
760–63 423, 432–34, 432,
Multimodal, 135 433
Multimodal texts, 812–29 Nonsexist pronouns, 367–68, 368
creating, 812–13 Nonspecific nouns, 862
definition of, 812 Nonstandard English, 252
Multivolume works Nonverbal communication, in presenta-
CSE documentation, 721 r
MLA documentation, 597, 607
Notes
tions, 764–65
content, 536,
drafting and,
570, 584
48
la
Musical compositions, MLA documenta- Noun clauses, 306–307
tion, 627 Noun phrases, 302
Musical recordings, MLA documenta- Nouns, 286–87, 287
tion, 626 abstract, 287
must of, 277 adjective modifiers and, 370
as adjectives, 860
N avoiding strings as modifiers,
Names 376–77
te
abbreviations for, 496 capitalization of, 487
capitalization of, 488 collective, 287, 368–69
commas in, 437–38 common, 287
italics in, 492 concrete, 287
with states, 860 count, 287, 375, 856–57
Narrative writing definition of, 286
in humanities, 731 determiners with, 857, 858–59
literacy narratives, 181–82 foreign, 860–61
paragraph development by, 95–96 -ing ending and, 343
Es
Narrowing topic, 29–30 irregular, 860–61

National Commission on Writing, 2 modifying nouns, 376
Natural sciences, writing about, noncount/mass, 287, 375,
727, 728, 749–55 856–57
definition of, 749 nonspecific, 862
documentation style, 750 possessive, 454–55
guidelines for scientific method, proper, 287, 487, 865
749–50 revising into verbs, 249–51
purpose of, 750 special, 362
research papers, 751–55 specific, 862
science reports, 751–55 nowheres, 277
science reviews, 755 number, amount, 267
931
INDEX N P Online discussions, participating in,
174–75
Number (grammatical), shifts in sen- guidelines for, 175
tences, 406–408 Online sources
Numbers, 498–501 APA documentation, 663, 676–77
act, scene, and line, 500 guidelines for avoiding plagiarism,
addresses, 499 571–72
chapters and pages, 499 MLA documentation, 616–18
commas with, 438–39 Op-ed pieces, 794
dates, 499 Open compound words, 511
decimals, 499 Open stacks, 550
fractions, 499 Opinions, recognizing in writing,
identification, 500 112–13
measurements, 500 Opposing arguments, argument essay
money, 500 dealing with, 153–54
parentheses and, 472 response to, 145
scores and statistics, 499 or
spelled-out, 498–99 pronoun-antecedent agreement and,
501
r
spelled-out, with hyphens, 501,
standard practices for writing,

499–501
366,
357
oral, verbal, 278
366
subjects connected with, 357,
la
temperatures, 500 Oral presentations. See Presentations
times, 499 Organization
Numerical adjectives, list of, 291 of presentations, 757–59, 758
of writing by multilingual students,
O 843–44
Object complement, 300 Organizations, capitalization of, 488
Objective case, 335 Outlines. See also Formal outlines; In-
Troyka test for, 338 formal outlines
te
whom, whomever and, 341 capitalization in formal, 485
Objects defining, 44–47
direct, 298, 298–99 formal, 44, 45–47, 538
gerunds as, 878–80 informal, 44, 45, 538
indirect, 298, 298–99 MLA documentation, 636
infinitives as, 880–81 parallelism in, 240–41
Observations for research paper, 538
direct, 522 sentence, 46
direct, as source, 177 thesis statement and, 53
Es
in field research, 520 topic, 46

reports of, 182–83 outside of, inside of, 275
use in social sciences, 746 Overstatement, as figurative language,
writing about, 182–84 253
of, 277 owing to the fact that, on account of,
of, have, 274 278
off of, 277 Oxford Companion to American Litera-
OK, O.K., okay, 278 ture, 558
on account of, owing to the fact that,
278 P
one of the . . . constructions, 859–60 Page layout, 808–10
subject-verb agreement and, 361 Pamphlets, MLA documentation, 625
932
Paragraph arrangement, 90–95, 90 P INDEX
general-to-specific, 91
from least to most important, 92 for listed items, 472
by location, 91 question mark in, 420
problem-to-solution, 92–93 Parenthetical documentation. See also In-
specific-to-general, 91–92 text citations
by time, 90–91 guidelines for, 594–600
Paragraph development MLA documentation style, 568
body paragraphs, 78–79, 82–83 MLA style, 589, 593–94
coherence, 84–90 Parenthetical expressions
concluding paragraphs, 103–104 commas with, 434
defining, 75–76 definition of, 434
introductory paragraphs, 76–78 Parenthetical in-text citations,
rhetorical strategies for, 95–102, 659–60
95 Participles. See Past participles; Present
sentence arrangement (See Paragraph participles
arrangement) Parts of speech, 286–310
topic sentence in, 79–82 adjectives, 290–91, 291
unity, 84–90
Parallelism
r
transitional expressions in, 85–86
transitional paragraph, 102–103
adverbs, 291–92,
conjunctions, 293–94,
294
interjections, 294–95
292
293,
la
for balanced sentences, 235 nouns, 286–87, 287
of clauses, 235–36 prepositions, 292–93
collective nouns and, 369 pronouns, 287–88, 287–88
with coordinating conjunctions, 237 verbals, 289–90, 289
with correlative conjunctions, 237 verbs, 288–89
definition of, 234–35 Passive voice
faulty, 237–40 avoiding (See Conciseness)
with function words, 237–38 dangling modifiers and, 405
te
for impact, 236–37 proper use of, 333–35
in lists, 240–41 recognizing modal auxiliary verbs in,
in outlines, 240–41 888–89
for paragraph coherence, 88 Past participles, 329
of phrases, 235–36 forming, 313
in presentations, 769 function of, 313
with than and as, 237 prepositions with, 876–77
of words, 235–36 of regular verbs, 315
Paraphrases as verbals, 289
Es
APA documentation, 660 Past perfect progressive, 325, 326

definition, 581 Past perfect tense, 325
examples of, 582, 583 sequence and, 328
guidelines for, 581–84, 581 Past subjunctive, 331
in research writing, 539 Past tense, 323 324, 737
summaries versus, 584 function of, 313
verbs for integrating, 588 of regular verbs, 315
writing guidelines for, 594 sequence and, 327
Parentheses, 471–73 Peer-response groups, 165
brackets within, 474 criticism from, accepting, 173–74,
capitalization within, 486 174
enclosing interrupting words, 471–72 critique (criticism) in, 171–73
933
INDEX P Persuasive writing, 8–10, 9
thesis statement, 40–42
Photographs
Peer-response groups (cont.) APA documentation, 683
guidelines for participating in, incorporating, 807
171 MLA documentation, 627
for multilingual students, 844–45 Phrasal verbs
response form, 170 prepositions in, 875–76
working in, 169–71 separable, 875
percent, percentage, 278 Phrases, 302–304
Perfect infinitives, 329 absolute, 302
Perfect tenses, 323, 324 definition of, 302
forming, 325 gerund, 303
future, 325 noun, 302
past, 325 parallelism of, 235–36
present, 325 prepositional, 302
Periodicals, documentation styles sentences versus, 381
APA documentation, 674–76, 679 shortening for conciseness, 248–49
CSE documentation, 722–23
MLA documentation, 610–18
Periodicals, types of, 551–56,
r verb, 302
verbal, 302–303
Pie charts, 806
pixel, pixelation, pixilated, 278
la
551–52 Place, expressions of
Periodic sentences, 230–31 paragraph arrangement by, 91
Periods prepositions and, 874, 875
with abbreviations, 418–19 subordinating conjunctions and, 225
correcting comma splices with, Placement
392–93 of adjectives, 870, 870–71
correcting run-on sentences with, of adverbs, 871–72, 871–72
392–93 Places
te
quotation marks with, 467 capitalization of, 488
in sentences, 418 commas in, 437–38
Personal digital assistant (PDA), 22 Plagiarism, 16, 568–71, 840
Personal essays, 178–81 avoiding, 569–70, 570–71
elements of, 179–80 content notes to avoid, 570
writing process for, 180–81 definition of, 568–69
Personality, 213 example of, 573
Personal journal, 5 avoiding with Internet sources, 571,
Personal pronouns, 287, 335–36, 571–72
Es
336 in research writing, 539

