electronics

Article
A Non-Contact Integrated Body-Ambient Temperature
Sensors Platform to Contrast COVID-19
Sandra Costanzo 1,2,3,4, * and Alexandra Flores 1
1 Dipartimento di Ingegneria Informatica, Modellistica, Elettronica e Sistemistica, Università della Calabria,
87036 Rende, Italy; flrlnd93d56z605o@studenti.unical.it
2 ICEmB (Inter-University National Research Center on Interactions between Electromagnetic Fields
and Biosystems), 16145 Genoa, Italy
3 National Research Council of Italy (CNR), Institute for Electromagnetic Sensing of the Environment (IREA),
80124 Naples, Italy
4 CNIT (Consorzio Nazionale Interuniversitario per le Telecomunicazioni), 43124 Parma, Italy
* Correspondence: costanzo@dimes.unical.it; Tel.: +39-0984-494652




Received: 5 September 2020; Accepted: 3 October 2020; Published: 12 October 2020


Abstract: An integrated sensors platform for non-contact temperature monitoring is proposed in

this work. The adopted solution, based on the combined integration of an infrared thermometer
and a capacitive humidity sensor, is able to provide a fast and accurate tool for remotely sensing
both ambient and body temperature in the framework of pandemic situations, such as COVID-19,
thus avoiding any direct contact with people. The information relative to the ambient temperature is
successfully exploited to derive a correction formula for the accurate extraction of body temperature
from the measurement provided by the standard infrared sensor. Full details on the design of the
proposed platform are provided in the work, by reporting relevant simulation results on the variations
of ambient temperature, relative humidity, and body temperature. Experimental validations are also
discussed to provide a full assessment of the proposed approach.

Keywords: COVID-19; infrared; thermometer; non-contact sensor; capacitive sensor

1. Introduction
Fever is one of the most important symptoms [1] of COVID-19, but due to the contagious effect,
its measurement can become a serious problem, so it is important to perform the temperature detection
of patients very quickly and possibly without any contact. On the other hand, both epidemiological
and laboratory studies have revealed that ambient temperature could affect the survival and spread
of Coronavirus [2], so that a continuous monitoring of temperature, regarding both ambient and
body temperature, is an essential task to be performed in the contrast of COVID-19. The adoption of
thermographic systems in the framework of pandemic situations, such as COVID-19, can be decisive
for initial temperature assessment devoted to medical purposes, namely:
• Initial human temperature screening during the triage process in a public health emergency,
to determine the significance of fever and elevated temperature with respect to possible affection;
• Temperature assessment within high throughput areas, such as business structures, airports, etc.
The additional monitoring of ambient temperature can be strongly helpful to improve the accuracy
in the detection of human body temperature, the measurement of which can be affected by the
environmental humidity. Furthermore, recent studies have confirmed the effects of environmental
temperature and humidity values in the increased risk of COVID-19 transmission [3].
A variety of solutions exist in terms of advanced sensor monitoring, but separately working for
ambient humidity or human body temperature sensing, through the adoption of wireless IoT platforms

Electronics 2020, 9, 1658; doi:10.3390/electronics9101658 www.mdpi.com/journal/electronics

Electronics 2020, 9, 1658 2 of 17

in the first case [4] or wearable sensors for automated temperature monitoring of the patients [5] in the
second case. Larger research has been mainly focused on the adoption of sophisticated solutions for
fever monitoring and contact tracing [6–8]. An extensive review of non-contact temperature assessment
devices, with specific reference to the COVID-19 pandemic, can be found in [9], while interesting
studies on the accuracy assessment for infrared imaging tools under specific conditions can be found
in [10] and references herein. More advanced results have been recently presented, which are addressed
to the detection of abnormal breathing signals [11]. All the above solutions require a cost that is not
easily accessible for massive adoption; moreover, they do not include the detection of environmental
parameters, such as humidity, which can give useful information for tracing the pandemic disease.
To the authors’ knowledge, no integrated platform exists to simultaneously perform a non-contact
sensing of both ambient and body temperatures. Such a platform could be very helpful to accurately
perform both the monitoring of infected people (body temperature capturing) and the control of
pandemic spreading, which can be affected by ambient conditions, such as relative humidity [2].
If joined with heart rate variability (HRV) information, body temperature monitoring can also be helpful
to predict COVID-19 infection before symptoms appear, thus leading to early detection technology.
To this end, an integrated hardware system is proposed in the present work, which includes
two typologies of sensors able to separately capture ambient and human body temperature [5,12]
values, with no overlap between them. As compared with solutions existing in the market that are
typically able to perform a remote body temperature detection, a compact and low-cost platform
solution (estimated max cost: roughly 10 euros) is proposed to capture both the body and ambient
temperature, thus being strongly helpful for the investigation of the potential association of climate
and seasonality with the spread of the infection, in the framework of preventive and surveillance
strategies [13]. Two different sensors are specifically adopted to realize the above task, namely,
an infrared temperature sensor [14] and a relative humidity (RH) level sensor [12], which are integrated
to provide a unique measurement system for the temperature parameters, easily displayed on a
LED screen. Studies regarding the influence of ambient parameters on the spreading of COVID-19
are in progress, and no consolidated theory exists regarding this. Thus, the inclusion of ambient
humidity can be helpful for providing additional information data towards the establishment of an
ever-improved specific theory to well-characterize COVID-19 and to distinguish it from other similar
pandemics. The combined thermometer prototype can be easily adopted as a remote sensing device in
all situations requiring fast and accurate temperature monitoring to prevent and control COVID-19
spreading. For example, it can be directly mounted in a patient’s room, with no required action from
health workers and with the possibility to remotely control the temperature values by the medical staff.
The paper is organized as follows. In Section 2, the architecture of the proposed multi-sensor
platform is described, with all details relative to the reconstruction formulas for relative humidity,
ambient temperature, and body temperature. Simulation results are fully reported in Section 3,
by successfully comparing reconstruction and ideal data, thus demonstrating the high accuracy of the
proposed approach. In Section 4, experimental validations are discussed, and the relevant correction
formula is presented to accurately extract the body temperature from the ambient and body temperature
measurements provided by the proposed platform. Conclusions are finally outlined in Section 5.

2. A Non-Contact Sensors Platform for Remote Ambient-Body Temperature Monitoring

The architecture of the proposed sensors platform is illustrated in Figure 1. In particular, the section
corresponding to the infrared sensor, for the measurement of body temperature, consists of a lens that
is able to filter the infrared radiation emitted by the examined body and concentrate it on a photoresist
temperature sensor. This performs the conversion into a current signal, which, in turn, is transformed
into the relative temperature value, configured on the Arduino microcontroller. The second section of
the platform corresponds to the capacitive relative humidity (RH) sensor, which is conditioned to obtain
a voltage value at the output. This is entered into the microcontroller, to be manipulated and to finally
obtain the RH and ambient temperature value to be displayed, together with the body temperature on
Electronics 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 18

transformed into the relative temperature value, configured on the Arduino microcontroller. The
second section of the platform corresponds to the capacitive relative humidity (RH) sensor, which is
Electronics 2020, 9, 1658
conditioned to obtain a voltage value at the output. This is entered into the microcontroller, 3toofbe 17

