Module 2 - Measurement of Horizontal Distances

Wednesday, June 9, 2021 8:08 PM

Coverage of this Module:

• Linear Measurements
○ Pacing
○ Taping
○ Distance Measurements in Surveying
○ Special Taping Problems

• MEASUREMENT OF DISTANCE
The accurate determination of the distance between two points on any surface is one of the basic operations of plane
surveying. In surveying, the commonly employed methods of linear measurements includes pacing, taping, tachymetric,
graphical, mathematical, mechanical, photogrammetric, and electronic distance measurement.

○ Distance by Pacing
 Pacing consists of counting the number of steps or paces in a required distance. Pacing furnishes a rapid means of
measurements taken by other methods. It is suitable in determining approximate distances in situations where a low
precision of measurement is sufficient.
 Pace is defined as the length of a step in walking . It may be measured from heel to heel or from toe to toe.

Formula in Pacing:
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

 Stride is equivalent to two pacer or a double steps.

 Pace Factor - it is a value determined by dividing the measured length of a line by the mean number of paces taken to
walk or traverse the line.
 Paced Distance - the length of a course as determined by pacing.

SAMPLE PROBLEMS IN PACING.

1. A 45-m course, AB, on level ground was paced by a surveyor for the purpose of determining his pace factor. The number of
paces for each trial taken are shown in the accompanying tabulation.
Trial Line Taped Distance No. of Paces Mean
1 AB 50
2 BA 53
3 AB 45.0m 51 52
4 BA 53
5 AB 52
6 BA 53

Requirements
• Determine his pace factor

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Requirements
• Determine his pace factor

• If the surveyor then took 771, 770,768,770,772, and 769 paces in walking an unknown distance, CD, what is the length of the
line?

• Assuming that the taped length of line CD is 667.0m, determine the relative precision of the measurement performed.

2. In five trials of walking along a 90-m course on fairly level ground, a pacer for a survey party counted 51, 52.5, 51.5, 52.5, and
51.5 strides respectively. He then started walking an unknown distance XY in four trials which were recorded as follows: 88.5,
89, 88, and 87 strides. Determine the following.
• Pace factor of the pacer

• Length of the line XY

• Percentage of error in the measurement if the taped length of XY is 150.5 meters.

○ Distance by Tachymetry
Tachymetry (tacheometry) --> Another procedure of obtaining horizontal distances. It is based on the optical geometry of

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Tachymetry (tacheometry) --> Another procedure of obtaining horizontal distances. It is based on the optical geometry of
the instruments employed and is an indirect method of measurement.
1. Stadia Method --> This method provides a rapid means of determining horizontal distances. It was introduced in 1771 by
James Watt of Scotland and was at that time referred to as a micrometer for measuring distances. The process of taking a
stadia measurement consists in observing through the telescope the apparent locations of the two stadia hairs on a
vertically held rod. From the observed interval read on the rod, the distance from the telescope to the rod is found by
proportional relationships in similar triangles. The equation is,
𝑫 = 𝑲𝒔 + 𝑪
Where,
D = the horizontal distance
K = stadia interval factor of the instrument (most instrument is designed to 100m)
s = difference between the upper and lower stadia readings.
C = The instrument constant. The distance from the center of the instrument to the principal focus. Its
value is usually equal to zero for internal focusing telescoping

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 SAMPLE PROBLEM:
A stadia rod held at a distant point B is sighted by an instrument set up at A. The upper and lower stadia hair
readings were observed as 1.300m and 0.900m, respectively. If the stadia interval factor (K) is 100, and the
instrument constant is zero, determine the length of line AB.

2. Subtense Bar Method. The subtense bar is a convenient and practical device used for quick and accurate
measurement of horizontal distances. The bar, which is precisely 2 meters long, consists of a rounded steel tube
through which runs a thin invar rod.