function of, 336–37 types of, 569
it, usage of, 349 Planning (writing), 25, 42–44
possessive form of, 455 narrowing topic, 29–30
Personal response, writing, 735 Plurals, 856–61
Person (grammatical), shifts in sentences, articles with, 864
406–408 contractions with, 457
Personification, as figurative language, corrections by multilingual students,
253 851
Persuasion count and noncount nouns, 856–57
images and, 134–35 determiners with, 857, 858–59
persuasive appeal, 146, 146 indefinite pronouns, 359, 367
934
irregular, 860–61 P INDEX
one of the . . . constructions, 859–60
spelling, 503–504
plus, 278 Prejudice, recognizing in writing, 120
p.m., a.m., 266, 494 Premises, 124
Podcasts, 20 Prepositional phrases, 302
APA documentation, 681 pronouns in, 337
CM documentation, 712 Prepositions, 292–93, 873–77
creating, 827 commas with, 441
CSE documentation, 724 common, 873–74
guidelines for, 827–28 corrections by multilingual students,
MLA documentation, 624 851–52
Poetry definition of, 292
ellipsis points with, 477 in expressions, 877
MLA documentation, 597–98 function of, 873
quotation marks in, 462–63 parallelism with, 237–38
slashes in, 477 with past participles, 876–77
Point-by-point organization, 99, 99 in phrasal verbs, 875–76
ing,
Policy briefs, 791
Portfolios
43
r
Points of discussion, in informative writ- with place expressions, 874,
recognizing, 873
with time expressions, 874,
875
874
la
choosing works for, 830–32 Presentations, 20
collecting writing for, 830 adapting message in, 757
definition of, 830 collaborative, 765–66
digital, 20, 21, 835–36 definition of, 756
items in, 835 effective voice in, 764
presenting paper, 834–35 introducing self and topic in, 758
writing introduction, reflection, analy- making, 756–66
sis for, 832–34 mapping, 763, 763
te
Possession, apostrophes and, 454–57 memorizing, 763
Possessive adjectives, list of, 291 multimedia in, 760–63
Possessive case, 335, 336 nonverbal communication in, 764–65
-ing ending and, 343 organizing, 757–59, 758
Possessive pronouns of paper portfolios, 834–35
apostrophes and, 455 PowerPoint, 761–62
contractions versus, 456 practices for, 765
PowerPoint presentations, 761–62 reading, 763
precede, proceed, 278 researching and writing, 759–60
Es
Predicate adjective, 300 situation focusing, 756

Predicate nominative, 300 sound and video clips in, 762
Predicates, 296 overcoming stage fright, 765, 766
complete, 297 styles for, 763
compound, 297, 381 visual aids in, 760–61
simple, 297 wrapping up, 759
subjects and, 296–98 Presentation slides, CSE documentation,
Preface 724
APA documentation, 673 Present infinitive, 329
CM documentation, 708 Present participles, 329
Prefixes, hyphens with, 480–81, forming, 313
481 function of, 313
935
INDEX P Pronoun reference, 345–52
antecedents and, 346
Present participles (cont.) avoiding unclear, 346–47
future perfect progressive and, 325 definition of, 345
as verbals, 289 guidelines for clear, 345, 345
Present perfect participle, 329 it, usage of, 348–49, 349
Present perfect progressive, 325, 326 that, which, who, 350–52
Present perfect tense, 325 they, usage of, 348–49
sequence and, 327 Pronouns, 287–88, 335–52
Present subjunctive, 331 adjective modifiers and, 370, 371
Present tense, 323, 324, 737 case, 335
sequence and, 327 coherence and, 87
-s form, 314 compound construction with, 337–39
simple, 324–25 definition of, 287
Pretentious language, 261 demonstrative, 288
pretty, 278 ending in -self, 344–45
Prewriting strategies, 30 indefinite, 288, 358–60,
Primary sources, 518 359
of disciplines, 728
as evidence, 113–15,
in humanities, 730
principal, principle, 278–79
r 114
as indirect object, 299
before infinitives, 343
with -ing words, 343–44
intensive, 345
la
Problem to solution paragraph arrange- interrogative, 288, 380
ment, 92–93 it, that, this, which and, 348
proceed, precede, 278 linking verbs after, 340
Process, as rhetorical strategy, 96–97 masculine, avoiding, 368
Professional writers, 11 nonsexist, 367–68, 368
Progressive forms of verbs, 323 324, objective, 335
325–27 personal, 287, 335–36, 336
forming, 325–27 possessive, 335, 336, 455
te
future, 325, 326 in prepositional phrases, 337
future perfect, 325, 326 proofreading for, 416
past, 325, 326 reciprocal, 288
past perfect, 325, 326 reflexive/intensive, 288, 344
present, 325, 326 relative, 287
present perfect, 325, 326 subjective, 335, 336
Pronoun-antecedent agreement, 364–69, Proofreading, 57–58
365 collaborative writing, 168
antecedents as collective nouns, improvements for multilingual stu-
Es
368–69 dents, 853–54

antecedents as indefinite pronouns, for misplaced and dangling modifiers,
366–67 406
definition of, 364 mixed sentences, 416
each, 365 research paper, 517
every, 365 for spelling errors, 502, 503
joined by and, 365 in writing process, 25
joined by or, 366, 366 Proper adjectives, 487, 490
nonsexist pronouns and, 367–68, Proper nouns, 287
368 the and, 865, 866
Pronoun case, 335–39 capitalization of, 487
Pronoun objects, 876 Proposal arguments, 141
936
Proposals, business, 781–82 P R INDEX
Prose, ellipsis points with, 475–76
PsycINFO, 555 italics versus, 491, 492
Public writing, 788–96 in long quotations, 461
arguments for community or decision in poetry, 462–63
makers, 792–94 with question marks, exclamation
blogs, 796 points, and dashes, 467–68
columns, 795 quotations within quotations, 462
definition of, 788–89 role of, 460
editorials, op-ed pieces, reviews, 794, with semicolons and colons, 467
795 in short quotations, 460–62
letters to the editor, 793–94 with titles of short works, 464–65
policy briefs, 791 for words as words, 465–367
reports, 790–91, 791 Quotations
situation and, 789–90 APA documentation, 660–61
web sites, 796 adjusting with brackets, 473
Published and released material, capital- capitalization within, 486–87
ization of, 490 colons in, 449, 450
definition of, 543

Publishing, Web pages, 823
Purpose, 4, 5–10, 6
r
Published sources, 517, 543–66 commas with, 442
definition of, 574
disembodied, 578
effective use of, 574–81
la
selection of, 25–28 enhancing meaning with, 577–81
examples of, 576
Q guidelines for use, 575
Qualitative research, 746 integrating with sentences, 575–77
Quantitative data, writing about, 190–94 unacceptable use of, 580
elements of, 193 verbs for integrating, 588
reports of, 190 writing guidelines for, 594–95
sample student report, 191–92 Quoted words, commas with, 424,
te
writing process for, 193–94 435–37
Quantitative research, 746
Questioning method, 544 R
Question marks, 419–20 raise, rise, 279
in direct questions, 419 as transitive verb, 323
in parentheses, 420 Reader-response framework, of analytic
quotation marks with, 467–68 essay, 733
in series, 419 Reading
Questionnaires analyzing, 111–19
Es
guidelines for developing, 519 closely and actively, 108–109

use in social sciences, 746 comprehension, 108–11
Questions to evaluate, 123
capitalization in series of, 484 implications of, 121
information, 868–70 systematic, 110–11
research, 528–29 Reading and browsing, topic selection,
yes or no, 868 36–38
quotation, quote, 279 Reading comprehension, improving,
Quotation marks, 460–68 111
with commas and periods, 467 Readings, writing about, 196–210
in dialogue, 463–64 summaries, 198–200
errors with, 468 real, really, 279
937
INDEX R dependent clauses and, 223
fragments with, 380–81
Reason, expressions of parallelism with, 237–38
coordinating conjunctions and, Religious terms, capitalization of,
293 490
subordinating conjunctions and, RENNS Test, 82, 83
294 Repetition
reason in because, 279 eliminating for conciseness, 246–47
Reasoning processes, 123–26 for paragraph coherence, 87
circular reasoning, 127 for sentence variety, 232
deductive reasoning, 124–26 Reports
inductive reasoning, 123–24 business, 780–81
124 external, 780–81
Reasons, expressions of. See Cause or rea- internal, 780
sons, expressions of MLA documentation, 625
reason why, 279 public, 790–91, 791
Reciprocal pronouns, 288 of quantitative data, 190–94
Red herring, 128 Reprints
Redundancy, 247
Refdesk.com, 563
References
APA documentation, 656–58,
r APA documentation, 674
Research, empirical, 195
Research log, purpose of, 525
la
665–70, 665–68 Research papers
end, 715 APA format guidelines, 684–86
format for, 686 definition of, 523
guidelines for CSE-style list, MLA style documentation, 629–55
716–19 in social sciences, 748
in-text, 715 writing, 523–42
for presentations, 759 Research questions, 528–29. See also
Reference works, 556–58 Thesis statement
te
almanacs, year books, fact books, 557 definition of, 517, 528
atlases and gazetteers, 557–58 search strategy to address, 517,
bibliographies, 558 543–45
biographical, 558 Research reports, in social sciences, 748
dictionaries, 558 Research writing
general, 557–58 annotated bibliography, 535
general encyclopedias, 557 computer use in, 531–33
specialized, 558 content notes, 536
Reflection, portfolio, 832–34 definition of, 514
Es
Reflexive pronouns, 288, 344 documentation style, 533