manipulated and to finally obtain the RH and ambient temperature value to be displayed, together
with
an LED thedisplay.
body temperature
The proposed on architecture,
an LED display. Themain
whose proposed architecture,
novelty whose
is the low-cost main novelty
integration is the
and control
low-cost integration
of two different andincludes
sensors, control aofsingle
two platform
different with
sensors, includesfeatures,
two distinct a singlenamely,
platform
thewith two
ability to
distinct features, namely, the ability to separately control human body
separately control human body temperature and environmental parameters, such as relative humidity temperature and
environmental parameters,These
and ambient temperature. suchtwo
as capabilities
relative humidity and ambient
can be adopted temperature.
together, as well as inThese two
a separate
capabilities
way, dependingcan be onadopted together,
the specific as well
purpose as indetection,
(fever a separateambient
way, depending on the
temperature specific
check, andpurpose
control,
(fever detection, ambient temperature check, and control, etc.). Moreover, the
etc.). Moreover, the introduced additional information relative to the ambient temperature can be introduced additional
information
successfully relative
adoptedtotothe ambient temperature
compensate for the errorcanduebetosuccessfully
the emissivityadopted
relatedto to
compensate for the
the surrounding
error due to the
environment, emissivity
which related taken
is not directly to the into
surrounding
account by environment, which isthermometer.
a standard infrared not directly taken into
account by a standard infrared thermometer.

Figure 1.
Figure Proposed sensors
1. Proposed sensors platform
platform for
for remote
remote ambient
ambient and
and body
body Temperature
Temperature monitoring.
monitoring.
2.1. Relative Humidity Computation
2.1. Relative Humidity Computation
Capacitance is an electrical property existing between two conductors, which are separated by a
Capacitance is an electrical property existing between two conductors, which are separated by a
non-conductor material. The simplest model is given by two metal plates with an air space separation.
non-conductor material. The simplest model is given by two metal plates with an air space
It is well known that the above parameter is influenced by the three factors, namely [15]:
separation. It is well known that the above parameter is influenced by the three factors, namely [15]:

C𝐶== 𝐴𝜀
Aε
(1)
(1)
d𝑑
where:
where:
A == thethe area
area of
of the
the plates;
plates;
dd == the
the distance between the
distance between the two
two conductors;
conductors;
εε == the
the electrical permittivity of
electrical permittivity of the
the non-conductor
non-conductor material.
material.
Capacitive sensors are a type of electrical sensor that react to changes in the capacitance.
Capacitive sensors are a type of electrical sensor that react to changes in the capacitance. Therefore,
Therefore, they can be used to measure any parameter that, if varied, produces a relative change in
they can be used to measure any parameter that, if varied, produces a relative change in the capacitor
the capacitor parameter. Such variation will cause a change in the currents and the voltages of the
parameter. Such variation will cause a change in the currents and the voltages of the circuit, including the
circuit, including the capacitor, thus affecting the humidity.
capacitor, thus affecting the humidity.
To realize the RH sensing from capacitance variations, a conditioning method recommended by
To realize the RH sensing from capacitance variations, a conditioning method recommended by
standard manufacturers [16] was adopted, the circuit for which is illustrated in Figure 2.
standard manufacturers [16] was adopted, the circuit for which is illustrated in Figure 2.
The humidity sensor, assumed as a reference, is that belonging to the HS1101LF family [12], and
The humidity sensor, assumed as a reference, is that belonging to the HS1101LF family [12],
has the following characteristics:
and has the following characteristics:
• Maximum supply voltage equal to 10 V;
• Maximum supply voltage equal to 10 V;
• Unrestricted frequency range between 5 kHz and 300 kHz;
Electronics 2020, 9, 1658
x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 18
17

• Unrestricted frequency range between 5 kHz and 300 kHz;

•• Ability to measure
Ability to between 0%
measure between 0% (RH)
(RH) and
and 100%
100% (RH),
(RH), which
which correspond,
correspond, respectively,
respectively, to
to the
the
minimum (161.6 pF) and maximum (193.1 pF) capacitance values.
minimum (161.6 pF) and maximum (193.1 pF) capacitance values.
There are
areseveral
severalways
ways to convert a sensor’s
to convert capacitance
a sensor’s value to
capacitance a voltage
value to a value, butvalue,
voltage oscillator-
but
based methods are
oscillator-based generally
methods are used to condition
generally used to capacitive
condition RH sensors.RH
capacitive The basic idea
sensors. Theofbasic
this idea
type of
conditioner
this is to perform
type of conditioner is atotwo-step
performconversion, as shown inas
a two-step conversion, Figure 2. in Figure 2.
shown

Figure 2. Recommended signal conditioner circuit for capacitive sensors [16].

Figure 2. Recommended signal conditioner circuit for capacitive sensors [16].
1. First Step: Capacity-Frequency Conversion (CFC)
1. First Step: Capacity-Frequency Conversion (CFC)
The process of charging and discharging a capacitor can be used to generate a periodic signal,
The process of charging and discharging a capacitor can be used to generate a periodic signal,
whose frequency is related to the time constant of the capacitor. In this way, changes in sensor capability
whose frequency is related to the time constant of the capacitor. In this way, changes in sensor
will result in signal frequency variations. Square wave oscillators are generally adopted, such as
capability will result in signal frequency variations. Square wave oscillators are generally adopted,
the 555 based multivibrator [16]. The circuit generated a periodic signal with a stable multivibrator,
such as the 555 based multivibrator [16]. The circuit generated a periodic signal with a stable
which acted as a trigger signal for a monostable. This therefore generated an impulse, whose duration
multivibrator, which acted as a trigger signal for a monostable. This therefore generated an impulse,
was proportional to the sensor capacity, finally obtaining a square signal with a duty cycle proportional
whose duration was proportional to the sensor capacity, finally obtaining a square signal with a
to the capacity value, namely a pulse width modulation (PWM) signal.
duty cycle proportional to the capacity value, namely a pulse width modulation (PWM) signal.
2. Second Step: Frequency-Voltage Conversion (FVC)
2. Second Step: Frequency-Voltage Conversion (FVC)
In this second phase, the PWM signal was filtered, thus obtaining its DC component, whose value
was proportional
In this second to phase,
the capacity and, therefore,
the PWM signal was to filtered,
the relativethushumidity.
obtainingThe
itsabove voltage value
DC component, was
whose
entered
value intoproportional
was the microcontroller for its manipulation
to the capacity and, therefore, andtothusthe to obtainhumidity.
relative the humidityThelevel.
above voltage
valueThewasstructural scheme
entered into the for the conditioning
microcontroller for itsof manipulation
the capacitiveand sensor
thusistoillustrated
obtain theinhumidity
Figure 3.
Starting
level. with the stable stage, it followed the monostable stage (where the capacitive sensor was
connected), having scheme
The structural the function
for theto conditioning
vary the capacitance in a rangesensor
of the capacitive between 161.6 pF and
is illustrated 193.1 pF.
in Figure 3.
After that,
Starting signal
with filtering
the stable (PWM)
stage, was performed,
it followed and thestage
the monostable achieved value
(where the was configured
capacitive sensorinwas
the
microcontroller
connected), to finally
having obtain atorelative
the function vary thehumidity valueintoabe
capacitance displayed
range at the
between user.
161.6 pF and 193.1 pF.
AfterAthat,
detailed
signaldescription of the was
filtering (PWM) various blocks included
performed, in the structural
and the achieved value was frame is reported
configured in thein
the following. to finally obtain a relative humidity value to be displayed at the user.
microcontroller
A detailed description of the various blocks included in the structural frame is reported in the
Stable Stage:
following.
Set a frequency of 10 KHz and a duty cycle of 90% and solve using the equations provided by the
datasheet [12]:
Stable Stage:
1.44
Set a frequency of 10 KHz and a duty f =
cycle (2)
(RAof+90%2RB)and C solve using the equations provided by
the datasheet [12]:
RA + RB
= 1.44 , (3)
𝑓= RA + 2RB (2)
(𝑅𝐴 + 2𝑅𝐵)𝐶
where:
𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝐵
f = the frequency (Hz); = , (3)
𝑅𝐴 + 2𝑅𝐵
D = the duty cycle (%);
where:
RA, RB = the resistors (Ω);
f = the frequency (Hz);
Electronics 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 18
Electronics 2020, 9, 1658 5 of 17
D = the duty cycle (%);
RA, RB = the resistors (Ω);
C = the capacitor (F).
C = the capacitor (F).
From the
From the above
aboveprocedure,
procedure,the
thefollowing
following commercial
commercial values
values areare obtained:
obtained: 115=kΩ,
RA =RA 115RB
kΩ,
=
14.3=kΩ,
RB 14.3and =1C
kΩ,Cand = 1 nΩ.
nΩ.

