chapter 1

Categories of Computers and

Computer Languages

Learning Objectives
I
, This chapter focuses on computers and computer languages. Computers are categorised
1
on the basis of (i) generation (ii) type (iii) purpose (iv) size, speed, processing power and
price. The aim of this theme is to enable you to communicate with the computer by
using specific languages that are broadly divided into three categories namely machine
1
language, assembly language and higher level languages. You will also become aware of
' all the different operations performed by a computer which are controlled by computer t
, programs written in different computer programming languages. )
- - -
- ~ - - - - - .... .,,,. -- - - -
- ...,. - ... - - - .... -- - - - - -
- -- - ------- --~

Categories of Computers
A computer system primarily consists of hardware and
software. The development of thc<;c two components over
time has also led to the rapid development of tJ1e computer
Knowledge Scope ~
system. This development of computers can be clas!>ified Classification of computers
on the basis of four maJor categone:> that arc as follows based on generations; Basic
, Based on Generations features of analog, digital
and hybrid computers; Micro-
, Based on Type
computers, Mini -computers,
, Based on Purpose
Mainframe and Super-computer
• Based on Size

I. Based on Generations
The term 'generation' can be related to the word 'innovation'. In every generation, computer
technology becomes more advanced than the previous one. The major developments in
computer technology that ha\·e occured in different generations are as follows:

I-, sf Grnerntion Com putt rs (1 q4n.1 Q5f. 1

The first generation computers started with the ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrat
or
And Calculator). It was the first fully operational electronic and general-purpose computer.

-
1l was developed by Professors J. Prespcr Eckcrl
and John Mi\l1chly in the USA nnd was built
by using the vacuum tubes technology. A high -
level programming lnngungc cnl\cd PORTRAN
(Formula 1\'anslalion) was also developed ~y
IBM (lntcrnnlionnl Business Machines) in th18
generation.
Vacuu m Tube~ used by
First Generation Computers
Features of the First Generation Computers
• TI1ese computers were very large in size and
a lot of space.
• Vacuum tubes were the main electronic com
occupied Knowledge Corner ~ \
....,.
Prof. Howard H. Aiken of
ponents Harvard University devel
used in these computers. . oped
the first electrom echanical I
• These computers were based on machine
level and computer nam ed as Harvard
assembly level languages.
Mark~- - - - - ]

Limitations
• These computers were difficult to operate.
• They needed heavy air-conditioned systems beca
use of the tremendous amo unts of heat
generated by the vacuum tubes.
• These computers also consumed huge quantities
of power.

Second Generation Computers (1956-1963)

The second generation computers used transistors
instead of
replacing vacuum tubes. With the invention of
transistors,
the computers became smaller in size, faster
and more
reliable. The speed of these computers increase
d from
milliseconds to microseconds. During this peri
od, some
high level programming languages like COBOL (Co
mmon
Business - oriented Language) and BASIC (Beginne
rs All
Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) were also deve
loped.
Transistors used by Second UNIVAC (Universal Automatic Computer) and LEO
(Lyons
Generation Computers Electronic Office) are the examples of second gene
ration of
computers.
Features of the Second Generation Comp,,ters
• Transistors were one of the main components used
in the circuit of these comput
• The computers were smaller in size as compare ers.
d to the first generation comput
• The processing speed of these computers increased ers.
from milliseconds to micro
seconds.
-,,.. ( , Hllptlft'J'.,; (l964- /W7 1)
•//(1// ( . ' '
. , t; '' ' ' !"\tl011
,,,,, . computers used inlcgrnlcd c11\·u11s ( ICs)
1 ird gene ' .. performance. An intcgrntrd d rcull ls n

t 1
· tit'11I

·il111P•
1
:l 1he11

Ieel ro111 (..

1111
-~ • of sc •l.~nti
.
l .1111Jrove, . ·· rcuit contninmg hundreds of transistors
I111 L
11 .,ct del 1
·t ·O)UC cl
.• components thot arc pnckcd OH a thin
. .
J lltht'I' c . • ductor urntcriul wluch 1s known as th e JC
of computers led lo lhe invention of
,1t'l1. . rene1a O11 f l. .
l ·p •flus g iputer. Some examples o · turd generation
L·hl ' rune coll
1
ht' n1,1iJ1 1' _. JBM-360 and Honeywell 200. Jntcgratcd Circuits t1.~ed by
ters ,ut: 'I11ird Generation Computers
,oIIIPU
' . , Tltird Generation Computers
·, of I11'
~i•aftlfL · · f JC technology reduced the size of these computers.
0
, 1Jit' use uters could do fast calculations (i. e., in nanoseconds).
1
, 1nese con ~t to hold data and information was more due to improved secondary storage
' 7heif capac1 y
devices.
n-vation Computers (1971-1985)
rth Gettr:-,.
foll Microprocessors came into existence with this generation that led
to the emergence of 'microcomputers: Presently, the 'i-core' series is
considered to be one of the most powerful microprocessors developed
by the Intel Corporation, USA. The latest development of the series
is the 'Intel core i7' that is being used as a processor in desktops and
laptops. All personal computers (PC) manufactured by IBM, Apple,
HCL, Dell, Compaq, Lenovo, etc. belong to the fourth generation
of computers. Languages like SQL (Structured Query Language), C,
Microprocessors used
by Fourth Generation C++, JAVA, etc. were developed in this generation. Some examples of
Computers computers of the fourth generation are Apple I, IBM - 370, Honeywell
6080.

