UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS
PHYSICAL QUANTITIES
All the quantities in term of which laws of
physics can be described and which are
measurable are known as physical
quantities.
TYPES OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES
There are two types of physical quantities:
 Fundamental quantities: Those
physical quantities which do not depend
upon any other quantity are known as
fundamental quantities or base
quantities. There are seven fundamental
or base quantities in SI system. They
are Length, Mass, Time, Current
electricity, Thermodynamic
temperature, Amount of substance and
Luminous intensity.
 Derived quantities: Those physical
quantities which are derived from
fundamental quantities are known as
derived quantities. e.g. Speed =
UNITS
Measurement of any physical quantities
involves comparison with a certain basic
arbitrarily chosen, international accepted
reference standard known as unit.
The result of measurement of a physical
quantity is expressed by a number
accompanied by a unit. In general
Measured value of physical quantity =
numerical value (n) × unit (u)
Characteristics of a Unit
A unit selected for measuring a physical
quantity should fulfil the following
requirements:
 It should be of suitable size.
 It should be well defined
 It should be easily accessible.
 It should be easily reproducible at all
places.
 It should not change with time.
 It should not change with change in
its physical conditions like
temperature, pressure etc.
SYSTEM OF UNITS
A complete set of units having, both the
base units and derived units is known
as system of units. A few common
systems are given below:
 CGS system: This system is also
called Gaussian system of units. In
it, length, mass and time have been
taken as the fundamental quantities
and corresponding units are
centimetre (cm), gram (g) and second
(s) respectively.
 FPS system: In this system foot,
pound and second are the
fundamental units for the
measurements of length, mass and
time respectively.
 MKS system: In this system the
length, mass and time have been
taken as the fundamental quantities
and corresponding units are metre
(m), Kilogram (Kg) and second (s)
respectively.
 International system of units
(SI units) :In 1971 the international
Bureau of weights and measures
established a system of units which
is known as the International system
of units. It is abbreviated as SI units
1
 from the French name Le systeme rationalised form of MKS system of
Internationale d Units and it is units.
TYPE OF SI UNITS

1.Base unit : It has seven basic SI 2. Derived Unit: 3. Supplementary Units

units. Those physical
Base quantity SI Units quantities which are  Radian (rad): It is
Name Symbol derived from base unit defined as the angle
are known as derived subtended at the
Length Metre m unit. centre of a circle by an
e.g. Speed = = m/s arc equal in length of
Mass Kilogram Kg is derived unit. the circle. Θ (in
radian) =
Time Second s Maximum value of
plane angle is 2π rad
Current Ampere A  Steradian (Sr): It is
electricity the solid angle
Thermodynamic Kelvin K subtended at the
temperature centre of a sphere by
Luminous Candela cd surface of the sphere.
intensity Ω (in steradian)=
Amount of Mole mol
Maximum value of
substance
solid angle is 4π Sr
Advantages of SI unit

The main advantages of SI over the other systems of units are the following:

 SI is coherent system of units.

 SI is a rational system of units.
 SI is an absolute system of units.
 SI is a metric system.
 Universally accepted.

Disadvantages of SI unit

As it is coherent system, all the derived units are not practical. e.g. 1 Coulomb, 1 farad is
too large units to be practical.

RELATION BETWEEN DEGREE, MINUTE, SECOND AND RADIAN

π
1 = rad = 1.745 × 10 rad ; 1 = 60, = 1.745 × 10 rad
1, = rad = 2.91 × 10 rad ; 1, = 60" = rad
× ×
1,, = rad = 4.85 × 10 rad
× ×