Figure 3. Structural scheme for the conditioning of the capacitive sensor.

Figure 3. Structural scheme for the conditioning of the capacitive sensor.
Monostable Stage:
Monostable Stage:
Following the equation provided in the datasheet [12], by taking into account that the output
Following the equation provided in the datasheet [12], by taking into account that the output
signal is a PWM signal, with time t, given by:
signal is a PWM signal, with time t, given by:
1
ln 1 ××RCs
 
=−
tt = − ln 𝑅𝐶𝑠 = 1.1××R𝑅Cs,
= 1.1 𝐶𝑠, (4)
(4)
33

where:
where:
t == time
time (s);
(s);
R == the
R resistor ((Ω);
the resistor Ω );
Cs
Cs = the variable capacitor
= the variable capacitor of
of the
the HS1101LF
HS1101LF sensor
sensor (F).
(F).
From Equation (4), by fixing:
From Equation (4), by fixing:
R𝑅 =
= 320.666
320.666kΩ,
kΩ, (5)
(5)
We have
t = 1.1 × (320.666 kΩ) × (161.6 pF) = 5.7 × 10−5 s, (6)
𝑡 1 = 1.1 × (320.666 kΩ) × (161.6 pF) = 5.7 × 10 s, (6)
t2 = 1.1 × (320.666 kΩ) × (170.7 pF) = 6.02 × 10−5 s, (7)
𝑡 = 1.1 × (320.666 kΩ) × (170.7 pF) = 6.02 × 10 s, (7)
t3 = 1.1 × (320.666 kΩ) × (178.5 pF) = 6.29 × 10−5 s, (8)
𝑡t = 1.1 × (320.666 kΩ) × (178.5 pF) = 6.29 × 10−5 s,s, (8)
4 = 1.1 × (320.666 kΩ ) × (185.7 pF) = 6.55 × 10 (9)
−5
𝑡t5 =
= 1.1 × (320.666
1.1 × (320.666 kΩ × ((185.7
kΩ)) × pF)
193.1 pF = 6.81
)= 6.55××10
10 s,s, (10)
(9)
In addition, we can compute:
𝑡 = 1.1 × (320.666 kΩ) × (193.1 pF) = 6.81 × 10 s, (10)
In addition, we can compute: Vout(ti ) = Vcc × ti = Vcc × ti , (11)
T 1
f
Electronics 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 18

𝑡 𝑡
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡(𝑡 ) = 𝑉𝑐𝑐 × = 𝑉𝑐𝑐 × ,
𝑇 1 (11)
𝑓
Electronics 2020, 9, 1658 6 of 17
where:
Vout = the output voltage (V);
where:
Vcc = 4.5, the supply voltage (V);
∆𝑡 = =time
Vout the (s);
output voltage (V);
Vcc = 4.5,
f = the frequency (Hz).voltage (V);
the supply
∆t =From
time (s);
the above expression, we can obtain the ideal values for the output voltages, namely:
f = the frequency (Hz).
𝑉 ( % ) = 2.565 V, (12)
From the above expression, we can obtain the ideal values for the output voltages, namely:
𝑉 ( % ) = 2.710 V, (13)
𝑉out(0%RH
V % ) ) = 2.833 V,
= 2.565 V, (12)
(14)

V𝑉out((25%RH
% )=
)
= 2.710
2.948 V,
V, (15)
(13)
𝑉 ( % )=
V = 2.833
3.065V,
V, (16)
(14)
out(50%RH )
In addition, the manufacturer specified that the HS1101LF humidity sensor cannot be fed with
Vout(75%RH ) = 2.948 V, (15)
direct current, therefore the sensor was positioned in the present design after an RC high pass filter
with a very high R value and a very lowVout 100%RH ) = 3.065 V,
C (value. (16)

In addition, the manufacturer specified that the HS1101LF humidity sensor cannot be fed with
Filter Stage:
direct current, therefore the sensor was positioned in the present design after an RC high pass filter
with The final
a very highsignal of the
R value circuit
and must
a very low be a continuous signal. To this end, we resorted to filter the
C value.
PWM signal through a low pass filter, and then we eliminated the alternating component. A cutoff
Filter Stage:
frequency equal to 2 Hz was fixed for the filter.
TheFigure
In final signal
4, theofsimulation
the circuit must
schemebe aimplemented
continuous signal. To thisSoftware
on Proteus end, we resorted to filter
is reported, the
which
PWM
includessignal through
all steps a low
to be pass filter,
followed for theand then we eliminated
conditioning procedurethe
ofalternating component.
the capacitive sensor, toAhave
cutoffa
frequency
voltage valueequal
fortoproper
2 Hz was fixed for the
manipulation offilter.
the Atmega328p microcontroller and final reconstruction
of theInrelative
Figure 4, the simulation
humidity level. scheme implemented on Proteus Software is reported, which includes
all steps to be
Table 1 followed
shows the forresults
the conditioning
in terms procedure
of voltageofvalues
the capacitive sensor,
obtained fromto simulation
have a voltage
for value
each
for proper manipulation
capacitance of the Atmega328p
value. The comparison microcontroller
with the ideal and final
values computed reconstruction
using of the relative
Equations (12)–(16) reveals
humidity
very goodlevel.
accuracy in the proposed approach.

Figure 4.
Figure Proteus simulation
4. Proteus simulation scheme for the reconstruction of the relative humidity level.

Table 1 shows the results in terms of voltage values obtained from simulation for each capacitance
value. The comparison with the ideal values computed using Equations (12)–(16) reveals very good
accuracy in the proposed approach.
Electronics 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 18
Electronics 2020, 9, 1658 7 of 17
From data reported in Table 1, the equation describing the sensor behavior, in terms of
humidity value correlation vs. voltage, is obtained, and the relative curve is represented in Figure 5.
Table 1. Voltage value, ideal and simulated.