Features of Fourth Generation Computers

• These computers are widely used for general purposes
Knowled~e Corner ,,f\_.
._,..",.

as well as commercial applications. Technologies used in Different

• The storage capacity of these computers increased up Generations:
to several terabytes and even petabytes. First Generation: Vacuum Tubes
Second Generation : Transistors
Fifth Generation Computers (Present and Future) Third Generation: Integrated
Circuits
A computer does not possess intelligence. However,
Fourth Generation:
scientists are working to produce intelligent computers
Microprocessors
~at can take decisions on their own. The main objective Fifth Generation: Artificial
is to introd I .
th· k uce Q m these computers so that they can Intelligence
m.and behave 1·ike human beings.
lik 1his concept is called ½.rtificial Intelligence' (AI). In this application, computers will behave
eexperts d·
an mteract with human beings.

Categories of Computers and Computer Languages 3

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General-purpose computer s are used to manage a variety

of tasks. In these computers , the instructio ns needed to
perform particular tasks are temporari ly stored into the
internal memory. When one job is over, instructio ns
for another job can be loaded into the internal memory
for processing. Thus, the same hardware can be used to
execute different programs. General-p urpose computers General-pu rpose computers are USt:d
are more versatile than special-pu rpose computers. They for various purposes like playing
are used for various purposes like playing games, watching games, watching videos, etc.
videos, doing research, performin g calculations, preparing
sales reports, etc.

IV. Based on Size

Computers are also categorised on the basis of their size. The size of a computer changes
in terms of processing speed and storage capacity so as to handle large quantities of data.
Generally, we use personal computers which can be seen at homes, shops, schools, etc.
On the basis of size, computers are classified as follows:
• Microcomputers
• Minicomputers
• Mainframe computers
• Supercomputers

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l(nOWledge Corner -6. -1 ,

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"f ,· .
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and lhe muchine. In order to execute ~ t·1•k yot

Information can also be shared
using signals ~hrough eyes and 1 give
• •
1nslrucl1ons lo th e computer 'rLe , " , , .•
facial expressions. • , 11 in~ 1rue 11<,n~ mu~t
L------ be given in lh e same language which the computer
understands. This necessitates the need to learn c<,mputer
r:n~e languages.
ters ..,,__
· .1.11ese Types of Computer Languages
store data
Computer languages are broadly classified under two categories:
and Locai I. Low-level Languages
The IBM
II. High-level Languages
Knowledge Scope •
l Low-level Languages
Low-level languages include the code that is to be operated r Features of Low Level "'
Language (Machine Language
on the machine. They use instructions that are directly
and Assembly Language), High
executed. Low-level languages are further classified into Level Languages; Features
puters the following categories: of 4GLs; Types of translators
puters (a) Machine level language (Interpreter, Compiler)
an.king
entres,
(b) Assembly level language

(a) Machine Level Language (MLL)

(
It is the fundamental language of a computer. It is written as strings of binary digits, i.e., as Os
and ls. When the instructions are given in terms of Os and ls, it is known as machine level li
l
language, e.g. 10010100010, l 110100101, etc. -

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101 f'I(, Knowledge Corner
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'I 10110
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ters 111( or order given to the
her '.I I JI
computer to perform a Earlier, instructions in
specific task. machine level language
be
- - were given by pressing
ed
switches. Switch on
d This is the basic language understood by all computers. meant 1 and switch off
During early times, instructions were given only in terms meant O (zero) .
of Os and ls.