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 Principle of Subtense Measurement:

Formula used for the subtense measurement:

𝜶 𝑺/𝟐
𝐭𝐚𝐧 ⎯⎯ = ⎯⎯⎯
𝟐 𝑫
Where,
D = the horizontal distance
𝛼 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑡𝑠
S = subtense bar distance, 2.00m

Sample Problem:
1. The following subtended angles were read on a 2-m long subtense bar using a theodolite: 0°54 13,
0°22'20, 0°32 06", 𝑎𝑛𝑑 0°19′46". Compute the horizontal distance from the theodolite to each position of the bar.

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2. A subtense bar 2.000 meters long is set up near the middle of a traverse line PQ. Using a theodolite set at P, the
angle subtended reads 0°20 14". When the theodolite was transferred and set up at Q, the corresponding
subtended angle was observed as 0°23 47". Determine the horizontal length of line PQ.

PRINCIPLES OF TAPING
○ Composition of Taping Party
Taping is the process of directly measuring distances with the use of a graduated tape. When the measurement is
undertaken in fairly level ground in an open field, the taping party usually consists of the following individuals:
 Head tapeman - the person responsible for the accuracy and speed of all linear measurements with the tape. He
determines and directs the marking of points or stations, orders the clearing out of obstructions along lines to be
measured, and is the person who carries the zero end of the tape ahead.
 Recorder - keeps à record of all measurements, sketches, and observations taken during the process of measurement. He
also checks by pacing all measurements made by the tapemen for possible errors, mistakes, and blunders.
 Flagman - the person whose duty is to hold the range pole (or flagpole) at selected points. He also helps the tapemen in
making measurements and assists in clearing out obstructions along the line to be measured.
 Rear Tapeman - the person whose duty is to assist the head tapeman during a taping operation. He is the who holds the
30-m end or any intermediate meter mark of the tape during a measurement.

○ The Procedure of Taping

The usual procedure in tne taping of distances will involve the process of aligning the tape, stretching it, plumbing selected
tape marks, marking and recording tape lengths.
1. Aligning the Tape.
□ When a line is to be both ends must first be marked.
□ It may also be necessary to establish a few intermediate points to serve as guides obtaining a straight line.
□ Range poles, held at both ends in of the line are used as markers and chaining pins are stuck to the ground to mark
the intermediate points.
□ The tapeman hands over one chaining pin to the rear tapeman, he then takes the zero end of the tape and moves
forward in the general direction of the line to be measured.
□ At initial point the rear tapeman carefully unrolls the tape head from its reel and sees to it that the tape is not looped
of unduly twisted so as to cause kinks on the tape.
□ When the 30-m end of the tape comes up even with the initial point, the rear tapeman calls out "stop".
□ At this command the head tapeman halts and positions himself along the line to be measured by vocal or hand signals

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 □ At this command the head tapeman halts and positions himself along the line to be measured by vocal or hand signals
from the rear tapeman.
2. Stretching the Tape.
□ With the 30-m mark held at the initial point, and the head tapeman aligned, the rear tapeman calls out "all right" or
"OK".
□ The head tapeman takes his position just to the left (or right) of the line, kneels, and pulls tape taut.
□ The tape may be held bet ween the fingers and the palm.
□ He then sticks a chaining pin into the ground to mark the zero-meter end of the tape.
□ When the head tapeman sets his pin, the rear tapeman should be holding his end of the tape precisely on the mark.
3. Plumbing.
□ When the ground is covered by obstacles, weeds, low brush, and irregularities in the ground surface, it will be difficult
or impossible to lay the tape on the ground during measurement.
□ Both ends of the tape should instead be held above ground (about the level of the waist or chest) and in a horizontal
position.
□ Also, each end of tape is marked by positioning a plumb line (defined by a plumb bob and string) held by both
tapemen.
□ When the point is being plumbed over soft ground, the plumb bob is dropped and a pin is carefully set in the hole
made by the plumb bob point.
□ If the length to be measured is less than a full tape length, the head tapeman moves the plumb line to a selected point
on the tape where it can be stretched horizontally, or over a specified or required ground mark.
4. Marking Full Tape Lengths
□ When a full tape length measured the rear tapeman holds his end of the tape opposite the pin earlier set on the
ground.
□ The head tapeman, after being lined-in properly, exerts the required pull on the tape, notes the zero end and sets a
pin beside it.
□ The chaining pin may be set vertically in the ground or given a slant at right angles to the line measured.
□ If the head tapeman is satisfied that the measurement was done accor dingly, he signals that the point marked is
acceptable.
□ The rear tapeman then picks up the rear pin set on the ground and both tapeman move forward.
□ The tape is dragged by the head tapeman who comes to a stop after pacing an equivalent tape length.
□ This procedure is repeated until a partial tape length is to be measured at the end of the line.