regarding, in regard to, with regard to, as drafting, 517, 538–39, 539–40
regards, 275 editing, 517
regardless, 279 efficiency in, 530–33
Regional language, 262 evaluating evidence, 540, 541
Regular verbs, 315 general ideas for, 526–27
Relative adjectives, list of, 291 library resources for, 531, 532
Relative adverbs, 291 materials for, 531
Relative pronouns, 287 narrowing topic, 527–28
creating dependent clauses with, outlining, 538
396–97 paraphrases in, 539
cutting for conciseness, 247 process, 516–17
938
project scheduling, 523, 524 R S INDEX
reasons for, 515–16
research log, 525 in writing process, 25
revising, 517, 540–41, 542 Rhetorical framework, of analytic essay,
sources, 517, 518, 539 732
summaries in, 539 Rhetorical strategies for paragraphs,
thesis statement, drafting, 537–38 95–102, 95
topic selection, 525–28 analogy, 100
working bibliography, 532, 533–35 analysis, 98
writing situation shaping, 529–30 cause-and-effect analysis, 100–102
Resources, 22–23 classification, 98–99
finding using computers, 16–17 comparison and contrast, 99–100
respectful, respectfully, 279 definition, 98
respective, respectively, 279 descriptive writing, 96
Responses examples, 97
critical, 201–204 narrative writing, 95–96
in humanities, 731 process writing, 96–97
Restrictive clauses, 351 right, 280
423, 432–34,
Result, expressions of
conjunctive adverbs and,
r
Restrictive elements, commas with,
432
292
rise, raise, 279
as transitive verb, 323
Rogerian argument, 150–51
structure of, 151
la
coordinating conjunctions and, Roles, in writing, 4
293 Roman typeface, 491
subordinating conjunctions, 225 Root, of word, 480
subordinating conjunctions and, Rough draft, 49. See also Drafting
294 Run-on sentences
Resumés, 782–85, 782–83 conjunctive adverbs and transitional
definition of, 782 expressions and, 397–400
example of, 784 correcting, 392–97, 393
te
guidelines for, 782–83 correcting with coordinating conjunc-
Review of literature, 748 tions, 394–95
in social science writing, 516 correcting with period, 392–93
Reviews, 184–85, 794 correcting with semicolon, 393–94
elements of, 184 definition of, 390–91
science, 755 recognizing, 391–92, 391–92
writing process for, 184–85 revising into dependent clause,
Revising, 51–56, 55 395–97
argument essay, 155 Run-together sentence, 390
Es
checklist, 55–56
collaborative writing, 168 S
for conciseness, 246–49 -s, -es endings
editing versus, 56 plurals, spelling rules for, 503
goals and activities during, 52–53, subject-verb agreement, 353–55
53 verb forms, 314–15
memoirs and personal essays, 180 said, 346
research paper, 517, 538 Sans serif fonts, 800
research writing, 540–41, 542 Sarcastic language, 261
thesis statement as aid, 53 say, go, 273
title as aid, 54 scarcely, 280
for unity and coherence, 54–55 Scholarly abbreviations, 496, 497
939
INDEX S recognizing intentional, 388–89
with relative pronouns, 380–81
School courses, capitalization of, rewriting, 385–86
489 sentence test for, 379
Science reports, 516, 751–55 special problems with, 387–88
example of, 753–55 with subordinating conjunctions,
parts of, 751–52 380
Science reviews, 516, 755 Sentence outline, 46, 757
Scientific method, guidelines for, Sentences
749–50 capitalization of first word in, 484
Scientific terms, capitalization of, climactic, 230
489 combining, 247
Search engines, 561, 564 compound (See Compound sentences)
Search strategy, 543–45 coordination of, 220
chaining method, 544 definition of, 295
expert method, 543 fused, 390
questioning method, 544 integrating with quotations, 575–77
Seasons, capitalization of, 489 mixed, 412–16
Secondary sources, 518
of disciplines, 728
as evidence, 113–15,
in humanities, 730
r 114
phrases versus, 381
purpose of,
run-on, 390–91
run-together, 390
295–96
la
literature and, 737–38 shifting, 406–12
Second draft, example of, 64–70 splits, avoiding, 402–404
secondly, firstly, thirdly, 273 standard and inverted word order,
Second person, agreement in, 353 357–58
seen, 280 affect on style, 218–19
-self, pronouns ending in, 344–45 subordination in, 222–23
Self-contradiction, 128 tag, 435
Self-correction, by multilingual students, Sentences, types of, 308–10
te
849 balanced, 235
Semicolons, 444–49 complex, 309
with coordinating conjunctions, 446 compound, 308–309
correcting comma splices and run-on compound-complex, 309
sentences with, 393–94 coordination/subordination with,
between independent clauses, 444, 228–29
445–46 creating variety and emphasis with,
avoiding misuse, 446–49 229–30
patterns, 444–45 cumulative, 230–31
Es
period versus, 445 declarative, 229, 295

quotation marks with, 467 exclamatory, 229, 296
in series, 446 imperative, 229, 296, 381
use of, 444 interrogative, 229, 295
Semiformal writing, 212 periodic, 230–31
Sentence fragments, 377–89 simple, 308
in academic writing, 378 Sentence structures, 295–310
in business writing, 378 appositives, 301–302
compound predicates and, 386–87 complements, 300–301, 300
correcting, 383–86 conciseness and, 244–46
definition of, 377–78 direct and indirect objects, 298–300,
recognizing, 379–83, 379 298–99
940
improvements for multilingual stu- S INDEX
dents, 848–49
modifiers, 301 Simple subject, 296
subject and predicate, 296–98 Simple tenses, 323, 324
Sentence variety and emphasis, 218–34 Singular form, 856–61
definition of, 219 corrections by multilingual students,
using different sentence types, 229–30 856
use of modifiers, 231 count and noncount nouns, 856–57
repetition and, 232 one of the . . . constructions, 859–60
with sentence length, 219–20 sit, set, 280
subject and, 233 as transitive verb, 323
with word order, 232–34 site, cite, 270
Separable phrasal verbs, 875 Situation, writing, 3–5, 51
Series Slanted language, 261
books in (See Books, documentation Slashes, 477–80
styles) for and/or, 478
commas in, 423, 428–30, in numerical fractions, 478
441–42 in poetry, 477
definition of, 428
semicolons in, 446
Serif fonts, 800
Server, 815
r use of, 477–80
Social networking sites, writing in,
828–29
Social sciences, writing about, 727–28,
la
set, sit, 280 727, 746–49
as transitive verb, 323 case studies, 748
Sexist language, 258 definition of, 746
avoiding, 259–60 documentation style, 749
shall, will, should, 280 ethnographies, 748
Shaping writing, 25, 42, 180 experiments, use of, 747
s/he, he/she, his/her, 274 interviews, use of, 520–21, 521,
Shifts in sentences, 406–12 747
te
definition of, 406 observations, use of, 520, 746
direct and indirect discourse, 410–12 purpose of, 747
in mood, 409–10 research papers, 748
in number, 406–408 research papers (or reviews of litera-
in person, 406–408 ture), 748
in subject, 408–409 research reports, 748
in tense, 409–10 surveys and questionnaires, use of,
in voice, 408–409 519, 746
should, shall, will, 280 sometime, sometimes, some time, 280–81
Es
should of, 280 sort, kind, 276

