Proceedings of 2004 ASME Turbo Expo

Power for Land Sea and Air

June 14–17 Vienna, Austria

GT2004-54310

APPLICATION OF CONTINUOUS COMBUSTION DYNAMICS MONITORING ON LARGE

INDUSTRIAL GAS TURBINES

Jesse Sewell, Pete Sobieski, Craig Beers

Calpine Turbine Maintenance Group, Pasadena, Texas USA
Tel: + 1-832-476-4413
Email: jsewell@calpine.com

ABSTRACT laboratory rigs. Published results on combustion

This paper presents results from continuous monitoring of
combustion dynamics and its application in determining
the health of combustion system hardware. A number of
180 MW class large industrial gas turbines operating on
natural gas have been instrumented with a continuous
Combustor Dynamics Monitoring (CDM) for each
combustion chamber. Tuning considerations for
emissions, stability and extended combustion parts life is
discussed. Physical inspection of engine hardware is
correlated with spectral and supervisory engine data to
determine signatures in the combustion chambers that
represent damaged or failing hardware. This
methodology can also be used to identify potentially
harmful operational profiles. Spectral examples of a pilot
nozzle and transition piece failures are presented.
Monitoring and recognizing the differences in spectral
signatures associated with stability and component
failures suggests better understanding of combustion
dynamics contribution to combustor parts wear and
reduction in downstream damage.
INTRODUCTION
Research on combustion instabilities for industrial gas
turbines has increased substantially over the past few
years [1]. However, focus has been on design and the
results confined to either Computational Fluid Dynamics
(CFD) analysis and small scale or single combustor
instability tests from OEM’s full-scale test rigs are rare.
Combustion dynamics monitoring has been traditionally
used in industrial gas turbines to tune engines for
emissions, stability, output and even heat rate. Other
considerations of combustion tuning include; ambient
temperature, steam power augmentation, peak firing, inlet
fogging and evaporative cooling, or even hydrogen
blending.
Perhaps the most beneficial contribution of continuous
monitoring is recognizing the dynamic spectrum
signatures associated with combustion part failures. Fuel
or air distribution problems left unchecked can lead to
higher dynamics and early part failure. Cracking of
combustion parts and other component failures have
been known to liberate pieces and introduce significant
downstream damage.
Calpine started to continuously monitor combustion
dynamics in the spring of 2001. It was early in the rapid
construction and commissioning of their 501F fleet.
Combustion systems were experiencing several different
types of failures including; broken swirler cup pins,
combustor by-pass valves and transitions pieces. Forced
outages were occurring every 3-4 weeks on some units.
Benefits of CDM are not limited to Dry Low NOx (DLN)
engines. DLN combustors need monitoring to prevent
flameout, due to lean combustion for a wide range of
ambient conditions and other operational influences