5. Tallying Taped Measurements.

□ At the initial point the rear tapeman holds one pin and the head tapeman begins with ten pins carried on his steel
ring.
□ This is the reason why a set of eleven pins is normally used during taping operations.
□ The first pin which the rear tapeman indicates that one tape length has already been holds measured, and the total
number of pins in his possession (not counting the pin still set in the ground) indicates the total number of full tape
lengths that have so far been measured.
6. Measuring Fractional Lengths.
□ When the last segment the line is to be measured, this will often be a measurement which will consist of a fractional
tape length.
□ Upon reaching the end of the line, the head tapeman comes to a halt and the rear tapeman positions himself at last
pin set.
□ The rear tapeman holds the tape in such manner that a whole meter mark is aligned with and opposite the pin.
□ The terminal point should fall within the meter the a mark of the tape which is subdivided into smaller graduations,
usually in centimeters.
□ After the correct pull is applied, the head tapeman observes the number of centimeters end which extends beyond
the terminal point of the line measured, while the rear tapeman observes the number of the meter mark he is holding
at his end of the tape.
□ The number of centimeters which the head tapeman observes is subtract ed to from the meter reading which the rear
tapeman observes obtain the measured fractional length.

BREAKING TAPE
It is standard practice to hold the tape horizontally above ground and to plumb at one or both ends when taping on sloping
or uneven terrain surfaces.
This requires the measurement of shorter distances which are accumulated to total a full tape length. The procedure is
referred to "breaking tape".

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 referred to "breaking tape".

SLOPE TAPING
Taped measurements may be made directly along the slopes when the ground is of uniform inclination and smooth, rather
than break tape every few meters. This very fairly n practical method is generally preferred since measurements could be
made quickly and more accurately than horizontal measurements.

𝒅 = 𝒔 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜶
  ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
𝒅 = 𝒔𝟐 − 𝒉𝟐

Sample Problem:
1. A measurement is made along a line that is inclined by a vertical angle of 15°25′ as measured using a hand level and
clinometer. The slope measurement is 756.52 meters. What is the corresponding horizontal distance?

2. A horizontal distance of 325.75 m is to be established along a line that slopes at a vertical angle of 13°06′. What is the slope
distance should be laid out?

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3. A line XYZ is measured on the slope in two segments. The first segment XY measures 824.45 m and the second segment YZ
measures 1244.38 m. if the difference of elevation between points X and Y is 4.25 m and that between Y and Z is 6.47 m,
determine the horizontal length of the measured line.

CORRECTIONS IN TAPING
The following conditions which could exist during a taping operation may require the application of corrections.
1. The tape used is not of standard or nominal length due to either faults in their manufacture, or damage caused by
kinks, bends, cuts, and splices on the tape.
2. Ends of the tape are not held at the same level when "breaking tape" along inclined or rough terrain surfaces, or
when undertaking slope taping.
3. Inaccuracy in keeping the tape along a straight line during the measurement or in laying out of lengths.
4. Tape is not of nominal length due to the difference in temperature prevailing during the actual measurement and
the temperature for which the tape was standardized.
5. Shortening or lengthening of the tape due to the application of a pull on its ends which differs significantly from the
pull applied on the tape during standardization.
6. Distance between the end points of an length of tape is less than the specified due to the effect of sag or a strong
blowing side wind.