RH% Table 1. Voltage value,

C(pf) Voutideal and simulated.
(V) Ideal Vout (V) Simulation
0 161.6 2.565 2.6
RH% 25 C(pf)
170.7 Vout2.710
(V) Ideal Vout2.74
(V) Simulation
50 178.5 2.833 2.87
0 75 161.6
185.7 2.565
2.948 2.98 2.6
25 100 193.1
170.7 3.065
2.710 3.102.74
50 178.5 2.833 2.87
From data75 reported in Table185.7 2.948 the sensor behavior,
1, the equation describing 2.98in terms of humidity
100
value correlation 193.1
vs. voltage, is obtained, 3.065 curve is represented
and the relative 3.10
in Figure 5.

Figure 5. Humidity value correlation vs. sensor voltage.

Figure 5. Humidity value correlation vs. sensor voltage.
In particular, the following regression formula is obtained to describe the sensor response:
In particular, the following regression formula is obtained to describe the sensor response:
𝑦y =
= 𝑝p1 ×
×𝑥x2 +
+ p𝑝2 ×
×x𝑥+
+p𝑝3, , (17)
(17)
where:
where:
y = the relative humidity (%);
y = the relative humidity (%);
x = the voltage (V);
x = the voltage (V);
p1 = 55.43;
p = 55.43;
p21 = −114.6;
p = −114.6;
p32 = −76.87.
p3 = −76.87.
The above equation was subsequently implemented on the microcontroller to realize the
The above
processing and equation was subsequently
visualization of the relativeimplemented on the microcontroller to realize the processing
humidity level.
and visualization of the relative humidity level.
2.2. Ambient Temperature Computation
2.2. Ambient Temperature Computation
To retrieve the ambient temperature value from the relative humidity level, a psychometric
chartTo retrieve
[17] the ambient
was adopted (Figuretemperature value
6). The relative from the
humidity is relative humidity
the percentage level, a psychometric
of saturation of a specific
chart [17] was adopted (Figure 6). The relative humidity is the percentage of saturation
volume of air at a specific temperature. The relative humidity of the air depends on the temperature of a specific
volume of air at a specific temperature. The relative humidity of the air depends on
and pressure of the analyzed air volume, which can also be expressed in terms of absolute humidity the temperature
and pressure
(grams of waterof the
peranalyzed air volume,
unit volume). which can also
The temperature be expressed
at which in terms
the moisture of absolute
content humidity
in air reaches its
(grams of water per unit volume). The temperature at which the moisture content in
saturation point occurs at 32 °F or 0 °C. At a humid air bulb temperature of 0 °C, we have 4.9 gm/m air reaches its3
saturation point occurs at 32 ◦ F or 0 ◦ C. At a humid air bulb temperature of 0 ◦ C, we have 4.9 gm/m3
of absolute humidity. Then, from this absolute humidity value and the relative humidity values, the
of absolute
actual humidity.
temperature Then,
value from
can be this absolute humidity value and the relative humidity values,
obtained.
the actual temperature value can be obtained.
Electronics 2020, 9, 1658 8 of 17
Electronics2020,
Electronics 2020,9,9,xxFOR
FORPEER
PEERREVIEW
REVIEW 88of
of18
18

Figure6.6.Psychometric
Figure Psychometricchart
chartfor
forthe
thetemperature
temperatureevaluation.
evaluation.

The
Theresults
The resultsof
results ofthe
of theabove
the abovecomputations
above computationsare
computations aresummarized
are summarizedin
summarized inTable
in Table2.2.
Table 2.

Table
Table2. Relative
2.Relative humidity
humidityand
Relativehumidity andtemperature
temperatureobtained
obtainedfrom
fromthe
thepsychrometric
psychrometricchart.
chart.
Table 2. and temperature obtained from the psychrometric chart.
Relativity
RelativityHumidity
Relativity Humidity(%)
Humidity (%) Dry
(%) Dry
Dry Bulb
Bulb
Bulb Temperature
Temperature
Temperature (◦ C)
(°C)
(°C)
0 00 48
48
48
25
25 25 26.5
26.5
26.5
50
50 50 13.7
13.7
13.7
75 75
75 6.5
6.5
6.5
100 100 2.7
2.7
100 2.7

The equation
The equation relating
relating the
the temperature
temperature valuesvalues to
to the
the corresponding
corresponding relative
relative humidity
humidity levels
levels isis
derived from data reported
derived from data reported
reported in in Table
in Table 2.
Table 2.
2. ItIt
It isis properly
is properly represented
properly represented
represented in in Figure
in Figure 7.
Figure7.
7.

Figure7.
Figure
Figure 7.Temperature
7. Temperaturevalue
Temperature valuecorrelation
value correlationvs.
correlation vs.relative
vs. relativehumidity.
relative humidity.
humidity.

The
Thecorresponding
correspondingequation
equationisisgiven
givenas:
as:
The corresponding equation is given as:
𝑦y𝑦 =
= 𝑎a𝑎×
×x𝑥𝑥b ++
× +c,𝑐,𝑐, (18)
(18)
(18)
where:
where:
where:
yy == the
the relative
relative humidity
humidity (%);
(%);
y = the relative humidity (%);
x = the temperature
x = the temperature °C; °C;
aa == −121.3;
−121.3;
Electronics 2020, 9, 1658 9 of 17

x = the temperature ◦ C;
Electronics 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 18
a = −121.3;
b = 0.18;
b = 0.18;
c = 245.5.
c = 245.5.
The temperature unknown x is finally
finally obtained
obtained by
by inverting
inverting Equation
Equation (18)
(18) to
to have:
have:

log( ( a ) )
y−c
(19)
𝑥x =
= 10
10 b (19)
Equation (19) should be implemented on the microcontroller for the relative visualization of
Equation (19) should be implemented on the microcontroller for the relative visualization of both
both relative humidity and ambient temperature results.
relative humidity and ambient temperature results.
2.3. Body
2.3. Body Temperature Computation
Temperature Computation
According to
According to Stefan–Boltzmann’s
Stefan–Boltzmann’s law, the temperature
law, the temperature of of an
an object
object cancan bebe estimated
estimated fromfrom thethe
knowledge of its emissive power. Although radiation can occur over
knowledge of its emissive power. Although radiation can occur over a wide range of wavelengths, a wide range of wavelengths,
the peak
the peak value
value of of the
the most
most commonly
commonly desired
desired temperature
temperature ranges ranges is is in the area
in the area ofof the
the spectrum
spectrum
corresponding to the infrared radiation [18]. In infrared thermography
corresponding to the infrared radiation [18]. In infrared thermography [19,20], this feature is [19,20], this feature is used
used
for multiple
for multiple purposes,
purposes, namely,
namely, as asaahealth
healthindicator
indicatorininmedicalmedicalapplications
applications ororasasa fault detection
a fault detection in
mechanical or electrical maintenance. Among the existing non-contact
in mechanical or electrical maintenance. Among the existing non-contact body temperature sensors, body temperature sensors,
one of
one of the
the most
mostpopular
popularisisthat thatbelonging
belonging totothetheMLX90614
MLX90614 family;
family;an an
infrared
infraredthermometer
thermometer thatthat
has
a small
has size,size,
a small lowlow cost, and
cost, and high
highaccuracy
accuracy[14].[14].MLX90614
MLX90614isisaa non-contact
non-contact infrared temperature
infrared temperature
sensor manufactured by the Melexis company. It can be easily
sensor manufactured by the Melexis company. It can be easily connected to a processor, such connected to a processor, such asas
Arduino, for measuring the temperature of an object at a distance. Due
Arduino, for measuring the temperature of an object at a distance. Due to its low noise amplifier, to its low noise amplifier,
17-bit ADC,
17-bit ADC, and and powerful
powerful digital
digital signal
signal processor
processor (DSP)(DSP) unit,
unit, aa thermometer
thermometer with with high
high accuracy
accuracy and and
resolution can be achieved. The thermometer comes factory calibrated
resolution can be achieved. The thermometer comes factory calibrated with a digital PWM and System with a digital PWM and
System Management
Management Bus (SMBus) Bus output.
(SMBus) As output. As a the
a standard, standard,
10-bit PWMthe 10-bit PWM istoconfigured
is configured continuously to
continuously transmit the measured temperature in a range
◦ between
transmit the measured temperature in a range between −20 C and 120 C, with an output resolution ◦ −20 °C and 120 °C, with an
output
of 0.14 ◦resolution
C, and the of POR0.14 °C, and
default the POR
is SMBus, default
with is SMBus,
a resolution with◦ Ca [18].
of 0.02 resolution of 0.02 °C [18].have
The microcontrollers The
microcontrollers
an I2 C communication have an way I Ctocommunication
2
connect with external way toperipherals;
connect with theexternal
MLX 90614 peripherals;
thermometer the MLXalso
90614 thermometer
2 also includes I2C communication lines to be able to connect this sensor with the
includes I C communication lines to be able to connect this sensor with the microcontroller, without
microcontroller,
any additional circuitwithout any 8).
(Figure additional
The sensor circuit
operates(Figurewith8). TheV sensor
a 3.3 DC supply.operates
If thewith
micro a 3.3 V DC
controller
supply. Ifwith
operates the amicro
5 V DC,controller
then it is operates
necessarywith to apull5 VupDC, then itbetween
resistors is necessary
SDA and to pull
SCLup resistors
lines to the
between SDA
+3.3 V DC line. and SCL lines to the +3.3 V DC line.

Figure 8. MLX90614 connection to System Management Bus (SMBus).

Figure 8. MLX90614 connection to System Management Bus (SMBus).
In Figure 9, the internal configuration of the MLX90614 sensor is reported. It is made up of a
In Figure 9, the internal configuration of the MLX90614 sensor is reported. It is made up of a
silicon chip with a fine micromechanized membrane that is sensitive to infrared radiation, together
silicon chip with a fine micromechanized membrane that is sensitive to infrared radiation, together
with the necessary hardware to amplify and digitize the signal and then compute the temperature.
The set includes a low noise amplifier, a 17-bit ADC converter, a digital signal processor (DSP), and
an ambient temperature compensation.
Electronics 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 18

Electronics 2020, 9, 1658 10 of 17

with the necessary hardware to amplify and digitize the signal and then compute the temperature.
The set includes a low noise amplifier, a 17-bit ADC converter, a digital signal processor (DSP), and an
Electronicstemperature
ambient 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW
compensation. 10 of 18

Figure 9. Block Diagram of the MLX90614 sensor.

In Figure 10, the graph of the field of view (FOV) [21], relative to the MLX90614 sensor, is
reported, which is approximately equal to 35°. It is determined when a thermopile receives 50% of
the radiation signal, and it is also related to the main axis of the sensor. Measurement accuracy is
only guaranteed when the test object fully covers the field of view of the infrared sensor.
The following expressionFigure 9.9.Block
BlockDiagram
applies:
Figure Diagramof
ofthe
theMLX90614
MLX90614sensor.
sensor.

In Figure 10, the graph of the radius[21],

of test object
In Figure 10, the tangraph
(FOV) = field
of the
of view (FOV)
field of view (FOV)
relative
[21],
to the MLX90614 sensor, is reported,
relative toobject
the MLX90614 sensor, (20)is
distance
◦ between infrared
which is approximately equal to 35 . It is determined when a thermopile sensor and test
receives 50% of the radiation
reported, which is approximately equal to 35°. It is determined when a thermopile receives 50% of
signal,
Forand it is alsoifrelated
example, to theofmain axis object
of the sensor. Measurement thenaccuracy is only guaranteed
the radiation signal, the
andradius
it is also the test
related is equal
to the main axistoof5 the
cm,sensor. the measurement
Measurement distanceis
accuracy
when
must theequal
be test object
to 7 cmfully
to covers the
achieve an field of view
accurate of the infrared sensor.
result.
only guaranteed when the test object fully covers the field of view of the infrared sensor.
The following expression applies:
radius of test object
tan(FOV) = (20)
distance between infrared sensor and test object
For example, if the radius of the test object is equal to 5 cm, then the measurement distance
must be equal to 7 cm to achieve an accurate result.

MLX90614 sensor
Figure 10. Field of view (FOV) graph relative to the MLX90614 sensor [21].
[21].

The following
In Figure expression
11, the steps forapplies:
the configuration and programming of the MLX90614 temperature
sensor on Arduino software are reported. In particular, a normal value is assumed if the measured
radius of test object
temperature is in a tan range
(FOV between
)= 35 °C and 38 °C; for a temperature value greater than 38 °C,(20) an
distance between infrared sensor and test object
alarm (LED) should light up, while for measured values lower than 35 °C, the temperature is
assumed to be low.
For example, if These
Figure
the 10. results are
Fieldofofthe
radius view displayed
(FOV)
test onequal
graph
object is the LED
relative screen
to 5tocm, to the
the then be viewed
MLX90614 sensorby the distance
[21].
measurement user. must
Arduino
be equal to 7 cmboards have an
to achieve I Caccurate
2 communication
result. lines, which are easy to connect to I C by cable. The
2

sensorInmust
In Figure
Figure 11,
be11, thesteps
connected
the steps
asforfor theconfiguration
indicated
the configuration
in Figure 12. and
and programming
In programming
order to provideofofthe
athe MLX90614
+3.3 temperature
V power temperature
MLX90614 supply from
sensor
the on
Arduino Arduino
board software
to the sensor,are reported.
4.7 KΩ In particular,
resistors are used a normal
to realizevalue
pull is
up
sensor on Arduino software are reported. In particular, a normal value is assumed if the measured assumed
on the I2Cif the
lines measured
[22].
temperatureisisinin
temperature a range
a range between
between 35 ◦35 °C and
C and 38 ◦ 38 °C;afor
C; for a temperature
temperature valuevalue greater
greater than 38than 38 alarm
◦ C, an °C, an
(LED) should light up, while for measured values lower than 35 C, the temperature is assumed to beis
alarm (LED) should light up, while for measured values lower
◦ than 35 °C, the temperature
assumed
low. Thesetoresults
be low.areThese results
displayed onare
thedisplayed
LED screen on tothebeLED
viewedscreen
by to
thebeuser.
viewed by the user.
Arduino boards have I2C communication lines, which are easy to connect to I2C by cable. The
sensor must be connected as indicated in Figure 12. In order to provide a +3.3 V power supply from
the Arduino board to the sensor, 4.7 KΩ resistors are used to realize pull up on the I2C lines [22].
Electronics 2020, 9, 1658 11 of 17
Electronics 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 18

Electronics 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 18

Figure 11. Schematic of the algorithm for the MLX90614 sensor.