1 Copyright © 2004 by ASME

introduced to improve engine output and efficiency [2,3].
Conventional combustors are also capable of part failures
and should be monitored and studied to improve
combustion parts life and outage intervals.
The System
A 3/8 ID waveguide or tube is mounted flush to the
combustion liner providing acoustic access to a sampling
point in the primary zone of the combustor (see figure 1).
Waveguide
Acoustic Access Point
Combustor
Top Hat
Figure 1. Acoustic access to primary zone of the combustor
The waveguide passes through a pressure seal in the
engine casing at the combustor top hat, through an
isolation valve and to the dynamic pressure sensor. The
waveguide extends to an attenuation tube that consists of
a ¾ inch tube filled with 1/16-inch capillary tubes that
dampens the signal. For condensation in the tubing, it is
periodically purged with dry nitrogen. Figure 2 shows a
general description and layout of the system.
Attenuation Tube
Piezoelectric
transducer
Charge
Converter
Combustor Top
Hat
Analyzer
Figure 2. General System Layout
The sensor is a fast response piezo-electric crystal type
dynamic pressure transducer. The sensor is hermetically
sealed, electrically isolated and vibration compensated.
The analyzer is configured to trigger an alarm in the
Digital Control System (DCS) and save data for pre-
programmed thresholds. Spectrum amplitudes in this
paper are presented 0-peak.
Plant Historian and Data
Combustor dynamics are commonly analyzed in the
frequency domain by applying a Fast-Fourier Transform
(FFT) to the time domain pressure signal of each
combustor. This technique decomposes the time signal
into a collection of sine waves, which correspond to what
is commonly known as “spectral bins” or “spectral lines”.
It is not practical to save all frequency and amplitude data
of the entire spectrum for every combustor. Philosophies
vary when it comes to the best method to capture
historical data and events. Some users prefer to divide
the spectrum up into discrete frequency bands where
peak amplitudes can be recorded and averaged. While
this does keep track of overall noise levels, waveform
information is limited to either peak amplitude or
averaged in the frequency band chosen. Changes in the
spectrum could go undetected. All that is really know
from this type of data is large amplitudes are damaging
and low amplitudes are less damaging. This is an area
where further study and research is needed. In an
attempt to further understand the impact or contribution of
combustor dynamics to parts life, data analysis is divided
up between values brought into the plant historian and
identification techniques of the spectra in the analyzer
software.
Frequency, amplitude and energy are brought into the
historian where it can be reviewed with engine
supervisory instruments. Typical resolution for plant
historical data is every second. The live data can be
monitored continuously or can be reviewed periodically.
Statistical data is compiled to learn typical operational
profiles for alarm indication when levels are out of the
normal. Post outage analysis is performed to determine if
there is any connection between combustor dynamics
and individual combustor component damage or
excessive wear.
The analyzer has several analytical functions that can be
programmed for discrete frequency bands, or the entire
spectrum. Statistical functions include; standard
deviation, mean, crest factor, K-factor, skewness and
kurtosis. Other useful functions include but are not
limited to; time threshold, auto and cross correlation and
Nitrogen spectral envelope. For example; spectral envelope is
Purge
very useful in characterizing the signature or envelope
each combustor so that changes in frequency and
amplitude are readily detected. Alarm threshold levels
are set to warn operations of harmful or abnormal
conditions. While each method has it’s own advantages
and disadvantages; this paper will only present
frequency, amplitude and energy.
2 Copyright © 2004 by ASME
Energy is defined as:
u drops and the engine output increases.
Elu = ∑a
i =l
i
2 Fuel blending is potentially a very harmful type of DLN or
Where:
Elu = the energy in the spectral band
ai = amplitude of the ith spectral bin
l = lower frequency boundary
u = upper frequency boundary
An “energy band” is defined as the square root of the
summation of the squared magnitudes of the each
spectral bin contained with in the energy region. Energy
in discrete frequency bands can detect changes in the
spectrum that are not evident in peak amplitudes or data
averaging. For example, a spectrum could display a
Gaussian distribution or spike around a dominant
frequency or mode of a combustor. If the distribution is a
narrow spike it may not have as much energy as a
spectra with lower amplitude but broader or flatter
distribution. The authors make no argument as to the
best method to monitor, record or analyze data.
Considerations of Tuning
Traditionally dynamics monitoring has been used for
engine tuning. Typically, the OEM will put instruments in
place, tune for stability, emissions and contractual
guarantees and then remove the instruments. A diligent
tuner will map out engine stability by varying the fuel
splits and airflow to develop an optimum set of fractions
or stage splits for that engine. The OEM rarely provides
the user with reports or insight to engine health and
stability from the tuning.
In addition, the tuner is not necessarily able to tune for
upcoming ambient changes such as temperature and
humidity. Without continuous monitoring, the only way
operators know if there is a tuning issue, is when
dynamics become audible and the engine begins to
rumble or trips [4]. Other indications of tuning troubles
include excessive emissions and unstable operation such
as load swings. In any case, the operation is potentially
harmful to combustor components. Further, it could be
days before a tuner is available to come back and re-tune
the engine. In most cases the engine will be load limited
to prevent harmful operation in the range of instability.
Historical engine data together with dynamics data can
identify the onset of a tuning issue before it becomes
critical and limits the operation of the unit.
Operations like inlet fogging, evaporative cooling and
inlet chilling allow plants to run more efficient at increased
output when ambient temperatures or plant
location/elevation limit maximum load and efficiency.
Depending on how the unit is dispatched, it could
experience extremes in temperature and humidity through
various load ranges several times a day. The threat is
not isolated to DLN engines [4]. Excessive combustor
dynamics (~1.5 to 2X increase) on conventional
combustors have been observed as ambient temperature
diffusion operation, depending on the type of fuel. For
pure hydrogen, the flammability of the fuel is increased so
the potential for flashback increases. To off set this,
steam can be introduced in the turbine shell, downstream
of the compressor and before the combustors to control
flame position and local metal temperature.
Continuous monitoring and recording are instrumental in
identifying ambient conditions or special operations that
become potentially harmful. Combustor tuning or
operational adjustments can be made on a moments
notice. Keeping the engine tuned to meet the changes in
ambient and special operations suggest extended parts
life and significantly improve maintenance cycles [2,5].
During forced and scheduled outages it is possible to
routinely examine the combustor hardware and review
energy, amplitude levels and spectral signatures
associated with any damage. If there is a connection
between spectral information and damaged components
then the signature is characterized. When the abnormal
spectra or reading is observed during operations it is
sometimes possible to distinguish between tuning and a
localized hardware problem. Tuning issues can be
addressed immediately, otherwise an outage or economic
shutdown can be scheduled.
Matching Spectral Data to Other Engine Parameters -
Example
The unit was experiencing low frequency combustor
dynamics at about 25 Hz as it approached base load and
would periodically get an alarm while at steady state.
Figure 3 shows the combustor exhibiting the low
frequency dynamics (0.837 psi @23.75Hz). The solid
lines depict the amplitude threshold value programmed in
the software. Alarm threshold in the low frequency zone
(10-50 Hz) was set for 0.5 psi (0-peak). The lower line is
showing a live trace while the upper line is peak hold.
Alarm Threshold
Green line
Upper (Purple) line is peak hold
Lower line (Blue) is live trace
Figure 3. Dynamic Spectrum with 23.75 Hz spike in Alarm,
amplitude is psi (0-pk)
3 Copyright © 2004 by ASME
 Location of
Figure 4 illustrates that all combustors have the same
Flashback Th ermocouple
shaped spectra or ‘envelope’ and the amplitudes are very
similar, with the exception of position 8. At this instant a
relay triggers an alarm in the control room to alert
operators and the analyzer saves a time-waveform
recording. This is essential for post-event analysis.