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Practical Units of Length mass and time
Practical Units of Length
One astronomical unit = 1 AU
= 1.496 × 10 m ≈ 1.5 × 10 m
(average distance of the sun from
the earth)
One light year = 1 ly = 9.46 × 10 m
(distance that light travels with
velocity of 3 × 10 m/s in one year)
One parsec = 3.08 × 10 m = 3.26 ly
(parsec is the distance at which
average radius of earth’s orbit
subtended an angle of one arc
second)
One micron = 1μm = 10 m
One angstrom = 1A = 10 m 1 Chandrasekhar
One Fermi = 1 f = 10 m One shake = 10 s
SOME CONVERSION FACTORS
LENGTH 1 m = 100 cm
1 km = 1000 m = 0.6215
mi
1 mi = 1.609 km
1m=1.0936 yd=3.281ft
=39.37 in
1 ft = 12 in = 30.48 cm
1 yd = 3 ft = 91.44 cm
1 A = 0.1 nm
MASS 1 kg = 1000 g
1 tonne = 1000 kg = 1 Mg
1 slug = 14.59 kg
1 kg = 6.852 × 10 slug
1 u = 931.5 Mev/c
Practical Units of Practical Units of Time
Mass
One tonne = 10 kg Solar day: It is the time interval
between two successive
passages of the sun across the
meridian. One solar day =
86400 s
One quintal = 10 kg Sidereal day: It is the time interval
between two successive passages
of a fixed star across the meridian.
1 pound= 0.4536 kg Solar year or year: It is the
time taken by the earth to
complete one revolution
around the sun in its orbit.
1 solar year = 365.25 solar
day = 366.25 sidereal day.
1 atomic mass unit Lunar month: It is the time
= 1u =1.66 ×10 kg taken by moon to complete
one revolution around the
earth in its orbit.
1 Lunar month = 29.53 days
Leap year: It is that year in
limit = 1.4 times the which the month of
mass of sun. February is of 29 days.
ENERGY 1 kWh = 3.6 MJ
1 cal = 4.186 J ≈ 4.2 J
1 ft Ibf = 1.356 J = 1.286 × 10 Btu
1 L atm = 24.217 cal
1 Btu (British thermal unit) = 252 cal =
1054.35 J
1 eV = 1.602 × 10 J
1 uc = 931.5 MeV
1 erg = 10 J
PRESSURE 1 Pa = 1 Nm
1 bar = 100 kPa
1 atm = 101.325 kPa = 1.01325 bar
1 atm = 14.7 Ibfin = 760 mm of Hg
1 Ibfin = 6.895 kPa
1 torr = 1 mm Hg = 133.32 Pa
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TIME 1’ (one minute) = 60 s POWER 1 W = 1 Js-1
1 h = 60” = 3.6 ks 1 horse power (hp)= 745.7 W≈ 746W
1 d =24 h = 1440” =86.4 ks 1 Btu min-1 = 17.58 W
1 y = 365.25 d = 31.56. Ms 1 W = 1.341 × 10 hp
FORCE 1 N = 0.2248 Ibf = 105 dyn MAGNETIC 1 G (Gauss) = 10-4 T (Tesla)
1 Ibf = 4.4482 N FIELD 1 T = 1 Wbm-2 = 104 G
1 kgf = 2.2046 Ibf

DIMENSION Dimensional formulae for different

physical quantities.
The power (exponent) of base quantity that
enters into the expression of a physical
quantity is called the dimension of the
quantity in that base.
To make it clear, consider the physical
quantity "force".
Force = mass × acceleration
= mass × velocity/time
= mass × length / (time)2
= mass × length × (time)–2 , So the
dimensions of force are 1 in mass, 1 in
length and –2 in time

Dimensional formula: Dimensional formula

is a standardized method to express the
Physical quantities in terms of basic
quantities as chosen in the SI system of
measurement. These are denoted with
symbols in square brackets [ ]

Fundamental Dimensional
Physical Quantities Formula Dimensional Variables: Physical quantities
Mass [M L T ] which have dimensions but do not possess
Length [M L T ] any fixed value. e.g., Speed, power, energy,
Time [M L T ] momentum etc.
Temperature [M L T θ] or Dimensional constants: Physical quantities
[M L T K ]
which have a fixed value and which do have
Current Electricity [M L T A ]
dimensions, e.g., Planck’s constant,
Luminous Intensity [M L T Cd ]
Amount of substance [M L T mol ] gravitational constant, speed of light in
vacuum, etc.
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Dimensionless variables: Physical quantities
which do not possess a fixed value and do
not even has a dimensions, e.g., strain,
refractive index, solid angle, plane angle etc.
Dimensionless constants: Quantities which
do not have dimensions but do have a fixed
value, e.g., Solid integer, π, e, etc.
= Distance = [L]
ut = velocity × time = [LT × T] = [L]
t = acceleration × time = [LT × T ] = [L]
Since dimensions of left hand side equals to
dimension on right hand side, equation is
said to be consistent and dimensionally
correct.