1. Corrections due to Incorrect Tape Length

Corrections to taping are applied by the use following rules:
1st RULE: When a observed line is measured with a tape that "too long", the corrections are applied to the observed
length by adding.
2nd RULE: When a specified or required length is to b laid out with a tape that is "too long", the corrections are
subtracted from the known length to determine the corrected length to be laid out.
3rd RULE: When measuring or laying out lengths with a tape that is "too short", the corrections are applied opposite to
those stated in the first two rules.

The absolute value for the correction per tape length (Corr) is determined from the difference between the true of actual
length of tape (TL) and the nominal length of tape (NL) or,
𝑪𝒐𝒓𝒓 = 𝑻𝑳 − 𝑵𝑳

This discrepancy is normally assumed to be distributed uniformly throughout the tape and is directly proportional to the
fractional segment of the tape used.
Correspondingly, corrected distances which are measured or laid out with a tape that is too long or too short can be
determined from the following equations,
𝑴𝑳
𝑪𝒍 = 𝑪𝒐𝒓𝒓 ⎯⎯⎯
𝑵𝑳

𝑪𝑳 = 𝑴𝑳 ± 𝑪𝒍

Where,
𝐶 − total correction to be applied to the measured length or length to be laid out
𝐶𝐿 − corrected length of the line to be measured or laid out
𝑀𝐿 − measured length or length to be laid out
𝑁𝐿 − 𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑎𝑝𝑒

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 An incorrect length of tape introduces an error each time the tape is used and is classified as a systematic error. It is
therefore advisable to periodically calibrate tape lengths if accurate measurements are desired.

SAMPLE PROBLEM:
1. The length of a line AB measured with a 50-m tape is 465.285 m. When the tape is compared with a standardized invar tape
it is found to be 0.016 m too long in almost the same conditions of support, tension and temperature existed during
measurement of the line. Determine the correct length of line AB.

ACTIVITY NO. 1 (30 mins.)

1. A rectangular lot was measured using a 50 - m steel tape which was found to be 0.025 too short. If the recorded length and
width of the lot are 180.455 m and 127.062 m, respectively, determine the following:
a. Actual dimensions of the lot.
b. Error in area introduced due to the erroneous length of tape.

2. A building 38 m x 45 m is to be laid out with a 50 - m long metallic tape. If during standardization the tape is found to be only
49.950 m, determine the following:
a. Dimensions to be laid out, using the tape, in order that the building shall have the desired dimensions.
b. Using the same tape, what should the diagonals read?

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Correction due to slope

When distances are measured along the slope, the equivalent horizontal distance may correspondingly be determined applying an
approximate slope correction.

𝒔𝟐 = 𝒅𝟐 + 𝒉𝟐

Where,
s = measured slope distance between points A and B
h = difference in elevation between A and B
d = equivalent horizontal distance AC
𝐶 = slope correction or the difference between slope length and the horizontal distance, 𝐶 = 𝑠 − 𝑑

For gentle slopes (Less than 20%):

𝒉𝟐
𝑪𝒉 = ⎯⎯⎯
𝟐𝒔

For steep slopes (Between 20% to 30%):

𝒉𝟐 𝒉𝟒
𝑪𝒉 = ⎯⎯⎯+ ⎯⎯⎯𝟑
𝟐𝒔 𝟖𝒔

Very Steep Slopes (Greater than 30%):

𝑪𝒉 = 𝒔 (𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽)

For any classification of slopes, the equivalent horizontal distance (d) is determined by subtracting the slope correction 𝐶
From the measured slope distance (s) or
𝒅 = 𝒔 − 𝑪𝒉

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For any classification of slopes, the equivalent horizontal distance (d) is determined by subtracting the slope correction 𝐶
From the measured slope distance (s) or
𝒅 = 𝒔 − 𝑪𝒉

Sample Problem:
1. Slope distances AB and BC measures 330.49 m and 660.97 m, respectively. The differences in elevation are 12.22 m for point A
and B, and 10.85 m for points B and C. Using the approximate slope correction formula for gentle slopes, determine the
horizontal length of line ABC. Assume that line AB has a rising slope and BC a falling slope.