Figure 5. Typical flashback thermocouple location

Figure 4. Several spectra showing similar signatures with the
exception of position 8, which is in alarm. Amplitude and
frequency of cursor is shown in lower left of respective spectrum
Further investigation of the incidents using the plant
historian showed at the same instant that the dynamics
spiked, a flashback thermocouple in the same combustor
showed an increase in temperature of about 20 to 60 deg
F. Flashback temperature (Tf b) is defined as:
T fb = Tc − Ts
Where;
Tc = combustor temperature
Typical alarm limit set points for these engines are about
200 deg F. Also the indication has to stay above
threshold for 30 seconds before the engine will auto
unload. If the Flashback temperature is high enough it
can initiate an instantaneous trip. Low level flashbacks,
as shown in the example are not detected by this type of
control system engine protection. In this example, there
was not any changes in emissions, exhaust or blade path
temperatures.
Figure 6 shows combustor temperatures and dynamic
energy as the engine is loaded, holding base load and
subsequently unloaded on operator control. As the
engine is loaded the energy value is slightly increased in
the low frequency band. Figure 7 shows dynamic activity,
as the engine is a steady state base load. Without the
combustor dynamics alarm, there would not have been
any control indication that something was wrong.
Energy Correlation to Combustor Temperature as Engine is Loaded
850 850 1.5 DEG F
Combustor 8 Flashback Temperatures DEG F
800 psi
750

Ts = compressor discharge temperature

700 Combustor 8 Energy (0-50Hz)

The Flashback thermocouple (Tc ) is located in a high

650
velocity region of the combustor, down stream of the
premixers and before the primary zone of the combustor, 600 600 0
which is in the same plane as the combustor dynamics -6 -5 -4 Hour(s) -2 -1
COMBUSTOR #8 TEMP #1
access point (figure 5). The compressor discharge COMBUSTOR #8 TEMP #2
temperature (Ts ) is located downstream of the RMSct1_10-50Hz_c8

compressor and before the head end of the combustor. Figure 6. Energy Correlation to Low Level Flashback as Engine is
Loaded