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2. Programming logic can be de\'eloped
Knowledge Corner n
Instructions written in m nemonics are furtt-ei
fth imp
tY u er
ertormc
e~il). coded into a special form called the OP<oce tt ,..
These codes are actually fed to the computer ~
um1tutions of .1.ssembl) Lew•l 1 rmg11ag..: to perform different tasks.
among llC ool
I. Instructions de\'eloped in the form of Few tasks are illustrated below:
mnemonics must be coded into the Mnemonics Codes Tasks
OP-Code form. LOAD A ---- 7B
- - - -
Enter t he value in A C wa~ develop
2. A translator is required to convert the LOAD B C2 value in B b) Oennis R.1t
OP-Code into a computer-readable 1
binary form.
ADD A, B 23 Add the values of A {or use '-'"th
and B 'Powerful \an
3. Jr is a machine-dependent language. STORE C B4 Store result in C llpp\ications.
HLT
-
fl. Higlz-lel'el Language (HLL) ll.._ EF Stop ,omp\ex ma
l.mgu~gc \S ,
In this system, instructions are written almost like Engl' h 1 . .
15
develop and understand programming logi A ~guage Wh1Ch makes 1t easter to
c. program written i11 a h.ig h - leve l language C311
be executed in almost all computers. Hence high-le,, 1 l·
'
level and assembly level languages. Some well-known h·e hanguages ·are pre ferre d over machint'
FORTRA N , Pascal, etc, ig •1eve} languages are BASIC, COBl)L.

Adv,mtage~ of High fr•,•pf f r111r•11ages

• They are machine mdcpcndent languages.
• Th ey are ea sy to learn and help to develop programn . .
1u1g logic
• J.Jrograms in these languages can be easily n1oditit>d. ·
C+t I.a
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b l)enni~ Rit chtl' ut Ih1.· lkll ·1ell-plwm· l.,1bo1 ,1101 ic1,
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languag(' 1~ widdy w,ed by l'llA!JH'l'r'> ,llld sl k11li<,ls ,
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the user to perform long operations
· cwuen . .a.l.!o' "S
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C~ language is more popular among software . profeSSJonaJs.

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/Al:~ !..··'.gu,1_-::e
<YUage S can also be easil

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J,-\\:-\ is also an object oriented programm.i.ng ...-... •5 e 13ll~ -:_ -n..ey allow mul
~ l"c;. JllefS.. lLl •
(oop l lanru::iae. This lan2Uage was initially
~ rogran1entered bv• a prog=m1
0 ;:, .... ,.
35 p ~ d l
called OAK {named after the oak tree). It is _ t1lll13Il ctured Query Langu,
._o Stru . \ •
,ery strong in text and string operations. f.·\.\ :-\ ,-~--.d3Y·
,,er. ::u1ificia\ inte\l1g,ence
is a multipurpose language thar is ,,idely used o''~
fur general progran:uning and ror web designing. e< of 4C~ .
.,, ~-a11tnS• inc:re;1se
11
- the producm
Howe,.-er, it also requires a language processor to
1. '{he) ilv accessible
execute programs on a computer system. . are eas .
:!. '{he) can oft.en develop th1
l'isua/ Basic fl'B) 3- l]sers developed in -!G
grams
.t pro~ -
It is another object oriented programming · of languages..
language that has more ad.anced features as . SOft -',•!?•ltllg~ "
r-·GLs
•
compared to BASIC language. It uses a menu- D;._q;., ' s developed
drfren approach and allows the user to create I 1•
1be program
grams d~·eloped
2. 'Jhe pro
interactn-e programs. This language can easily
be used to link a program ,,ith a graphical
presentation. slator and its Types
Tran demand onl;
uters un
CoillPd Os\. The as5embh-. 1e,
Differences between High-level Languages and
Low-level Languages ls ~ easily. Howe...-er, these
logic · eed a tran.S.lat
-e "-e n
High-level languages Knowledge Corner Hen'- • chine le,el langu
1. These languages are
used to write programs
Low-Jevd l.anguaga
L These ~auages
i~
,- ---------..::-..,.:
into a ma
bclov,.-:
are U5cd to "-Tile JAVA language was devefopeo-;;--
in simple English and l As.sr•THe-r
programs "-ith the ye_ar 1991 by James Gosling at SL,1
by using alphabets and Microsystems, USA. -~~bler is a soitw-are ,
numbers. combination of Os
and 1s. ~ assembl-y le,;cl langua11
2. They are machine-
2. They are machine- basic operations.
independent
dependent
Assembly Le-."al
Language
4Gl.s Fourth Generation
languages (4GLs)
James Gosling; 2. Compiler
The fourth generation languages are popujarh-
Inventor of JAVA language Compiler is a software
known as -1-GLs. These languages are 5Peciall~-
designed to make cost-effective softwares and ~ Machine la le,;el language. It acccp
langti nguage and assembly code.
also reduce the execution time of the programs. age are known fi
generan as rst
Tuev are used in the field of database queries, data on and
languages O
sec.ad
n generation H~··Hc-,e·
martipulation, analysis and report making. h. , · n the oth h La~~age
ign-ieve1 Ian u er and, o der
tliird generang ages are known as
on languages.
IL\f: ln . (ompur
· dcnf,,1n d mg . _
 'Jhese Janguages can alsoall be easily accessed by peop Ie w h o do nol I, r 1 • •
",.,.,mers. They ow multiple comm . ave any ,orma training
rogr..... on operations to be . ~ . 1 , 1 .
as P d entered by a programmer. per OJ mec wit 1 a sin gle
coJllman
d structured Query Language (SQL) is lhe onl y :"'''de1y used 4GL in commercial use.
To ay, jficial intelligence Iangu
However, art ages are also classified as 4GL.

aues of 4GLs
Adw1n t t> ••
l. 'JheY increase the product1V1ty of programming.
_'Jhey are easily accessible as compared to third generation languages.
2
3. Users can often develop their own applications using 4GLs.
_ programs developed in 4GLs are more portable than those developed in other generation
4
of languages.