2. A line AB cannot be measured directly because of an obstruction on line. Accordingly, the two lines AC and CB were measured
as 2,400.850 m and 1,320.420 m, respectively. Point C was set at a perpendicular distance of 155 m from point D on line AB.
Using the approximate slope correction formula for steep slopes, determine the length of AB.

Correction due to Temperature

• The tape lengthens as the temperature rises and shortens as the temperature falls.
• Any change in the length of a tape due to variations in temperature is critical when taking precise measurements.
• It can also be significant even for measurements of lower precision as in most engineering-type surveys.
• In ordinary taping of short distances, it is not usually considered since the amount involved is usually small and negligible.
• Tapes used in surveying measurements are standardized at a specific temperature.
• The correction applied to the length of the tape due to change in temperature C, is given by the formula,

𝑪𝒕 = 𝑪𝑳 (𝑻 − 𝑻𝒔 )

Where,
𝐶 = 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝐶 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝐶 = 0.0000116 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝐶𝑒𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑢𝑠)
𝐿 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑
𝑇 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑝𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

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 𝑇 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑝𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑇 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑝𝑒

Sample Problem:
1. A steel tape with a coefficient of linear expansion of 0.0000116/°𝐶 is known to be a 50 m long at 20°𝐶. The tape was used to
measure a line which was found to be 532.28 meters long when the temperature was 35°𝐶. Determine the following:
a. Temperature correction per tape length
b. Temperature correction for the measured line
c. Correct length of the line.

2. A steel tape, known to be of standard length at 20°𝐶, is used in laying out a runway 2,500.00 m long. If its coefficient of linear
expansion is 0.0000116/°𝐶, determine the temperature correction and the correct length to be laid out when the temperature
is 42°𝐶.

Correction due to Tension

• During calibration (or standardization) a tape is subjected to a certain amount of standard pull or tension ends.
• When used in the field during taping, it is elongated on or shortened accordingly, depending on the amount of pull applied on it.
• If the pull is greater than that for which its it was calibrated, the tape elongates and becomes too long.
• Correspondingly, it will stretch less than length when an insufficient pull is applied thus, making it too short.
• An its standard error in measurement results whenever pull applied is different from the standard tension used in calibration.
• The tape stretches in an elastic manner and, since the modulus of' elasticity of a material can be expressed as the ratio of unit
stress to unit elongation, the change in length can be determined as follows:
𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑃/𝐴
𝐸 = ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ = ⎯⎯⎯⎯
𝐸𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑒/𝐿

By substituting the quantity,(𝑃𝑚 − 𝑃𝑠), to P, and computing for the value of the elongation,𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑝 the following formula is
obtained,
(𝑃𝑚 − 𝑃𝑠)/𝐴
𝐸 = ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
𝐶𝑝/𝐿

(𝑷𝒎 − 𝑷𝒔)𝑳
𝑪𝒑 = ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
𝑨𝑬
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 (𝑃𝑚 − 𝑃𝑠)/𝐴
𝐸=
𝐶𝑝/𝐿

(𝑷𝒎 − 𝑷𝒔)𝑳
𝑪𝒑 = ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
𝑨𝑬

and
𝑳 = 𝑳 ± 𝑪𝒑

Where,
𝐶𝑝 = total elongation in tape length due to pull or the correction
due to incorrect pull applied on the tape (m)
𝑃𝑚 = pull applied to the tape during measurement (kg)
𝑃𝑠 = standard pull for the tape or pull for which the tape is calibrated (kg)
L = measured length of line (m)
A = cross-sectional area of the tape (sq.cm), 𝐴 = ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
( )
E = modulus of elasticity of the tape material ⎯⎯⎯ , usually varies from
2.00 𝑥10 to 2.10 𝑥 10 𝑘𝑔/𝑐𝑚
L' = corrected length of the measured line

Sample Problem:
1. A heavy 50-m tape having a cross-sectional area of 0.05 𝑐𝑚 has been standardized at a tension of 5.5 kg.
If 𝐸 = 2.10𝑥10 𝑘𝑔/𝑐𝑚 , determine the elongation of the tape if a pull of 12 kg is applied.