sic sort of, kind of, 276
in brackets, 474 Sound clips, in presentations, 762
purpose of, 474 Sound recordings, CM documentation,
Similes 713
clichés as, 262 Sources
as figurative language 254 almanacs, year books, fact books,
Simple form of verbs, function of, 313 557
Simple predicate, 297 atlases and gazetteers, 557–58
Simple present tense, 324–25 authoritative, 560
forming, 324–25 bibliographies, 558
Simple sentences, 308 biographical reference works, 558
941
INDEX S use of spellcheck software, 502
of suffixes, 504–505
Sources (cont.) Split infinitives, 401–402
using Boolean expressions, 547, causes of, 401
547–48 correcting, 402
for college writing, 177–78 Squinting modifiers, 400–401
definition of, 177 Stage fright, overcoming, 765, 766
dictionaries, 558 Standard word order, 232, 867–70
documentation of, 568 of information questions, 869–70
encyclopedias, 557 stationary, stationery, 281
evaluating, 559–60, 560 Statistical Abstract of the United States, 557
using guided searches, 546 Stereotyping, 127
guidelines for using, 22–23 gender-neutral language and, 258
indirect, 598 Style
integrating into writing, 574 creating good, 215–16
in-text citations, 658 elements creating, 213
using keywords, 546 recognizing in writing, 212
library-based, 531, 532, 545 repetition and, 232
locating, 605
paraphrases, 581–84
plagiarism and, 568–71
primary, 518
r sentence variety and, 218–34
writing with, 215–16
Style-check, word processing programs
and, 16
la
published, 517, 543–66 Style sheets, 817–18
search strategy, 543–45 Subject complement, 311
secondary, 518 Subject directories, 563–64, 564
synthesizing, 205–207 Subject filler, 349
weaving in with verbs, 587–88, Subject headings, 550
588 Subjective case, 335, 336
using well, 567–68 Troyka test for, 337–38
Specialist audience, 13 who, whoever and, 341
te
Specialized databases, 554 Subjects, 296
Specialized dictionary, 255 complete, 297, 300
Specialized reference works, 558 complete compound, 297
Special pleading fallacy, 129 gerunds as, 878
Special requirements, in writing, 4 infinitives as, 878
Specific nouns, 862 linking verbs and, 311
Specific-to-general paragraph arrange- predicates and, 296–98
ment, 91–92 pronouns as, 336
Specific words, 257–58 shifts in, 408–409
Es
Speeches, MLA documentation, 626 simple, 296

Spellcheck for variety and emphasis, 233
software, 502 Subject tree, 44
with word processing programs, 15 Subject-verb agreement, 352–64
Spelling, 502–12 with amounts, 361–62
of compound words, 503, 511–12 basic, 354
of confused words, 506–11 with company names, 363
of homonyms, 506, 506–11, corrections by multilingual students,
511 850–51
ie, ei rule, 505 definition of, 352
plurals, 503–504 with each, every, 356–57
proofreading for errors, 502, 503 with fields of study, 361–62
942
with indefinite pronouns, 358–60, S T INDEX
359
with inverted word order, 357–58 elements of, 200
linking verbs and, 360 example of, 585–87
-s, -es endings, 353–55 guidelines for writing, 585
with special nouns, 361–62 in humanities, 731
subjects connected by and, 356 paraphrases versus, 584
subjects connected with or, 357, in research writing, 539
357 verbs for integrating, 588
with titles, 363 writing effective, 584–87
who, that, which, 360–61 writing guidelines for, 594
with words as themselves, 363 writing process for, 200
words between subject and verb, Support, in argument, 140, 146
355–56, 355 supposed to, used to, 281
Subjunctive mood, 331, 409 sure, 281
forms of, 331–33 sure and, try and, 281
if, as if, as though, unless clauses and, Surveys, use in social sciences, 519, 746
331–32 Syllogism, 124
past, 331
present, 331
that clauses and, 332 r
Subordinate sentences, structure of,
Symbols, abbreviations for, 495
Synchronous discussions, 175
Synonyms, 15, 22, 256
Synthesis, 204–207
la
223–24 in critical thinking, 108, 122–23
Subordinating conjunctions, 293, definition of, 204
294 in humanities, 731
adjective clauses and, 224 of images, 132
commas with, 441 of multiple sources, 205–206
creating dependent clauses with, of one source, 206–207
395–96 writing process for, 206, 207
dependent clauses and, 223 Systematic approach to reading, 110–11
te
fragments with, 380
meaning conveyed by, 224–26, T
224–25 Tables
Subordination, 223–24 APA documentation, 664
used with coordination, 228–29 incorporating, 806–807
definition of, 220 on web pages, 817
effective use of, 226–28 Tag sentence, commas with, 435
in sentences, 222–23 take, bring, 269
Subscription service, 613 Taking something out of context, 129
Es
MLA documentation, 614–16 Talking it over, topic selection, 36

Subtitles, colons in, 451 Television or radio programs
such, 281 APA documentation, 681, 683
Suffixes MLA documentation, 623, 627
definition of, 504 Templates, 809
hyphens with, 480–81, 481 Tense. See Verb tenses
spelling, 504–505 Terms, abbreviations for, 496
Summaries, 198–200 Text
APA documentation, 660 designing with, 800–804
content notes and, 584 highlighting, 803–804
in critical thinking, 107 multimodal, 812–29
definition of, 584 positioning, 809–10
943
INDEX T subordinating conjunctions and,
224, 294
Textbooks, browsing, 526 The Times Atlas of the World, 557
than, as Title pages
parallelism and, 237 APA documentation, 685
pronoun case after, 343 MLA documentation, 634–36
than, then, 281 Titles
that, pronouns and, 348 abbreviations for, 495–96
that, which, 281 capitalization of, 488
agreement and, 360–61 colons in, 451
choosing between, 351 direct, 54
pronoun reference and, 350–52 indirect, 54
that clauses, subjunctive in, 332 italics in, 492
that there, them there, this here, these here, quotation marks in short works,
281 464–65
their, there, they’re, 281 role in revision, 54
theirself, theirselves, themself, 282 small words in, capitalizing, 484
them, 282 with states, 860
281
then, than, 281 r
them there, that there, this here, these here,
there, subject-verb agreement and, 358

subject-verb agreement with, 363
Titles of works, MLA documentation,
597
to, too, two, 282
la
Thesaurus, 15–16, 22, 256 TOEFL (Test of English as Foreign Lan-
with word processing programs, guage), 844
15–16 told, 346
Thesis statement, 38–42, 43 Tone, 5
argument essay, 143–44, 145 using appropriate, 216–17, 216,
assertion in, 39 217
final, example, 144, 538 in argument essay, 151–53
for informative writing, 40 elements creating, 213
te
in introductory paragraphs, 76 recognizing in writing, 119, 212
in outlines, 53 Topic outline, 46
for persuasive writing, 40–42 Topic selection, 25–28
preliminary, example, 538 argument essay, 142–43
requirements for, 39 brainstorming, 32–34
for research writing, 537–38 broadening, 28
as revision aid, 53 freewriting, 31–32
they, usage, 348–49 ideas for writing, 30
thirdly, firstly, secondly, 273 incubation, 38
Es
Third person, agreement in, 353 Internet searches, 37

this, pronouns and, 348 journalist’s questions, 34–35
this here, those here, that there, them there, journal writing, 31
281 mapping, 35
thusly, 282 narrowing, 29–30
till, until, 282 reading and browsing, 36–38
Time for research writing, 525–28
colons in, 451 talking it over, 36
paragraph arrangement, 90–91 Topic sentences, 578
Time, expressions of ending a paragraph, 80
conjunctive adverbs and, 292 implied, not stated, 81
prepositions and, 874, 874 in paragraphs, 79–82
944
starting a paragraph, 80 T V INDEX
unity in, 55
Toulmin model for argument, 148–50, Verbals, 289–90
148–49, 154 definition of, 289
toward, towards, 282 Verb forms
Transitional expressions infinitives, 313
comma splices and run-on sentences past participle, 313
and, 392 past-tense, 313
between independent clauses, present participle, 313
397–400 -s, -es endings, 314–15
for paragraph coherence, 85–86, simple, 313
85 Verb phrases, 302
semicolons and, 445 auxiliary verbs and, 319
Transitional paragraphs, 102–103 Verbs, 288–89, 311–35
Transitive verbs, 312, 322–23 adverb modifiers and, 370, 371
Troyka test for case, 337–38 auxiliary, 312, 319–21,
try and, sure and, 281 319–20
two, to, too, 282 conciseness and, 249–51
U
Unabridged dictionary, 255
Underlining, 803
r definition of, 311
with each, 356–57
with every, 356–57
followed by gerunds, 879, 882
la
Understatement, as figurative language, with indefinite pronouns, 358–60,
254 359
Uninformed audience, 757 followed by infinitives, 880, 882
uninterested, disinterested, 272 information conveyed by, 311
unique, 282 intransitive, 312, 322–23
United Nations Statistical Yearbook, irregular, 315, 316–18, 319
557 linking, 311, 312–13
Unity main, 288, 312, 313–14
te
in document design, 799 modal auxiliary, 321, 884–89
in paragraphs, 79, 84 mood, 330–33
revising for, 54–55 phrasal, 875–76
unless, subjunctive mood and, 331–32 regular, 315
Unmarked infinitives, 881 revising from nouns, 249–51
Unpublished dissertations or essays subjects connected with or and, 357,
APA documentation, 673 357
CM documentation, 708 tense (See Verb tenses)
CSE documentation, 722 transitive, 312, 322–23
Es
MLA documentation, 609 types of, 312