Further, the energy value of the dynamics in this

frequency band depicts an increased sensitivity to the

4 Copyright © 2004 by ASME

condition that traditional plant supervisory instruments did
not detect. Notice the energy spike in both Figures 6 and
7 where the low level flashback was not detected. In this
combustion system there are two flashback
thermocouples in each combustor located 180 degrees
apart, monitoring the temperature in the high velocity
region of the main stage nozzles. There are 8 main stage
fuel nozzles, so it is possible to have a damaging
flashback in one main nozzle that does not have a
thermocouple.
Any flashback detection should be taken seriously. This
signature has been seen several times in our fleet and is
an indication of either lean blow out or a flow disturbance
in the combustor. Findings from inspections include; lock
wire and other debris lodged in the swirlers, broken
swirler pins and holes burned in the side of the
combustors. It is important to note that the indication is
not always a real flashback. In the case above, it was
caused by a localized disturbance or recirculation due to
an obstruction in the airflow at the pre-mixers. In one
case a linkage assembly for a combustor by-pass valve
had been installed one spline off, 15% more open as
compared to the other valves. In this particular case the
airflow in the subject combustor was reduced, slowing
down the air velocity and the conditions were favorable
for true flashback.
Energy Correlation to Low Level Flashback at Steady Conditions
850 850 1.5
800 Combustor 8 Flashback Temperatures
750
700
Combustor 8 Energy (0-50Hz)
650
600 600 0
-25 -20 Min(s) -10 -5
COMBUSTOR #8 TEMP #1
COMBUSTOR #8 TEMP #2
RMSct1_10-50Hz_c8
Figure 7. Energy Correlation to Low Level Flashback at Steady
Conditions
These examples shows the importance of live recording
as compared to data averaging, and synchronizing time
between plant data and dynamics.
Recognizing spectrums
Signatures of the spectrums can vary throughout the load
range depending on fuel splits. However, signatures of
all combustors should be fairly uniform from basket to
basket regardless of fuel splits or load. There will be
some variations in amplitudes due to attenuation in tubing
runs to the access point, sensor calibration, sensitivity,
fuel delivery etc [2]. Over all, each combustor will have
the same envelope. The natural or dominant frequency
of the combustion system is fixed by the geometry of
design [1,3,4,6]. This characteristic is used to identify
problems.
The following examples illustrate how part failures can be
identified in the spectrum. Unfortunately, it is not always
possible to determine which part has failed until after an
inspection. However, there is a signature or detection
that something is wrong. Using combustor dynamics data
along with plant supervisory data, the objective for
operations is to quickly determine if the unit should be
shut down or if it can be safely operated at reduced load
until parts, manpower and equipment can be brought to
site. This can significantly reduce engine and operations
down time.
The following spectrums were observed on a Siemens-
Westinghouse Power Corp. (SWPC) 501FC, Gas Only
combustion system with internal combustor by-pass
valves and 2L panel transition. The first indication that
the operator received was an alarm in the 100 to 500 Hz
band (see figure 8) on combustor number 16. As in the
example above, the lower line is showing the live trace
while the upper line is showing peak hold. The typical
dominant frequency of the combustor is 120 to 135 Hz.
The alarm indication showed a distinct spike at 156.25
Hz. While the other combustors show very similar
signatures of frequency and amplitude, combustors 15
DEG F and 16 show slightly higher than normal spectra. Position
DEG F
psi
16 exhibits a 156 Hz spike over 2.0 psi which is slightly
outside the normal 125 to 135 Hz frequency range of the
system.
Figure 8. Combustor 16 in alarm with a 156.25 Hz spike above the
alarm threshold out side of the normal spectrum envelope
(peak hold on)
5 Copyright © 2004 by ASME