2. A 30-m steel tape weighing 1.45 kg is of standard length under a pull of 5 kg, supported for full length. The tape was used in
measuring a line 938.55 m long on smooth level ground under a steady pull of 10 kg. Assuming 𝐸 = 2.0𝑥10 𝑘𝑔/𝑐𝑚 and the
unit weightof steel to be 7.9 𝑥 10 𝑘𝑔/𝑐𝑚 , determine the following:
a. Cross-sectional area of the tape
b. Correction for increase in tension
c. Correct length of the line measured.

Correction due to Sag

• A tape attains its correct length when it is fully supported and subjected to the pull for which it was standardized.
• If the support is only at its end or at the two points measured, it will sag even if the standard pull is maintained because of its
own weight.
• The tape takes a form of a catenary when it sags between points of support just as an electric or telephone wire which hangs
and swings loosely between two posts.

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 • Sag shortens the horizontal distance between end graduations since the tape length remains the same.
• Thus, a stretched tape sags, the actual distance between the points is something less than the reading on the tape.
• The magnitude of the error due to sag depends on the weight of the tape, the unsupported length, and the tension applied.
• The correction due to sag is the difference in length between the are formed by the tape and the subtending chord. In
determining this correction, the arc is assumed to be a parabola, and is computed with sufficient precision by the formula,
𝝎𝟐 𝑳𝟑
𝑪𝒔 = ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
𝟐𝟒 𝑷𝟐
• Since 𝑾 = 𝝎𝑳 𝒐𝒓 𝑾 = 𝝎 𝑳 , and substituting this, we obtain,
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐

𝑾𝟐 𝑳
𝑪𝒔 = ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
𝟐𝟒 𝑷𝟐
Where,
𝐶 = correction due to sag or the difference between the tape reading and the horizontal distance
between supports (m)
𝜔 = weight of the tape per unit length (kg/m)
W = total weight of tape between supports (kg)
L = interval between supports or the unsupported length of tape (m)
P = tension or pull applied on the tape (kg)

SAMPLE PROBLEM:
1. A 30-m tape is supported only at its ends and under a steady pull of 8 kg. If the tape weighs 0.91 kg, determine the sag
correction and the correct distance between the ends of the tape.

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 correction and the correct distance between the ends of the tape.

2. A 50-m steel tape weighs 0.04 kg/m and is supported at its end points and at the 8-m and 25-m marks. If a pull of 6 kg is applied,
determine the following:
a. Correction due to sag between the 0-m and 8-m marks, 8-m and 25-m marks, and the 25-m and 50-m marks.
b. Correction due to sag for one tape length.
c. Correct distance between the ends of the tape.

3. A 50-m steel tape weighing 0.035 kg/m is constantly supported at mid-length and at its end points, and is used to measure a line
AB, with a steady 6.5 kg. if the measured length of AB is 1268.256 m, determine the following.
a. Correction due to sag between supports and for the whole tape length.
b. Total sag correction for the whole length measured.
c. Correct length of line AB.