Unstated assumptions, 125 voice, 333–35
until, till, 282 weaving sources in with, 587–88,
Usage, glossary, 265–83 588
used to, supposed to, 281 Verb tenses, 323–30
utilize, 282 corrections by multilingual students,
850
V definition of, 323
Valid argument, 124–25 future, 323, 324
Variety, in document design, 799 past, 323, 324
verbal, oral, 278 perfect, 323, 324
Verbal phrases, 302–303 present, 323, 324
945
INDEX V W public writing and, 796
Web sources
Verb tenses (cont.) evaluating, 565, 565–66
progressive forms of, 323, 324 reliability of, 565–66
sequences, 327–30, 327–28 Web writing process, 813–23
shifts in, 409–10 blogs, 19
simple, 323, 324 content, 815
Video clips, in presentations, 762 displaying pages, 822–23
Video games or software editing and usability, 821–22
APA documentation, 681 graphics and, 819
MLA documentation, 628 images and, 818, 820–21
Video recordings, CSE documentation, publishing pages, 823
724 social networking sites and,
Videos, 22 828–29
creating, 827 software, 817–18
Visual aids structure, 815–16
guidelines for using, 809 web pages, 816–17, 818
positioning, 809–10 wiki, 19
807–808
Visual design, 796–811
borders in, 805–806
r
use in presentations, 760–61
from web,
well, good, 273
went, gone, 273
where, 283
where . . . at, 283
la
definition of, 796–98 whether, if, 274–75
incorporating graphics, 806–807 which, pronouns and, 348
headings in, 804–805 which, that, 281
highlighting text, 803–804 agreement and, 360–61
page layout, 808–10 choosing between, 351
positioning text and visuals, White space, using, 810
809–10 who
principles of, 799–800 agreement and, 360–61
te
with text, 800–804 pronoun reference and, 350–52
using white space, 810 who, whoever, whom, whomever
Vocabulary, improvements for multilin- subjective case and, 341–42
gual students, 847–48, 849 who, whom, 283
Voice (grammatical), 333–35 who’s, whose, 283
active, 333 Who’s Who series, 558
definition of, 333 Wiki, 19, 679
passive, 244, 245–46, 333–35 guidelines for, 826
shifts in, 408–409 writing in, 824–26
Es
Voice quality, in presentations, 764 will, shall, should, 280

-wise, 283
W with regard to, in regard to, as regards, re-
wait on, 282 garding, 275
Warrants Word choice, improvements for multilin-
definition of, 148 gual students, 849
Toulmin argument, 148–50 Wordiness, 242
way, ways, 283 avoiding, 244–46
Web pages, designing, 816–17, 818 definition of, 242
Web site, website, 283 Word order, 867–72
Web sites, 2 adjective placement, 870,
creating, 815–23 870–71
946
adverb placement, 871–72, W Y INDEX
871–72
inverted, 357–58, 867–70 college, 176–90
sentence variety and, 232–34 across curriculum, 726–28
standard, 232, 867–70 in digital age, 15–18
Word processing programs, 15–16 expressive, 5–6
creating documents with, 15–16 forms enabled by computers,
editing using, 56 18–22
grammar- or style-check, 16 images and, 137–39
spellcheck, 15 informal, 212
thesaurus, 15–16 informative, 6–8, 8
Words persuasive, 8–10, 9
abstract, 257 purposes for, 4, 5–10, 6
concrete, 257 research, 514–22
confused, 506–11 resources for, 22–23
connotation of, 254, 255 sources for (See Sources)
cutting for conciseness, 248–49 special requirements in, 4
denotation of, 254, 255 style in, 212–17
explanatory, 435
images and, 135–36
impact of, 252–64
interrupting, 471–72
r tone in, 212–17
for Web, 813–14
Writing assignments, in various disci-
plines, 729
la
lead-in, 452 Writing portfolio. See Portfolios
quoted, 435–37 Writing process
specific and general, 257–58 for analysis, 194–95
as themselves, 363 for case studies, 187–88
Words as words computer use in, 18–22
quotation marks for, 465–67 for critical responses, 203–204
subject-verb agreement and, 363 for ethnographies, 188–89
Working bibliography, 532, 533–35, for interpretations, 186
te
570 literacy narratives, 181–82
Works Cited list, 15. See also References for memoirs and personal essays,
definition of, 568 180–81
guidelines for, 600–629, for observations, 183–84
600–603 outlining, 44–47
MLA documentation style, 568, for reporting data, 193–94
589–91 for reviews, 184–85
for presentations, 759 revising, 51–56
The World Almanac, 557 for summaries, 200
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World Wide Web, 283 summary of, 25

would of, 283 visualizing, 27
Writers Writing situation, 3–5, 51
current scene for, 2–3 elements of, 4
professional, 11 research writing and, 529–30
Writer’s block, overcoming, 49–51
tips for, 50–51 Y
Writer’s position, 120 Year books, 557
Writers’ Workshops, 169 Yes or no questions, 868
Writing yet, but, however, 269–70
argument, written, 140–63 you, for direct address, 349–50
collaborative, 164–69 your, you’re, 283
947
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NOTES
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Quick Reference Card for
Research & Documentation
■ Are the book and journal stacks open (fully
Materials you might need accessible shelves) or closed (request each
for research item by filling out a form to hand to library
1. A copy of your assignment. personnel)? If the latter, become familiar
2. This handbook, especially Part 5, or access with the required procedures not only for
to the Internet so that you can read the asking for a book or journal but also for
book online and use its guidelines. picking it up when it’s ready.
3. Your research log. ■ Where are the library’s physical collec-
tions of periodicals (journals, magazines,
4. Index cards for taking notes (unless you use and newspapers) stored? Libraries are
a laptop). If you use different colors of index increasingly moving from paper to digital
cards, you might color-code the different storage, but some publications might still
categories of information you find. Also, exist only in print. Most libraries place
you might use one size for bibliography periodicals published recently in open
cards and the other for content note cards. areas, and they place older ones in bound
Another coding strategy is to use pens of volumes, on microfilm or microfiche, or
different ink colors or self-sticking dots of online. Learn to use whatever system is in
5.
6.
various colors.
or printers. r
Money or a debit card for copy machines
A flash drive or other means for storing