Figure 11. Schematic of the algorithm for the MLX90614 sensor.
Arduino boards have I2 C communication lines, which are easy to connect to I2 C by cable.
The sensor must be connected as indicated in Figure 12. In order to provide a +3.3 V power supply
Figure
from the Arduino board 11.sensor,
to the Schematic
4.7 of
KΩ theresistors
algorithm forused
are the MLX90614
to realize sensor.
pull up on the I2 C lines [22].

Figure 12. Arduino connection diagram for the MLX90614 sensor [22].

3. Simulation Results
Arduino connection
Figure 12.sensor,
The relative humidity diagram for the MLX90614 sensor [22].
Figure 12. Arduinothe ambientdiagram
connection temperature,
for theand the infrared
MLX90614 temperature sensor
sensor [22].
were integrated into
3. Simulation Results a single system, as shown in Figures 13 and 14. Software development was
carried out on the
3. Simulation Results Arduino uno ATmega328p microcontroller. The two sensors were controlled
The relative humidity sensor, the ambient temperature, and the infrared temperature
independently to avoid inaccuracies, but their measurements were performed at the same time, sensor
andwere
The
integrated relative
into humidity
a single sensor,
system, the ambient temperature, and the infrared temperature sensor
the acquired values were shownasinshown in Figures
a few seconds 13 and 14.
sequence. Softwarean
In addition, development was carried out
alarm was incorporated,
were
on integratedunointoATmega328p
a single system, as shown in Figures 13 andwere
14. Software development was
so the
thatArduino
LED would light microcontroller.
up if the body temperature The was two sensors
greater than 38 °C.controlled independently to
carriedinaccuracies,
avoid out on the but Arduino uno ATmega328p
their measurements microcontroller.
were performed The two
at the same time,sensors
and thewere controlled
acquired values
independently to avoid inaccuracies, but their measurements were performed
were shown in a few seconds sequence. In addition, an alarm was incorporated, so that LED wouldat the same time, and
the acquired values were shown in a few seconds
light up if the body temperature was greater than 38 C. sequence.
◦ In addition, an alarm was incorporated,
so that LED would light up if the body temperature was greater than 38 °C.
Electronics 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 18

Electronics 2020, 9, 1658 12 of 17

Electronics 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 18

Figure 13. Final simulation of the prototype: Visualization of the relative humidity and ambient
temperature.
Figure 13.Final
Figure13. simulation
Final of the
simulation of prototype: Visualization
the prototype: of the relative
Visualization of the humidity and ambient
relative humidity andtemperature.
ambient
temperature.

Figure 14. Final simulation of the prototype: Visualization

Visualization of body temperature.
Figure 14. Final simulation of the prototype: Visualization of body temperature.
The results
The resultsobtained
obtainedfrom
from simulations,
simulations, corresponding
corresponding to sensor,
to each each sensor, are reported
are reported in Tablesin
3
and 4,The
Tables results
3 and obtained from simulations, corresponding to each sensor, are reported in Tables 3
4, respectively.
respectively.
and 4, respectively.
Table 3.
Table Simulation results
3. Simulation results for
for relative
relative humidity
humidity (RH)
(RH) and
and ambient
ambient temperature.
temperature.
Table 3. Simulation results for relative humidity (RH) and ambient temperature.
Ideal
Ideal Simulated
Simulated Ideal Vout Simulated
Ideal Simulated IdealIdeal Simulated
Simulated
C(pf)
C(pf) RH% Ideal RH%
RH% Simulated
RH% Ideal
(V) (V) Simulated
Vout Vout
Vout (V) Ideal (°C)(◦ C)Temperature
(V) Temperature
Temperature Simulated
Temperature ◦
(°C)( C)
C(pf)
RH% RH% Vout (V) Vout (V) Temperature
48 48(°C) Temperature (°C)
161.6161.6 0 0 0 0 2.565
2.565 2.62.6 48.0348.03
161.6
170.7170.7 25 25 0 0
26 26 2.565
2.710
2.710 2.6
2.74
2.74 48
26.526.5 48.03
25.8325.83
170.7 50 50
178.5178.5 25 26
50 50 2.710
2.833
2.833 2.74
2.87
2.87 26.5
13.713.7 25.83
13.6413.64
178.5 75 50
185.7185.7 73 50 2.833
2.948 2.87
2.98 13.7 6.5 13.64 6.86
75 73 2.948 2.98 6.5 6.86
185.7 100 75
193.1193.1 73
100100 2.948
3.065 2.98
3.10 6.5 2.7 6.86 2.71
100 3.065 3.10 2.7 2.71
193.1 100 100 3.065 3.10 2.7 2.71
Electronics 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 18
Electronics 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 18
Electronics 2020, 9, 1658 13 of 17
Table 4. Simulation results for body temperature and power radiation values at different emissivity
Table 4. Simulation results for body temperature and power radiation values at different emissivity
values.
values.
Simulationbody
Table 4.Simulated results for body temperature and
Bodypower radiation values at different
Emissivity Poweremissivity
Radiationvalues.
Simulated body State Body Emissivity Power Radiation
Temperature (°C) State Temperature (°K) 𝝐 W/m^2
Simulated body
Temperature (°C) Body Temperature
Temperature (°K) 𝝐 Power Radiation
W/m^2
◦ 30 StateLOW ◦303.15 Emissivity
-  95.71 W/mˆ2
Temperature ( C)30 LOW ( 303.15
K) - 95.71
34 LOW 307.15 - 100.9
30 34 LOWLOW 307.15
303.15 - - 100.9 95.71
36 NORMAL 309.15 0.2 103.5
34 36 LOWNORMAL 309.15
307.15 0.2 - 103.5 100.9
38 HIGH 311.15 - 106.2
36 38 NORMAL HIGH 309.15
311.15 - 0.2 106.2 103.5
40 HIGH 313.15 - 109.1
38 40 HIGH HIGH 311.15
313.15 - - 109.1 106.2
40 30 HIGH LOW 303.15
313.15 - - 287.2 109.1
30 LOW 303.15 - 287.2
30 34 LOWLOW 307.15
303.15 - - 302.5 287.2
34 LOW 307.15 - 302.5
34 36 LOWNORMAL 309.15
307.15 0.6 - 310.5 302.5
36 NORMAL 309.15 0.6 310.5
36 38 NORMAL HIGH 311.15
309.15 - 0.6 318.7 310.5
38 HIGH 311.15 - 318.7
38 40 HIGHHIGH 313.15
311.15 - - 327.1 318.7
40 HIGH 313.15 - 327.1
40 30 HIGHLOW 313.15
303.15 - - 478.5 327.1
30 30 LOWLOWLOW 303.15
303.15 - 478.5
34 307.15 - - 504.3 478.5
34 34 LOW LOW 307.15
307.15 - 504.3
36 NORMAL 309.15 1.0 - 517.4 504.3
36 36 NORMALNORMAL 309.15
309.15 1.01.0 517.4
38 HIGH 311.15 - 531.3 517.4
38 38 HIGHHIGH 311.15
311.15 - - 531.3 531.3
40 HIGH 313.15 - 545.3
40 40 HIGHHIGH 313.15
313.15 - - 545.3 545.3

In Figure 15, the comparison between humidity values obtained from simulated and ideal
In Figure 15, the comparison between humidity values obtained from simulated and ideal
In Figure
voltages 15, the comparison
is illustrated between
by revealing humidity
a linearity values with
in response obtained
95%from simulated and ideal voltages
confidence.
voltages is illustrated by revealing a linearity in response with 95% confidence.
is illustrated by revealing a linearity in response with 95% confidence.