Normal Tension
• By exerting a sufficiently greater amount of pull on the tape when it is suspended and sagged, the tape will be stretched and a

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• By exerting a sufficiently greater amount of pull on the tape when it is suspended and sagged, the tape will be stretched and a
considerable decrease in the amount of sag results.
• The applied pull which will lengthen the tape to equal the shortening caused by sag is referred to as the normal tension.
• Its magnitude can be computed for a particular tape or it can be measured out in the field as follows:
○ Stretch the tape on a concrete pavement (or level ground) by applying its prescribed standard pull, and mark its ends on the
pavement.
○ Hold the tape above the ground by supporting it only at its ends, then, pull the tape until the ends coincide with the marked
points on the pavement.
• The normal tension is the amount of pull required to make the end points coincide with the marked points on the pavement.
• Theoretically, the elongation due to increased tension can be made equal to the shortening due to sag by equating the
correction due to tension to the correction due to sag. The formula for normal tension is derived as follows:
𝐶𝑝 = 𝐶𝑠

(𝑃𝑚 − 𝑃𝑠)𝐿 𝑊 𝐿
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ = ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
𝐴𝐸 24 𝑃

  ⎯⎯⎯
𝟎. 𝟐𝟎𝟒 𝑾√𝑨𝑬
𝑷𝑵 = ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
  ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
𝑷𝑵 − 𝑷𝒔

Where,
𝑃 = normal tension or the pull which eliminate the effect of sag (kg)
W = total weight of tape between supports (kg)
A = cross-sectional area of tape (𝑐𝑚 )
E = modulus of elasticity of tape material (𝑘𝑔/𝑐𝑚 )
Ps = standard pull for the tape (kg)

Sample Problem:
1. A steel tape weighing 0.85 kg has a cross-sectional area of 0.05 𝑐𝑚 . The tape measures exactly 30.00 m when supported
throughout its length under a standard pull of 5.5 kg. If the modulus of elasticity of 2.10 𝑥 10 𝑘𝑔/𝑐𝑚 , determine the
tension required to make the tape equal to its nominal length when supported only at the end points.

2. A steel tape having a cross-sectional area of 0.06 𝑐𝑚 and a modulus of elasticity of 2.0𝑥10 𝑘𝑔/𝑐𝑚 , weighs 0.03 kg/m. Its
length is 30.00 m when standardized at a pull of 5 kg and supported throughout its length. Determine the tension at which
the effect of sag will be eliminated by the elongation of the tape due to increased tension.

Module 2 Page 17
 COMBINED CORRECTIONS
• The corrections for the effects of incorrect length identify tape, temperature, tension, slope, and sag may be combined as a
single net correction per tape length.
• Each correction is computed separately and it is important to which correction tends to make the tape too long short.
• Since the sign of each correction can be determined during computation, it is then a matter of adding these quantities
algebraically to arrive at a single and overall correction to lengths which are measured or laid out.
• Combined corrections are usually determined on the basis nominal tape length since each correction is relatively small and do
not appreciably affect each other.

Sample Problem:
1. A line was determined to be 2395.25 m when measured with a 30-m steel tape supported throughout its length under a pull of
4kg and at a mean temperature of 35°𝐶. Determine the correct length of the line if the tape used is of standard length at 20°𝐶
under a pull of 5 kg. The cross-sectional areaof the tape is 0.03 sq.cm., its coefficient of linear expansion is 0.0000116/1°𝐶, and
the modulus of elasticity of steel is 2.0 𝑥 10 𝑘𝑔/𝑐𝑚 .

Activity (To be submitted on Thursday - 5:00 pm)

2. A 50-m steel tape is of standard length under a pull of 5.5 kg when supported throughout its entire length. The tape weighs 0.05
kg/m, has a cross-sectional area of 0.04 sq.cm, and being made of steel, its modulus of elasticity is 2.10 𝑥 10 𝑘𝑔/𝑐𝑚 . This tape
was used in the field to measure a distance that was determined to be 458.650 m. At the time the measurement was made, the
constant pull applied was 8 kg with the tape supported only at its end points. Determine the correct length of the line.

Module 2 Page 18
3. In problem no. 2, if the tape used was standardized at 20℃ and during measurement the mean temperature observed was
18℃, determine the correct length of the line for the combined effects of tension, sag, and temperature. Assume the
coefficient of linear expansion of the tape to be equal to 0.0000116 𝑝𝑒𝑟 1 deg 𝐶.

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