Disadvantages of 4GLs
1. 'Jbe programs developed in the 4GLs need high processing speed of the CPU.
_'Ibe programs developed also require more space in the memory of the computer system.
2

Translator and its Types

Computers understand only machine level language (i.e., the instructions coded in terms of
ls and Os). The assembly level and high-level languages are provided to develop programming
logic easily. However, these forms of languages are not directly understood by the computer.
Hence, we need a translator language processor to convert assembly or high-level languages
into a machine level language. The different types of translator and their working are explained

below:

J. Assembler
Assembler is a software which is used to convert a program (a set of instructions) written in
an assembly level language into a machine level language. It helps a computer to perform its

basic operations.
Machine Level
Assembly Level Assembler Ill Language
Ill
Language

2. Compiler
Compiler is a software that converts a program written in a high-level language into a machine
level language. It accepts the entire program at a time and then generates its equivalent machine

code.
Machine Level
High-level Ill Language
Language
 J. Imcrpn fer t
I 1 t1
· software t Ja •s also used to conver a p rog ram Wrillcn .11 o l •
nterpreter 1s a . 1 1language. It accepts in struc tions and 1 ' ''Bh 1.
. bits. 1 . 1en t m achme eve t m ent At th e Lim
mto equ1va e of execut ion the Bcncrat
' Cs I))c,~I Ii,
line- y- .
me o, statement-by-sta
the next line unless the pmaous _ e line/statement
. is e,coc-free. , control aq11 \
"' , do,,, ,,
.ai Interpreter 11 ( ' chine level languages. Instr
High-level
Language
n••-lllljJl"I" Knowledge Corner
_ _ __ ~ • In ma only two dIgl1s. '·"·· Os and
having . s in assembly level Ian
uctIon
1 • 1nslrh LeveI Languages use lnstru
Differences between a Compiler
. and an Interpreter Do You know? ~ • Hlg Java, etc.
C++, rocessor lranslator Is
Compiler Interpreter
Eve ry high-leveJ I
Language
el langu~ge or a high-level I➔
1. It converts the entire
program into its
l . It converts the entire
program into i~ I
I its own specific /lllluage ha
coding it into a llloa~:-ller ro/
language, 1ne level
1ev mbler c onverts an assernb
Asse .5 used to convert a
compiler 1
A ge at once.
machine code at once. machine code line by 1angua te r converts instruc
• An lnter_p;
line. The firs t compiler w line-by-lin .
2. It displays the errors . as
2. It displays the errors designed by Grace H
0
for the entire program of one line at a time ---....:-..:..:--==---....:::::.=-.:::_- ----PPer.
only after compilation.
during the conversion ~
to its machine code.

····· ·· ······· ············ ······ ··· ··

Chapter at a Glance

• purpose
Computera
andcan be classi,ed on the basis ol th,ee major categMes, namely, Qen,.,,~
size.

• ENIAC (Electconic Nume,;cal tntegrator And Calculator) was the first fully operational elo:I,..
and general-purpose
using the technology computer. belonged to the firat generation of computera and was Oi
of vaccum Ittubes.

• The second generation of computera used translstora instead of vacuum tubes.

• The third generation of computers used integrated circuits.

• microcomputers.
The fourth generation of computera used mboprocessors and led to the emergence o

• The Ufth generation ot compu/era are WOrking on the concept of artificial intelligence
• computers
on the basisandof supercomputers.
size, computeo; are classified into mini computers, microcomputers, main!,.,,.. ··· ··· ·· ··············· ··········
······ ······················· ···
• and hybrid
Based computes.
o~ their purpose, computeo; are cagegori5ed as analog computers ' digital compute,
• A computer language is a medium of communication betw ·· ······ ··········· ·············
• Computer languages are broadly classified into two cate . . ···· ········ ········ ···· ·······
een a user and a computer.
high-level languages. !!Ones Vtz_ low.1eve1 languages and
• Low-level languages use instructions that are directty ..<leuted ··· ··· ···· ······ ···· ······ ·····
machine level languages and assembly tevei tanguag.._ and can be categorised as ····· ····· ··········· ·········

······ ···· ·· ········ ········· ·

······· ······················