Looking closer, there is some of 156 Hz contribution in
combustor 15, see figure 9. However, the 156 Hz is not
visible in combustors 11 thru 14. For this example, only
combustors 11-16 are shown in an attempt to provide
better detail on the signatures. The 156 Hz component
was also observed in combustor 1 (which is adjacent to
position 16). Significance of this detail is that combustors
are acoustically coupled via cross flame tubes and noise
can be heard and detected in the adjoining baskets. This
is a very important observation in any part failure
signature to distinguish a localized event rather than
instrumentation or tuning. A local event such as a part
failure or flow disturbance will be isolated to the subject
combustor and the adjoining positions. A tuning issue will
be visible in the majority if not all combustors and can be
further isolated by using plant supervisory data.
156 Hz component also seen
in adjacent combustor
Figure 9. Initial pilot nozzle failure spectrum without peak hold,
amplitude in position 16 is above threshold and the adjacent
combustor is exhibiting same frequency
After further review of engine data, there was a 3-5 ppm
increase in NOx emissions and a gradual 45-degree
increase in blade path variance. The blade path variance
is defined as:
Variance = Th − Tave
Where;
Th = Highest Blade Path temperature
Ta v e = Average Blade path temperature
However, blade path variance was still below alarm levels
and could have gone undetected until further damage
was caused. Using blade path thermocouple data to
diagnose a problem combustor does not always pinpoint
the exact position. This is caused by the swirl of flow
through the turbine section. For example, at base load
and fully open IGV position, the rule of thumb is to go
back 2-3 positions to correlate the blade path
thermocouple to the combustor. To be thorough, it is
prudent to inspect a combustor on either side of the target
(as a minimum). However, in this case it was possible to
pin point exactly which combustor was experiencing the
problem with CDM. Because this was the first experience
with such an indication, positions 1, 16 and 15 were
boroscoped to make sure that nothing was missed. The
spectrum and alarm was an indication of a broken pilot
nozzle on position 16. Additional fuel was introduced into
the combustor through a crack on the weld at the flange,
causing a localized disturbance that was identified as a
change in the spectrum. Had the condition been allowed
to continue, there is a possibility that the broken part
could go down stream and cause catastrophic damage.
Location of failure
Figure 10. Location of pilot nozzle cracked at the bolt flange
Total outage time for this case was about 12 hours. The
pilot nozzle was replaced and engine returned to service.
12 days later, the same signature was observed on the
same engine. However, this time there was only a 4 to 5
deg F increase in blade path variance and no increase in
NOx emissions. The engine was immediately shut down,
pilot nozzle replaced and the engine was returned to
6 Copyright © 2004 by ASME
service. Total outage time from base load to base load
was about 4 hours. Blade path spread is defined as:

BPspread = Tave − Tl

Where;

Ta v e = Average Blade Path Temperature

Tl = Lowest Blade Path Temperature

As the crack propagates on the transition panel, it allows

Figure 11. Second pilot nozzle failure, cursors show the
contribution of 156.25 Hz noise present in adjacent combustor but
not in all combustors
compressor discharge air to bypass the head end of the
combustor, thus cooling the exit of the damaged
combustor and showing up in the exhaust as a cold
thermocouple or high blade path spread. It is difficult to
say how big the crack has to be before it shows up as a
change in blade path temperatures.
The typical dominant frequency for these combustors is
about 135 to 145 Hz, which is present in all combustors
as well as the combustor with a damaged transition
(combustor #5). Figure 12 A & B shows the spectrum as
the 225 Hz spike in combustors 4,5 and 6 became
discernable. The signature becomes distinct with highest
amplitudes in position 5 and somewhat lower in amplitude
in adjoining combustors, but clearly more obvious than
the pilot nozzle failure example.

In Figure 11 (live trace only) the cursor shows 156 Hz

component in alarm for basket 16, about 0.5 psi on
basket 15 and insignificant contribution for other Typical spectrum distribution,
combustors, illustrating the acoustic coupling of the 135 to 145 Hz

combustors via cross flame tubes.