Figure 15. Comparison between humidity values obtained from simulated and ideal voltages.
Figure 15.
Figure 15. Comparison between humidity
humidity values
values obtained
obtained from
from simulated
simulated and
and ideal
ideal voltages.
voltages.

In Figure
In Figure 16, the
the humidity curves
curves obtained from
from ideal and
and simulated temperature
temperature values are
are
In Figure 16,
16, the humidity
humidity curves obtained
obtained from ideal
ideal and simulated
simulated temperature values
values are
reported,
reported, and a negligible variation can be observed.
reported, and
and aa negligible
negligible variation
variationcan
canbe
beobserved.
observed.

Figure 16. Comparison between humidity values obtained from simulated and ideal temperature.
Figure 16. Comparison between humidity values obtained from simulated and ideal temperature.
Figure 16. Comparison between humidity values obtained from simulated and ideal temperature.
Electronics 2020, 9, 1658 14 of 17

Electronics 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 18

As previously outlined, the body temperature T can be retrieved from the emissivity value by
inverting As
thepreviously
Stefan–Boltzmann’s
outlined, thelaw to temperature
body have: T can be retrieved from the emissivity value by
inverting the Stefan–Boltzmann’s law to have:
W 1/4
T=( 𝑊 )/ (21)
𝑇 = ( × σ ) (21)
𝜖×𝜎
The corresponding
The correspondinggraph, forfor
graph, various
variousemissivity values(in
emissivity values (inthe
the typical
typical range
range for afor a human
human body),
body),
is illustrated in Figure
is illustrated 17. 17.
in Figure

Figure Body
17. 17.
Figure temperature
Body temperaturevs.
vs.radiated powerfor
radiated power forvarious
various emissivity
emissivity values.
values.

4. Experimental Results
4. Experimental Results
To fully
To validate the proposed
fully validate multisensor
the proposed platform,
multisensor in terms
platform, of theof
in terms enhanced correction
the enhanced algorithm
correction
for the accurate for
algorithm detection of bodydetection
the accurate temperature, a prototype
of body was realized
temperature, into the
a prototype wasMicrowave Laboratory
realized into the
at theMicrowave
UniversityLaboratory
of Calabriaatandthevarious setsof
University of Calabria
measurements were performed.
and various sets of measurements were
As a first step, to demonstrate the accuracy improvement in the infrared measurements obtained
performed.
As a first of
from the adoption step, to demonstrate
ambient humidity the
andaccuracy improvement
temperature, human in the temperature
body infrared measurements
data acquired
obtained from the adoption of ambient humidity and temperature,
with the proposed platform were compared, with the values measured through human body temperature data
a standard reference
acquired with the proposed platform were compared, with the values measured through a standard
thermometer. Measurements were repeated for different values of ambient temperature and relative
reference thermometer. Measurements were repeated for different values of ambient temperature
humidity, obtaining average errors (difference between infrared and standard thermometer values) in
and relative humidity, obtaining average errors (difference between infrared and standard
the range 3–7. An example of the dataset extracted from the above set is reported in Table 5.
thermometer values) in the range 3–7. An example of the dataset extracted from the above set is
reported in Table 5.
Table 5. Measurement results: Comparison between infrared and traditional thermometer values of
bodyTable
temperature before calibration
5. Measurement with ambient
results: Comparison parameters.
between infrared and traditional thermometer values of
body temperature before calibration with ambient parameters. Traditional Body Temperature
Implemented System
Thermometer Difference
Traditional Body Temperature
Implemented
Ambient Temperature (◦ C) System (%)
Relative Humidity (◦ C)
Body TemperatureThermometer - Difference -
Ambient
29 Relative67 Body 31.11 36.6 5.49
- -
29
Temperature (°C) Humidity67 (%) 31.1
Temperature (°C) 36.5 5.4
2929 67 67 31.11 31.13 36.6 36.4 5.49 5.27
29 67 31.13 36.7 5.27
29 67 31.1 36.5 5.4
29 67 31.12 36.3 5.18
29 67 31.13 36.4 5.27
Average 31.12 36.5
29 67 31.13 36.7 5.27 5.32
29 67 31.12 36.3 5.18
Data obtained Average
from the above measurement 31.12 campaign were 36.5 applied
to 5.32the accurate
realize
calibration of the MLX90614 sensor, thus achieving a temperature compensation that ensures extremely
Data obtained from the above measurement campaign were applied to realize the accurate
accurate results. The following polynomial correction formula was extracted from the above data,
calibration of the MLX90614 sensor, thus achieving a temperature compensation that ensures
which was able to provide the true body temperature by exploiting the information relative to the
ambient temperature:
Tb = a1 + a2 TS + a3 Ta + a4 TS 2 + a5 TS Ta + a6 Ta 2 (22)
extremely accurate results. The following polynomial correction formula was extracted from the
above data, which was able to provide the true body temperature by exploiting the information
relative to the ambient temperature:
Electronics 2020, 9, 1658 15 of 17
𝑇 =𝑎 +𝑎 𝑇 +𝑎 𝑇 +𝑎 𝑇 +𝑎 𝑇 𝑇 +𝑎 𝑇 (22)

Parameters
Parameters appearing
appearing in
in Equation
Equation (22)
(22) have
have the
the following
following meaning:
meaning:
Tbb ==the
T thecorrect
correct body
body temperature;
temperature;
TSS ==the
T themeasured
measuredsystem
system temperature;
temperature;
Ta ==the
T theambient
ambienttemperature.
temperature.
Correction coefficients have
Correction coefficients havethe
thefollowing
followingvalues: = 9.25,
values:a1 a=19.25, 2 = 4.08,
a2 =a4.08, a3 = −2.65,
a3 = −2.65, a4 =a5−0.16,
a4 = −0.16, = 0.2,
aa56 ==−0.06.
0.2, a6 = −0.06.
In
In Figure
Figure 18,
18,the
thegraph
graphrepresentation
representationofofthe curve
the curvegiven
givenbyby
Equation
Equation(22)(22)
is provided, where
is provided, the
where
proper match of the standard thermometer measurements with the proposed
the proper match of the standard thermometer measurements with the proposed fitting mesh can be fitting mesh can
be observed.
observed.

Figure 18. Fitting curve representation for accurate body temperature extraction.
Figure 18. Fitting curve representation for accurate body temperature extraction.
After the above calibration step, body temperature measurements were performed on a human
subjectAfter the above
(Figure calibration
19) to provide step,assessment
the final body temperature measurements
of the proposed were
approach. An performed on a human
optimum measurement
subject
distance (Figure
equal
Electronics 2020, 9, to 19)
10 cm
x FOR to
PEER provide
was the final assessment of the proposed approach. An optimum
verified and applied. A measurement time equal to 1 s was required.
REVIEW 16 of 18
measurement distance equal to 10 cm was verified and applied. A measurement time equal to 1 s
was required.