■
place at your library.
How do you identify when periodical
articles exist digitally, in versions that you can
read completely online rather than only from
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downloaded source materials, if you’re not a paper copy? When you find that an article
exclusively using your own computer. has a digital version, how do you access it?
7. If you use index cards and other paper, a ■ What, if anything, is stored on microfilm or
small stapler, paper clips, and rubber bands. microfiche? If you think you’ll use that
8. A separate bag or backpack with wheels to material, take the time to learn how to use
carry research-project materials and books the machines.
you check out from the library. ■ Does the library have special collections,
such as local historical works or the writings
Learning your library’s resources
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of persons worthy of such an exclusive
■ How do you get access to the library’s honor?
catalog and databases, both from inside the Tips on using search engines
library and through the Internet? What are and directories
the log-in procedures?
■ Use keyword combinations or BOOLEAN
■ How does the library’s catalog work? EXPRESSIONS unless you have a very specific,
■ What periodical indexes or databases does narrow topic with unique keywords. A
your library have, online or in print? search for even a moderately common topic
(Indexes and databases are lists of articles in may produce thousands of hits, many of
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journals and magazines, grouped by sub- which won’t be relevant to your topic. You
ject areas.) might also switch to a subject directory.
■ Where is the general reference collection? ■ Most search engines attempt to search as
(You can’t check out reference books, so much of the World Wide Web as possible.
when you need to use them, build extra But because the Web is vast and unorgan-
time into your schedule to spend at the ized, different search engines will give
library.) different results for the same search. Try
using more than one search engine, or use
■ Where is the special reference collection? a metasearch engine that searches several
(Same rules apply as for general reference search engines at once, such as Dogpile
books.) (http://dogpile.com).
■ Use the “Advanced Search” page, if one is Well supported with evidence. The informa-
available. It allows you to search or sort by tion is presented in a balanced, unbiased
date, language, file format, and domain fashion.
type, as well as by various combinations of Current. The site’s information is regularly
keywords. updated.
■ When you find a useful site, go to the tool- QUESTIONABLE SOURCES ARE . . .
bar at the top of the screen and click on
“Bookmark” or “Favorites” and then click From commercial organizations advertising
on “Add.” This will make it easy for you to to sell a product (.com); Web sites that are
return to a good source. advertisements or personal pages; junk mail.
These sites may or may not list sources. If they
■ Use the “History” or “Go” function to track fail to, don’t use them. If they do, check that
the sites you visit, in case you want to revisit the sources are legitimate, not a front for some
one you previously thought was not helpful. commercial enterprise.
■ Sources on the Web may come in various From anonymous authors or authors
formats. Most common are Web pages in without identifiable credentials. Chat rooms,
html (Hypertext Markup Language) format. discussion groups, bulletin boards, and similar
However, you may also encounter Word or networks are questionable when they don’t give
Excel documents, PowerPoint slides, or PDF credentials or other qualifying information.
(portable document format) files, each of Secondhand excerpts and quotations. Materi-
which requires specific software. als that appear on a site that is not the official site
of the publisher (such as a quotation taken from
Refining keyword searches with
Boolean expressions
AND or the + (“plus”) symbol: Narrows the
r the New York Times ) may be edited in a biased or

inaccurate manner. Such sources may be incom-
plete and inaccurate.
Unsupported or biased. These sites carry
must be found.
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focus of your search because both keywords declarations and assertions that have little or
no supporting evidence.
NOT or the – (“minus”) symbol: Narrows Outdated. The site’s information hasn’t been
a search by excluding texts containing the updated in a year or more.
specified word or phrase.
OR: Expands a search’s boundaries by including Types of plagiarism
more than one keyword.
You’re plagiarizing if you . . .
“ ”: Quotation marks direct a search engine to ■ Buy a paper from an Internet site, another
match your exact word order on a Web page.
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student or writer, or any other source and
Judging the reliability of pass it off as your own.
■ Turn in any paper that someone else has
Web sources
written, whether the person has given it to
RELIABLE SOURCES ARE . . . you, you’ve downloaded it from the Internet,
From educational, not-for-profit, or govern- or you’ve copied it from any other source.
ment organizations. One sign is an Internet ■ Change selected parts of an existing paper
address ending in .edu, .org, .gov, or a country and claim the paper as your own.
abbreviation such as .us or .uk. However, if any ■ Neglect to put quotation marks around
of these organizations fail to list their sources,
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words that you quote directly from a source,

don’t use them. After all, many colleges and even if you document the source.
universities now host student Web sites, which ■ Copy or paste into your paper any key terms,
also end in .edu. phrases, sentences, or longer passages from an-
From expert authors. Experts have degrees or other source without using documentation
credentials in their fields that you can check. to tell precisely where the material came
See if their names appear in other reliable from. This is equally true for both library-
sources, in bibliographies on your topic, or in based sources and sources you find on the
reference books in your college’s library. Check Internet.
whether the site’s author gives an e-mail address ■ Use ideas from another source without
for questions or comments. correctly citing and documenting that
From reliable print sources. Online versions source, even if you put the ideas into your
of the New York Times, Time magazine, and own words.
other publications that are produced by the ■ Combine ideas from many sources and pass
publisher are just as reliable as the print versions. them off as your own without correctly
citing and documenting the sources. QUOTE, SUMMARIZE, or PARAPHRASE the ma-
■ Take language, ideas, or visual images from terial. Be careful how you manage copied
anyone (colleagues, companies, organiza- files. Use another color or a much larger font
tions, and so on) without obtaining permis- as a visual reminder that this isn’t your work.
sion or crediting them. Just as important, make sure that you type in
all of the information you need to identify
Strategies to avoid plagiarism each source, according to the documenta-
tion style you need to use.
■ Use DOCUMENTATION to acknowledge your ■ Copy or paste downloaded or printed
use of the ideas or phrasings of others, taken material into your paper only when you
from the sources you’ve compiled on your intend to use it as a direct quotation or visual.
topic. Immediately place quotation marks around
■ Become thoroughly familiar with the the material, or set off a long passage as a
documentation style that your instructor block quotation. Be sure to document the
tells you to use for your research paper. To source at the same time as you copy or paste
work efficiently, make a master list of the in- the quotation into your paper. Don’t put off
formation required to document all sources documenting the passage until later because
that you quote, paraphrase, or summarize you may forget to do it or do it incorrectly.
according to your required documentation ■ Summarize or paraphrase materials before
style. you include them in your paper. If you have
printed or downloaded Internet sources to
■ Write down absolutely all the documenta- separate files, don’t copy directly from those
tion facts that you’ll need for your paper, files into your paper. Summarize or para-
keeping careful records as you search for
sources. Otherwise, you’ll waste much time
trying to retrace your steps to get a docu-
mentation detail you missed.
r phrase the sources in a different file, and then

paste the summaries or paraphrases into your
paper. Document the source of each passage
at the same time as you insert it in your
■
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Use a consistent system for taking CONTENT paper. If you put off this task until later, you
NOTES, making sure to maintain the distinc- may forget to do it or get it wrong.
tion between your own thinking and the ■ Use an Internet service to check a passage
ideas that come directly from a source. you’re not sure about. If you’re concerned
Perhaps use different colors of ink or an- that you may have plagiarized material
other coding system to keep these three uses by mistake, try submitting one or
of sources separate: two sentences that concern you to
http://www.google.com. To make this work, al-
1. Quotations from a source (docmen- ways place quotation marks around the
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tation required) sentences you want to check when you type
2. Material paraphrased or summarized them into the search window.
from a source (documentation required)
Guidelines for an MLA-style Works
3. Thoughts of your own triggered by Cited list
what you’ve read or experienced in
life (no documentation required) TITLE
■ Write clear, perhaps oversized, quotation Use “Works Cited” (without quotation marks)
marks when you’re directly quoting a as the title.
passage. Make them so distinct that you PLACEMENT OF LIST
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can’t miss seeing them later. Start a new page numbered sequentially with
■ Consult with your instructor if you’re un- the rest of the paper, following the Notes pages,
sure about any phase of the documentation if any.
process.
CONTENT AND FORMAT
Guidelines for avoiding Include all sources quoted from, paraphrased,
plagiarizing online sources or summarized in your paper. Start each entry
on a new line and at the regular left margin. If
■ Never cut material from an online source the entry uses more than one line, indent the
and paste it directly in your paper. You can second and all following lines one-half inch (or
too easily lose track of which language is five spaces) from the left margin. Double-space
your own and which comes from a source. all lines.
■ Keep material that you downloaded or SPACING AFTER PUNCTUATION
printed from the Internet separate from Always put only one space after a comma or
your own writing, whether you intend to a colon.
ARRANGEMENT OF ENTRIES named for more than one person, name only the
Alphabetize by author’s last name. If no author first: Prentice for Prentice Hall. For university
is named, alphabetize by the title’s first signifi- presses, use the capital letters U and P (without
cant word (ignore A, An, or The). periods): Oxford UP; U of Chicago P
AUTHORS’ NAMES PUBLICATION MONTH
Use first names and middle names or middle ABBREVIATIONS
initials, if any, as given in the source. Don’t Abbreviate all publication months except May,
reduce to initials any name that is given in full. June, and July. Use the first three letters
For one author or the first-named author in followed by a period (Dec., Feb.) except for
multiauthor works, give the last name first. September (Sept.).
Use the word and with two or more authors.
List multiple authors in the order given in PAGE RANGES
the source. Use a comma between the first Give the page range—the starting page
author’s last and first names and after each number and the ending page number, con-
complete author name except the last. After nected by a hyphen—of any paginated elec-
the last author’s name, use a period: Fein, tronic source and any paginated print source
Ethel Andrea, Bert Griggs, and that is part of a longer work (for example, a
Delaware Rogash. chapter in a book, an article in a journal). A
Include Jr., Sr., II, or III but no other titles range indicates that the cited work is on those
and degrees before or after a name. pages and all pages in between. If that isn’t the
case, use the style shown next for discontinu-
CAPITALIZATION OF TITLES ous pages. In either case, use numerals only,
Capitalize all major words and the first and
last words of all titles and subtitles. Don’t
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capitalize ARTICLES (a, an, the ), PREPOSITIONS,
COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS (and, but, for,
without the word page or pages or the abbrevi-
ation p. or pp.
Use the full second number through 99.
Above that, use only the last two digits for the
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nor, or, so, yet ), or to in INFINITIVES in the second number unless to do so would be un-
middle of a title. clear: 113-14 is clear, but 567-602 requires full
numbers.
SPECIAL TREATMENT OF TITLES
Use quotation marks around titles of shorter DISCONTINUOUS PAGES
works (poems, short stories, essays, articles). A source has discontinuous pages when the
Italicize titles of longer works (books, peri- source is interrupted by material that’s not part
odicals, plays). of the source (for example, an article beginning
When a book title includes the title of on page 32 but continued on page 54). Use the
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another work that is usually italicized (as with starting page number followed by a plus sign
a novel, play, or long poem), the preferred (+): 32+.
MLA style is not to italicize the incorporated
title: Decoding Jane Eyre. For an alternative MEDIUM OF PUBLICATION
that MLA accepts, see the MLA documenta- Include the MEDIUM OF PUBLICATION for each
tion chapter. Works Cited entry. For example, every entry for
If the incorporated title is usually enclosed in a print source must include “Print” at the end,
quotation marks (such as a short story or short followed by a period (if required, certain
poem), keep the quotation marks and italicize supplementary bibliographic information like
the complete title of the book: Theme and translation information, name of a book series,
Form in “I Shall Laugh Purely”: A Brief or the total number of volumes in a set should
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Study. follow the medium of publication). Every