Limitations of dimensions Example 1.Find the dimension of a/b in the

1. This method does tell us how to determine
the value of constant of proportionality.
2. This method cannot be used to derive
equation: = √x + bt , where F is force, x is
distance and t is time.
Solution: √x = F ; = √ = / = /

composite relations. t =F; = = =[ ]

e.g., = + at , and v − u = 2as / −
/
[ / ]= [ ]
=
3. It cannot be used where trigonometric or
Example 2. Find the dimension of a × b in
exponential terms are used.
b−x2
4. This method cannot be used to derive a the relation: = at
; where E is energy,
relation between more than three quantities. x is distance and t is time.
5. It does not tell whether a given Physical
Solution: b = x = [L ] ∴ =
quantity is a scalar or a vector. [ ]

6. It does not tell us the value of constants or = = .

= [M T ]
involved Hence [ × ] =
Example 3. Find the dimension of a / b in
Advantages of dimensional analysis.
1. It is useful in checking the correctness of the relation: P = ; where P is pressure, x
the given physical relation. (Check the is distance and t is time.
consistency of the equation)
Solution: a = t = [ ] ∴ =
2. To change units from one system to [ ]

another. or = = =[ ]
[ ] .
3. Derive relation between physical quantities
a/b=
in physical phenomena.
Example 4. The distance covered by a
Check the consistency of the equation particle in time t is given by x = a + bt + ct2 +
dt3; find the dimension of a, b, c and d.
e.g., = + at Solution: a = x = [ ] ; bt = x ∴ b= = [ ]
Now to check if the above equation is ct2 = x ∴ = =[ ]
dimensionally correct, we have to prove that
ct3 = x ∴ = =[ ]
dimensions of physical quantities are same
on both sides. Also, we have to keep in mind
Example 5. The Vander Wall’s equation for a
that quantities can only be added or
subtracted if their dimensions are same. S gas is P + (v − b) = RT

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Determine the dimensions of ‘a’ and ‘b’.
N : known value N : unknown value
Solution: = P
∴ a = Pv = [ML T ][L ] =
M : known unit of M : unknown unit of
&b=v=[ ]
To change units from one system to mass mass
another.
Dimensional analysis is also used in L : known unit of L : unknown unit of
obtaining the value of the physical quantity length length
in another system.
For Example, if we want to convert a T : known unit of T : unknown unit of
physical quantity from S.I or metric system time time
to C.G.S system we can easily do that with
the help of dimensional analysis. a, b and c is pure number.
A physical quantity has two parts; one is the
numerical or magnitude part and the other
Example 6. Find the value of 60 joule
part is the unit part. Suppose there’s a
physical quantity X, which has unit “U” and /minute on a system which has 100g, 100cm
magnitude “N”, then it will be expressed as: and 1min as fundamental unit. Solution:
X = NU 60 joule /minute = joule/s =1
To convert a physical quantity from one unit
J/s = 1 watt.
to another we use below relation:
N1U1 = N2U2
Known unit - SI New unit
where N1 and N2 are numerical parts and
U1 and U2 are dimensions or units of both
N =1 N =?
quantities.
Since the value of the physical quantity is M =100g
the same in all systems. M = 1 kg = 1000g
N [M L T ] = N [M L T ] L = 100cm
L = 1m = 100cm
T =1 min = 60 s
T = 1s
N =N Power = [ML T ]= M L T
a = 1, b = 2 & c = -3

N =1 = 2.16 × 106

Example 7. If the velocity of light be taken as

where
one unit and the unit of time as one year of
Known unit Unknown unit 365 days, find the unit of length. Solution:

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Distance = speed × time [L] = Example 10. Convert one joule into erg.
[LT ][T] = 3 × 10 × 365 × 86400m = Solution: Energy = [ML T ]= M L T
9.461 × 10 m a = 1, b = 2 & c = -2
Example 8. A calorie is a unit of heat and it
Known unit - SI Unknown unit CGS
equals to 4.2 J, suppose we employ a system
of units in which the unit of mass equals α N =1 N =?
kg, the unit of length equals β metre, the
M =1g
unit of time is γ second. Show that a calorie M = 1 kg = 1000g
has a magnitude 4.2 α β γ Solution: L = 1cm
L = 1m = 100cm
Known unit - SI New unit T =1 s
T = 1s
N = 4.2 N =? N =1 = 10 erg
M = α kg
M = 1 kg Example 11. Convert one dyne into Newton.
L = β metre Solution: Force = [MLT ]= M L T
L = 1m
a = 1, b = 1 & c = -2
T = γ second
T = 1s
Known unit - CGS Unknown unit - SI
Energy = [ML T ]= M L T
a = 1, b = 2 & c = -2 N =1 N =?

N = 4.2 = 4.2 α β γ M = 1 kg = 1000 g

M = 1g
L = 1m = 100 cm
Example 9. If the units of force, energy and L = 1cm
velocity are 20 N, 200 J and 5 ms -1, find the T =1 s
unit of length, mass and time. T = 1s
Solution: Force =[MLT ] = 20 N ……..(1) N =1 = 10 Newton
Energy = [ML T ] = 200 J …………… (2)
Derive relations between physical
Velocity = [LT ] = 5 ms …………… (3)
quantities involved in physical
Dividing (2) by (1), = =
phenomena.
Putting the value of L in (3), [10T ]=5 The method of dimension analysis can also
help in finding out relations between physical
or, T = 2 s ; From (1) , M = 8 kg
quantities. If we know how physical quantities
depend on each other, we can find the relation
between them easily by equating dimension on
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both sides. [M L T ] = M L T
Example 12. Consider a simple pendulum Hence; a = -½ . b = ½
having a bob attached to string, that oscillate
under the action of the force of gravity. ∴ =
Suppose that the period of oscillation of the
Example 15. Assuming that the mass M of the
simple pendulum depends on mass m of the
largest stone that can be moved by a flowing
bob, length l of the bob and acceleration due to
river depends upon v the velocity, ρ the
gravity g at that place. Derive the expression for
density of the water and on g the acceleration
its time period using method of dimensions.
due to gravity. Show that M varies with the
Solution: Let T ∝ m l g ; or T = k m l g …(1) sixth power of velocity of flow.
Where k is dimensionless constant.
Solution: Let = v ρ g …………(1)
Putting equation (1) in dimensional form
Where k is dimensionless constant.
[M L T ] = M L L
Putting equation (1) in dimensional form.
Hence a = 0, -2c =1 ∴ c = -½ and b = ½ [M L T ] = M L T on
using equation (1), T = k m l / g / solving; b = 1, a = 6, c =-3
From experiment k = 2π
using equation (1) = v ρ g
Therefore =2 Hence ∝v
Example 16. The velocity v of water waves
Example 13. The frequency ν of vibration of depends on the wave length λ density of water ρ
stretched string depends upon its length L, the and the acceleration due to gravity g. Deduce
mass per unit length m and the tension T in by the method of dimensions the relationship
the string. Obtain dimensionally an expression between these quantities. ( = )
for frequency ν. Example 17. The period of vibration of a
Solution: According to the question tuning fork depends on the length l of its
= l m T …….(1), Where k is dimensionless prong, density d and Young’s modulus Y of its
constant. Putting equation (1) in dimensional material. Deduce an expression for the
form. [M L T ] = L M T vibration on the basis of dimensions. ( = )

Hence c = ½ , b = -½ , a = -1 Example 18. The frequency ν of a oscillating

/ /
∴ = l m T or =
Example 14.The velocity of sound wave v
through a medium may be depend on the
density of the medium d and the modulus of
elasticity E. Deduce by the method of
dimensions the formula for velocity of sound.
Take dimension of k = 1.
Solution: According to the question
= d E ……………..(1)
Where k is dimensionless constant.
Putting equation (1) in dimensional form.
drop may depend upon radius r of the drop,
density ρ of the liquid and surface tension S of
the liquid. Establish an expression for ν
dimensionally. ( = )
Example 19. A large fluid star oscillate in
shape under the influence of its own
gravitational field. Using dimensional analysis,
find the expression for period of oscillation T
in terms of radius of star R mean density of
fluid ρ and universal gravitational constant
G.(T= )