Transition Piece Failure

Recognizing dominant frequencies and envelopes of
combustion systems is one of the most important pieces
of information in the spectrum for determining part
failures. There are distinct differences in spectrums and
dominant frequencies between 501F-DLN and 501F-
conventional (diffusion) combustors. On a DLN the
dominant frequency is around 125 to 140 Hz. For
conventional combustors with steam injection, the
dominant frequency is around 165 to 180 Hz. Likewise
there are distinct differences between various classes
and frame size designation. However, as expected the
spectrums are very similar with similar hardware from unit
to unit in the same engine class. Once the spectrum is 225 Hz contribution from
combustor 5
identified then changes or anomalies can sometimes be
readily detected [5].
The following example is a spectral signature of a
transition failure. This is a 501FD, heated gas with
external combustor by -pass valves and 2L fin panel
transitions. In this case, amplitudes never reached OEM
allowables limits. Engine supervisory did not provide any
indication of the condition until the engine tripped on high Figure 12a. Combustors 1 thru 4, early indication of transition
and very rapidly increasing blade path spread. piece failure (combustor 5), red line is peak hold and blue line is
live trace

7 Copyright © 2004 by ASME

 225 signature of combustor
with cracked transition
piece

225 Hz contribution from

combustor 5

Contribution in
adjacent combustor
not as well defined

Figure 13a. Spectrum of Combustors 1 thru 4 prior to engine trip

Figure 12B. Combustors 5 thru 8 early indication of transition on blade path spread
piece failure (combustor 5), red line is peak hold and blue line is
live trace
225 Hz spike in peak
hold and dominant
Further showing the importance of the acoustic coupling
between combustors to verify a localized problem as
compared to tuning or instrumentation. The spectrum
shows the dominant frequency unchanged other than a
distinct spike at around 225 Hz on basket 5. It is difficult
Contribution in
to say how big the crack in the transition was at this time. adjacent combustor
The contributions of this noise in adjacent combustors are not as well defined

obvious.
As time progresses the spike becomes more distinct and
growing in amplitude, even when the load was reduced
from 100% power. Figure 13 shows the spectrum at 27
hrs later (than figure 12). Unit load was at 90.5% power
(166 MW). Overall amplitudes of the combustors are
lower as compared to the higher load point. The
dominant frequency is unchanged. Notice that even
when the energy or amplitude of the 225 Hz spike
becomes dominant, the natural frequency is still present,
unchanged in frequency but perhaps lower in amplitude
and not as well defined as the other combustors 1,2,3, 7
and 8.

Figure 13b. Spectrum of Combustors 5 thru 8 prior to engine trip

on blade path spread

8 Copyright © 2004 by ASME

As the crack propagated, the spike has become larger in
amplitude and more defined. The spike is intermittent,
not a standing wave. Contributions to adjacent
combustors are not as pronounced but still obvious.
When watching live data, the contributions in the adjacent
baskets would come in or spike at the same time. Shortly
after this spectral snap shot the engine tripped on high
blade path spread (alarm level). Figure 14 shows the as
found condition of the transition. The trip occurred only
80 hours after the unit was put into service following a
combustor inspection.
Fortunately there was not any down stream damage,
which is common for this type of transition failure.
Spectral information from this event was reviewed and
characterized so that when this signature is detected the
engine could be safely shut down and parts, manpower
and equipment can be dispatched to the site before it
becomes a forced outage.
Figure 14. As Found Condition of Damaged Transition Piece
Summary
Combustor pulsations are a measurement of the health
and stability of the combustion system. Continuous
monitoring is necessary to keep engine properly tuned
through a wide range of operational conditions. A well-
tuned engine suggests longer parts life and extended
outage intervals. Changes in the spectrum have proven
to identify problems in combustion systems from
anomalies in airflow and fuel delivery to damaged
components. It is not the final word or divining rod of
broken parts. When used in conjunction with other
engine supervisory instruments it can help operations
make key decisions to keep running at reduced loads
while manpower and materials can be found, or to
immediately shut the engine off to prevent major damage.
More research and understanding is needed to develop
better instrumentation and spectral analysis to fully
understand the relationship between combustor dynamics
and part interaction.
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pp. 182-189.
2. Stuttaford, P., Martling, V., Green, A., Lieuwen, T,.
“Combustion Noise Measurement System for Low
Emissions Combustor Performance Optimization and
Health Monitoring”, ASME Paper # GT2003-38255
3. Richards, G., Straub, D., ‘Passive Control of
Combustion Dynamics in Stationary Gas Turbines’
Journal of Propulsion and Power Vol. 19 No.5, 2003,
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4. Mongia, C., Held, T., Hsiao, G., Pandalai, R.,
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Mechanical Engineering Power, June, 2002.
9 Copyright © 2004 by ASME