Drop A, An, or The as the first word of a source from the World Wide Web must include
periodical title. “Web” at the end, followed by a period and the
PLACE OF PUBLICATION date of access. The medium of publication also
needs to be included for broadcast sources
If several cities are listed for the place of (“Television”, “Radio”), sound recordings
publication, give only the first. MLA doesn’t (“CD”, “LP”, “Audiocassette”), as well as films,
require US state names no matter how obscure
or confusing the city names might be. For an DVDs, videocassettes, live performances,
unfamiliar city outside the United States, musical scores and works of visual arts, and
include an abbreviated name of the country or so on.
Canadian province. ISSUE AND VOLUME NUMBERS
PUBLISHER FOR SCHOLARLY JOURNALS
Use shortened names as long as they are clear: Include both an issue and volume number for
Random for Random House. For companies each Works Cited entry for scholarly journals.
This applies both to journals that are continu- Shuter, R. (1977). A field study of nonver-
ously paginated and those that are not. bal communication in Germany, Italy,
and the United States. Communication
WORKS CITED INFORMATION Monographs, 44, 298–305.
REQUIRED FOR ONLINE SOURCES
The following publication information should SPACING AFTER PUNCTUATION
be listed for online sources (see Chapter 36 for APA calls for one space after end-punctuation
additional requirements for online journals, marks.
periodicals, and databases): ARRANGEMENT OF ENTRIES
1. Name of the author, director, narrator, Alphabetize by the author’s last name. If no au-
performer, editor, compiler, or producer thor is named, alphabetize by the first signifi-
of the work. If no author is given, begin cant word (ignore A, An, or The) in the title of
the entry with the title of the work. the work.
2. Title of the work. Italicize the title, AUTHORS’ NAMES
unless it is part of a larger work. Titles
that are part of a larger work should be Use last names, first initials, and middle initials,
enclosed in quotation marks. if any. Reverse the order for all authors’ names,
and use an ampersand (&) before the last au-
3. Title of the overall Web site (in italics) if thor’s name: Mills, J. F., & Holahan, R. H.
this is distinct from the title of the work. Give names in the order in which they ap-
4. Version or edition of the site. pear on the work (on the title page of a book or
5. Publisher or sponsor of the site. If this under the title of an article or other printed
no publisher).
6. Date of publication (day, month, and
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information is not available, use n.p. (for
year, if available). If no date is given,

work). Use a comma between each author’s last
name and first initial and after each complete
name except the last. Use a period after the last
author’s name.
use n.d.
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7. Medium of publication. For all online Date information follows the name informa-
sources, the medium of publication tion and is enclosed in parentheses. Place a pe-
is “Web”. riod followed by one space after the closing
parenthesis.
8. Date of access (day, month, and year). For books, articles in journals that have vol-
Guidelines for an APA-style ume numbers, and many other print and non-
References list print sources, the year of publication or
production is the date to use. For articles from
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TITLE most general-circulation magazines and news-
The title is “References” (centered without papers, use the year followed by a comma and
quotation marks, italics, or underlining). then the exact date that appears on the issue
(month and day for daily and weekly publica-
PLACEMENT OF LIST tions, month alone for monthly and bimonthly
Start a new page. Number it sequentially with publications, and season for quarterly publica-
the rest of the paper and place it immediately tions). Capitalize any words and use no abbre-
after the body of the paper. viations. Individual entries that follow show
how much information to give for various
CONTENTS AND FORMAT sources.
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Include all quoted, paraphrased, or summarized

sources in your paper that are not personal CAPITALIZATION OF TITLES
communications, unless your instructor tells For book, article, and chapter titles, capitalize
you to include all the references you have con- the first word, the first word after a colon
sulted, not just those you have to credit. Start between a title and subtitle, and any proper
each entry on a new line, and double-space all nouns. For names of journals and proceedings
lines. APA recommends that student papers fol- of meetings, capitalize the first word, all nouns,
low journal formatting by using a hanging in- verbs, adverbs, and adjectives, and any other
dent style: The first line of each entry begins words four or more letters long.
flush left at the margin, and all other lines are
indented. The hanging indent makes source SPECIAL TREATMENT OF TITLES
names and dates more prominent. Type the first Use no special treatment for titles of shorter
line of each entry full width, and indent subse- works (poems, short stories, essays, articles).
quent lines one-half inch. The easiest way to do Italicize titles of longer works (books, names of
this is using the word processor’s ruler bar. newspapers or journals). If an italic typeface is
unavailable, draw an unbroken line beneath formats. This guide updates the Publication
the title and beneath the punctuation. Guide of the American Psychological Association
Don’t drop any words, such as A, An, orThe, (5th ed.).
from the titles of periodicals (such as newspa- When citing electronic or online sources,
pers, magazines, and journals). include the name(s) of author(s) the same way
as for books and journals. Always include the
PUBLISHERS
publication date in parentheses after the
Use a shortened version of the publisher’s author(s) name(s), followed by a period.
name except for an association, corporation, Titles of books, periodicals, and whole Web
or university press. Drop Co., Inc., Publishers, sites should be italicized; titles of articles or
and the like, but retain Books or Press. pages in a Web site should not use italics.
PLACE OF PUBLICATION Articles retrieved online should always list the
For US publishers, give the city and add the volume and issue number; this is a change
state (use the two-letter postal abbreviations from previous APA guidelines.
listed in most dictionaries) for all US cities You then include retrieval information for
except Baltimore, Boston, Chicago, Los the electronic source. For articles with DOI
Angeles, New York, Philadelphia, and San (Digital Object Identifier) numbers, this is
Francisco. For publishers in other countries, simply the letters “doi” followed by a colon,
give city and country spelled out; no country then the number.
name is needed with Amsterdam, Jerusalem, For nearly all other references, retrieval
information begins with the words “Retrieved
London, Milan, Moscow, Paris, Rome, Stock-
holm, Tokyo, and Vienna. However, if the
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state or country is part of the publisher’s
name, omit it after the name of the city.
from,” sometimes followed by the date you
actually retrieved it, then the URL and,
occasionally, additional information, such as
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ABBREVIATIONS OF MONTHS
database names.
Don’t abbreviate the names of months in any

context.
PAGE NUMBERS
Use all digits, omitting none. For references
to books or newspapers only, use p. and pp.
before page numbers. List all discontinuous
pages, with numbers separated by commas:
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pp. 32, 44–45, 47–49, 53.
REFERENCES ENTRIES: BOOKS
Citations for books have four main parts: au-
thor, date, title, and publication information
(place of publication and publisher). Each
part ends with a period.
REFERENCES ENTRIES: ARTICLES
Citations for periodical articles contain four
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major parts: author, date, title of article, and