19.Proposed
Figure 19. multisensor
Proposed platform
multisensor adoptedadopted
platform to perform
to accurate
perform body temperature
accurate bodymeasurements.
temperature
measurements.
Body temperature data captured at different times in a day are summarized in Table 6, where the
comparison with measurements
Body temperature performed
data captured through
at different a in
times traditional
a day arethermometer
summarized are also reported.
in Table 6, where
the comparison with measurements performed through a traditional thermometer are also reported.
Each measurement was repeated five times, and the average data are reported in Table 6. A very
small average error (0.47%) can be successfully observed.

Table 6. Measurement results: Comparison between infrared and traditional thermometer values of
Electronics 2020, 9, 1658 16 of 17

Each measurement was repeated five times, and the average data are reported in Table 6. A very small
average error (0.47%) can be successfully observed.

Table 6. Measurement results: Comparison between infrared and traditional thermometer values of
body temperature after calibration with ambient parameters.

Traditional Absolute Relative

Hour Implemented System
Thermometer Error Error %
Body Ambient Relative
- temperature temperature humidity - - -
(◦ C) (◦ C) (%)
6:00 35.85 24 70 35.9 0.05 0.14
10:00 36.21 29 54 36.4 0.19 0.52
14:00 36.75 34 52 36.9 0.15 0.41
16:00 36.51 31 57 36.7 0.19 0.52
17:00 36.32 29 59 36.6 0.28 0.76
21:00 36.12 28 63 36.3 0.18 0.49
Average error 0.47

5. Conclusions
An integrated platform combining multiple sensors for the simultaneous non-contact measurement
of relative humidity, ambient temperature, and body temperature has been presented in this work.
The operating principle and the full hardware design has been accurately described. Numerical
simulations, reporting the curves for the three assumed variable parameters are shown and discussed
to provide evidence of the nominal design. Experimental validations have also been provided to
demonstrate the improved accuracy of infrared temperature measurements achieved with the proposed
approach. This is particularly useful for detecting fevers and therefore possible infections of COVID-19
and other illnesses.

Author Contributions: The individual contributions of authors are specified as follows: Conceptualization, S.C.;
Methodology, S.C.; Software, A.F.; Validation, S.C. and A.F.; Writing—Original draft preparation, S.C. and A.F.;
Writing—Review and editing, S.C.; Supervision, S.C. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References
1. Di Gennaro, F.; Pizzol, D.; Marotta, C.; Antunes, M.; Racalbuto, V.; Veronese, N.; Smith, L. Coronavirus
Diseases (COVID-19) Current Status and Future Perspectives: A Narrative Review. Int. J. Environ. Res.
Public Health 2020, 17, 2690. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
2. Xie, J.; Zhu, Y. Association between ambient temperature and COVID-19 infection in 122 cities from China.
Sci. Total Environ. 2020, 724, 1–5. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
3. Xu, H.; Yan, C.; Fu, Q.; Xiao, K.; Yu, Y.; Han, D.; Wang, W.; Cheng, J. Possible environmental effects on the
spread of COVID-19 in China. Sci. Total Environ. 2020, 731, 1–7. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
4. RadiantWatch IoT Platform. Available online: https://radiantwatch.com/ (accessed on 5 September 2020).
5. The Fight Against Novel Coronavirus: Automated Temperature Monitoring for COVID-19 Patients. Available
online: http://www.vivalnk.com/covid-19 (accessed on 5 September 2020).
6. Thermal Cameras Are Being Outfitted to Detect Fever and Conduct Contact Tracing for COVID-19. Available
online: https://spectrum.ieee.org/news-from-around-ieee/the-institute/ieee-member-news/thermal-cameras-
are-being-outfitted-to-detect-fever-and-conduct-contact-tracing-for-covid19 (accessed on 5 September 2020).
7. With Safety in Phase 3 of the COVID-19 Pandemic. Available online: https://www.wikifriend.net/smart-
health-coronavirus-thermal-scanner.html (accessed on 5 September 2020).
Electronics 2020, 9, 1658 17 of 17

8. This Temperature-Screening System for COVID-19 Can Check Up to 9 People at Once.

Available online: https://spectrum.ieee.org/news-from-around-ieee/the-institute/ieee-member-news/this-
temperaturescreening-system-for-covid19-can-check-up-to-9-people-at-once (accessed on 5 September 2020).
9. Non-Contact Temperature Assessment Devices during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Available
online: https://www.fda.gov/medical-devices/coronavirus-covid-19-and-medical-devices/non-contact-
temperature-assessment-devices-during-covid-19-pandemic (accessed on 5 September 2020).
10. Zheng, K.; Dong, R.; Wang, H.; Granick, S. Infrared assessment of human facial temperature in the presence
and absence of common cosmetics. medRxiv 2020. [CrossRef]
11. Zheng, J.; Menghan, H.; Zhongpai, G.; Fan, L.; Ranran, D.; Pan, Y.; Tang, W.; Guangtao, Z.; Yong, L. Detection
of Respiratory Infections using RGB-infrared sensors on Portable Device. IEEE Sens. J. 2020. [CrossRef]
12. Relative Humidity Sensor. HS1101LF Meets RoHS Regulations. Available online: https://www.alldatasheet.
es/datasheet-pdf/pdf/241417/HUMIREL/HS1101LF.html (accessed on 5 September 2020).
13. Sajadi, M.M.; Habibzadeh, P.; Vintzileos, A.; Shokouhi, S.; Miralles-Wilhelm, F.; Amoroso, A. Temperature,
Humidity, and Latitude Analysis to Estimate Potential Spread and Seasonality of Coronavirus Disease 2019
(COVID-19). JAMA Netw. 2020, 3, 1–11. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
14. Usamentiaga, R.; Venegas, P.; Guerediaga, J.; Vega, L.; Molleda, L.; Bulnes, F.G. Infrared Thermography for
Temperature Measurement and Non-Destructive Testing. Open Access Sens. 2014, 1, 12308–12310. [CrossRef]
[PubMed]
15. Wang, D. FDC1004: Basics of Capacitive Sensing and Applications. Tex. Instrum. 2014, 1, 2.
16. Zdankiewicz, E.M.; A Comparison of Relative Humidity Sensing Technologies. HIGOMETRIX Applications
Note 2004-2, Volume 1, p. 3. Available online: https://docplayer.net/22214027-A-comparison-of-relative-
humidity-sensing-technologies.html (accessed on 5 September 2020).
17. Bhattacharya, Y.; Milne, M. Psychrometric Chart Tutorial: A Tool for Understanding Human Thermal Comfort
Conditions; University of California: Los Angeles, CA, USA, 2009.
18. Giddings, S.B. Hawking radiation, the Stefan–Boltzmann law, and unitarization. Phys. Lett. B 2016, 1, 40–42.
[CrossRef]
19. Lahiri, B.B.; Bagavathiappan, S.; Jayakumar, T.; Philip, J. Medical applications of infrared thermography:
A review. Infrared Phys. Technol. 2012, 1, 226. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
20. Karakostopulos, K. MLX90614 family Single and Dual Zone Infra Red Thermometer in TO-39.
Melexis Microelectron. Integr. Syst. 2008, 1, 1–42.
21. IR Thermometer Sensor MLX90614 SKU: SEN0206. Available online: https://wiki.dfrobot.com/IR_
Thermometer_Sensor_MLX90614_SKU__SEN0206 (accessed on 5 September 2020).
22. Infrared Thermometer Arduino. Available online: http://www.theorycircuit.com/infrared-thermometer-
arduino/ (accessed on 5 September 2020).

© 2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).