publication information (usually, the period-
ical title, volume number, and page numbers).
Each part ends with a period.
REFERENCES ENTRIES: ELECTRONIC
AND ONLINE SOURCES For more help with your
Styles for documenting electronic and online writing, grammar, and research,
sources continue to evolve. The APA Style go to www.mycomplab.com
Guide to Electronic References (Washington,
D.C.: American Psychological Association,
2007) is available on the APA Web page
http://www.apastyle.org/elecref.html and is
the best source for current guidelines on these ©2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Lynn Quitman Troyka, Adjunct Professor in the Graduate Program in
Language and Literature at the City College (CCNY) of the City University
of New York (CUNY), has also taught at Queensborough Community
College. Former editor of the Journal of Basic Writing, she has had her writing
and research published in major journals and various scholarly collections.
She also conducts workshops in the teaching of writing. Dr. Troyka is coau-
thor of Quick Access Reference for Writers, Sixth Edition, Pearson Prentice Hall;
QA Compact, Second Edition, Pearson Prentice Hall; the Canadian editions
of her Simon & Schuster Handbook for Writers and Quick Access Reference for
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Writers; Structured Reading, Seventh Edition, Prentice Hall; and Steps in
Composition, Eighth Edition, Prentice Hall.
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Dr. Troyka is a past chair of the Conference on College Composition and
Communication (CCCC); the Two-Year College Association (TYCA) of the
National Council of Teachers (NCTE); the College Section of NCTE; and
the Writing Division of the Modern Language Association (MLA). She
received the 2001 CCCC Exemplar Award, the highest CCCC award for
scholarship, teaching, and service; the Rhetorician of the Year Award; and the
TYCA Pickett Award for Service.
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“This information,” says Dr. Troyka, “tells what I’ve done, not who I am.
I am a teacher. Teaching is my life’s work, and I love it.”
Doug Hesse, Professor of English and Director of Writing at the Univer-

sity of Denver, previously held several positions at Illinois State University,
including Director of the Honors and Writing Programs and also Director of
the Center for the Advancement of Teaching. Dr. Hesse earned his PhD from
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the University of Iowa. He has also taught at the University of Findlay, Miami
University (as Wiepking Distinguished Visiting Professor), and Michigan
Tech.
Dr. Hesse is a past chair of the Conference on College Composition and
Communication (CCCC), the nation’s largest professional association of col-
lege writing instructors. A past president, as well, of the Council of Writing
Program Administrators (WPA), Dr. Hesse edited that organization’s journal,
Writing Program Administration. He has been a member of the executive com-
mittee of the National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE) and chaired the
Modern Language Association (MLA) Division on Teaching as a Profession.
He is the author of over fifty articles and book chapters in such journals
as College Composition and Communication, College English, JAC, Rhetoric
Review, and the Journal of Teaching Writing and in such books as Essays on the
Essay; Writing Theory and Critical Theory; The Writing Program Administrator’s
Sourcebook; Literary Nonfiction; The Private, the Public, and the Published; and
Passions, Pedagogies, and 21st Century Technologies. He is also coauthor with
Lynn Quitman Troyka of Quick Access Reference for Writers, Sixth Edition,
Pearson Prentice Hall and QA Compact, Second Edition, Pearson Prentice
Hall. He has consulted at over forty colleges and universities.
The writing program he directs at the University of Denver is only one of
twenty-five internationally to receive the CCCC Certificate of Excellence.
“Of all these accomplishments,” says Dr. Hesse, “the one that matters most to
me was being named Distinguished Humanities Teacher. That one came from
my students and suggests that, in however small a way, I’ve mattered in their
education and lives.”
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Lynn Quitman Troyka Doug Hesse

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PROOFREADING RESPONSE SYMBOLS
MARKS ab abbreviation error 493–498

AND RESPONSE ad adjective or adverb error 370–377
ca pronoun case error 335–352
SYMBOLS cap needs a capital letter 484–491
Your instructor might use response cl revise a cliché 262–263
symbols to show where writing coh needs coherence 84–90
should be edited or revised. coord faulty coordination 220–222; 228–229
You can use proofreading marks

cs comma splice 390–400
dev needs development 75–76; 82–102
on hard copy for editing or dm dangling modifier 404–405
revision. e needs exact language 257–258
PROOFREADING MARKS emph needs emphasis 219–220; 229–234
frag sentence fragment 377–389
delete hyph hyphen needed 480-483; 502
take this this out inc incomplete sentence 377–389
ital italics error 491–493
new paragraph
This is the end. This
is a new beginning. r k
lc
mixed
awkward
needs lowercase letter
mixed construction
400–406
484–491
412–415
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mm misplaced modifier 400–404
transpose letters ¶ new paragraph 75–103
transpoe s letters no ¶ no new paragraph 75–103
// faulty parallelism 234–241
transpose words pass passive voice 333–335
words transpose pl faulty plural 503–504
pro agr pronoun agreement error 364–369
insert pro ref pronoun reference error 345–352
caret
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A signals an addition p punctuation error 418–483
,/ comma error 422–444
add space ;/ semicolon error 444–449
addspace :/ colon error 449–453
v’ apostrophe error 454–459
close up space “/” quotation marks error 460–468
clo se up space rep too much repetition 246–247
shift sentence shift 406–412
SP spell out sl revise slang 261–262
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They live in WI. SP sp spelling error 502–512

subord subordination error 222–229
rom use roman type sxt sexist language 258–260; 367–368
That sounds rom t, tense verb tense error 323–330
trans needs transition 85–86; 102–103
ital use italic type u needs unity 84–90
Washington Post ital us usage error 265–282
v verb form error 311–323
cap use capital letters v agr verb agreement error 352–364
a nne t yler cap var needs sentence variety 218–234
w wordy 242–251
lc use lowercase letters wc word choice error 254–257
Drive North and then E ast. lc ww wrong word 252–264

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Simon Schuster Handbook For W - Lynn Quitman Troyka 8

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How can I improve the grammar and vocabulary in my writing?

(if you plan to work in an English-speaking environment or in a context where

1. What kinds of writing do you assign to students in your classes?

49a How can I improve the grammar and vocabulary

49b How can I improve my sentence structure?

EXERCISE 49-1 Many different revisions of the previous example of a

EXERCISE 49-2 A student wrote the following passage in a paper he

49c How can I improve my word choice (vocabulary)?

49d How can I find and correct errors in my own writing?

49e How can I correct verb form (tense) errors

EXERCISE 49-3 Read the following passage in which a student describes

49f How can I correct my errors

EXERCISE 49-4 Examine the following student’s description of his expe-

49g How can I correct my singular/plural errors?

plural words correctly.

49h How can I correct my preposition errors?

EXERCISE 49-6 In the following passage about one student’s learning

I’ve always wanted to learn languages other than my native language.

How can I keep track of my most common errors?

Specific Error Correction Type of Error

as much as we want wanted verb form

that we write comments wrote verb form

about why we have sketched had verb form

which I have sketched had verb form

we fill the playground filled verb form

that we have been there had verb form

once we have recited had verb form

49k How can I improve my proofreading skills?

Another effective way to improve your proofreading skills is to exchange

EXERCISE 49-8 The following passage was written by a bilingual student

I’ve always faced some problem in writing in English as it took me

developed my skills in English writing. My first class in English was about

that often cause significant difficulties for students.

ENGLISH ERRORS TRANSFERRED FROM OTHER LANGUAGES

Languages Error Topic Sample Errors Corrected Errors

NO: The book was

Japanese, Korean, changes for loudly. loudly.

For more help with your writing, grammar, and research,

50a What are count and noncount nouns?

GROUPS OF SIMILAR clothing, equipment, furniture, jewelry, junk,

Some nouns can be countable or uncountable, depending on their mean-

Quick Reference 50.1

her, its, their,

Quick Reference 50.1 (continued)

GROUP 3: DETERMINERS FOR NONCOUNT NOUNS

50c How do I use one of, nouns as adjectives, and states

YES One of the reasons to live here is the beach.

NOUNS USED AS ADJECTIVES

The bird’s wingspan is ten inches. [Inches is functioning as a noun.]

NO Many Americans students are basketball fans.

NO The United States have a large entertainment industry.

50d How do I use nouns with irregular plurals?

PLURALS OF FOREIGN NOUNS AND OTHER IRREGULAR NOUNS

For more help with your writing, grammar, and research,

51a How do I use a, an, or the with singular

Quick Reference 51.1

One common exception affects Rule 3 in Quick Reference 51.1. A noun

51b How do I use articles with plural nouns