8
Example 20. The escape velocity v of body armpit will always give a temperature lower
depends upon the acceleration due to gravity than the actual value of the body
of the planet and the radius of the planet R. temperature.
Other external conditions (such as changes
Establish dimensionally the relationship
in humidity, temperature, wind velocity, etc.)
between v, g and R. ( = gR) during the experiment may systematically
affect the measurement.
Error (c) Personal errors
Such errors arise due to an individual’s bias,
The result of every measurement by any
lack of proper setting of the apparatus or
measuring instrument contains some individual’s carelessness in taking
uncertainty. This uncertainty is called error. observations without observing proper
precautions, etc. For example, if you, by
Errors of measurements habit, always hold your head a bit too far to
the right while reading the position of a
It is the difference between true value and the
needle on the scale, you will introduce an
measured of value of quantity is known error due to parallax.
as error of measurement. Random errors
Error = True value – Measured value The random errors are those errors, which
occur irregularly and hence are random with
Types of Errors: respect to sign and size. These can arise due
In general, the errors in measurement can be to random and unpredictable fluctuations in
broadly classified as (a) systematic errors experimental conditions (e.g. unpredictable
and (b) random errors (c) Least count error fluctuations in temperature, voltage supply,
Systematic errors mechanical vibrations of experimental set-
The systematic errors are those errors that ups, etc), personal (unbiased) errors by the
tend to be in one direction, either positive or observer taking readings, etc. For example,
negative. Basically, these are the errors when the same person repeats the same
whose causes are known. observation, it is very likely that he may get
(a) Instrumental errors: different readings every time.
These errors arise from the errors due to Least count error
imperfect design or calibration of the Least count is the smallest value that can be
measuring instrument, zero error in the measured by the measuring instrument.
instrument, etc. Least count error is the error associated with
Example: Temperature graduations of a the resolution of the instrument.
thermometer may be inadequately calibrated For example, a vernier callipers has the least
[it may read 103 °C at the boiling point of count as 0.01 cm; a spherometer may have a
water at STP (Standard Temperature & least count of 0.001 cm.
Pressure) whereas it should read 100 °C). Least count error belongs to the category of
In a vernier calliper the zero mark of vernier random errors but within a limited size; it
scale may not coincide with the zero mark of occurs with both systematic & random
the main scale, or simply an ordinary metre errors.
scale may be worn off at one end. If we use a metre scale for measurement of
(b) Imperfection in experimental length, it may have graduations at 1 mm
technique or procedure division scale spacing or interval.
To determine the temperature of a human
body, a thermometer placed under the
9
Absolute Error, Relative Error and Percentage Error
Percentage Error Percentage error, δa = (Δamean/amean) × 100%
Let the values obtained in several Accuracy : The ability of the instrument to
measurements are a1, a2, a3...., an. measure the accurate value is known as
The arithmetic mean of these values is taken accuracy. In other words, the closeness of the
as the best possible value of the quantity measured value to a standard or true value.
under the given conditions of measurement As we reduce the errors, the measurement
as, becomes more accurate.
amean = (a1 + a2 + a3 … + an)/n Precision
The closeness of two or more measurements
Absolute error to each other is known as the precision of a
The magnitude of the difference between the substance. It is determined by the least
true value of the quantity and the individual count of the measuring instrument. If you
measurement value is called the absolute weight a given substance five times and get
error of the measurement. This is denoted by 3.2 kg each time, then your measurement is
| Δa |. very precise but not necessarily accurate.
Then the errors in the individual Precision is independent of accuracy.
Student Measurement Measurement Measurement Avarage Example: Suppose three students are asked
1 2 3 length
A 10.02 m 10.01 m 10.03 m 10.02 m
to find the length of a rod whose length is
B 10.014 m 10.012 m 10.010 m 10.012 m
known to be 10.005m. They obtain following
data.
C 10.005 m 10.005 m 10.004 m 10.005 m

measurement values are The data obtained by the student A are

neither very precise nor accurate, the
Δa1 = amean – a1,
individual values differ widely and also the
Δa2 = amean – a2,
average value is not accurate. The data for
.... .... ....
student B are more precise, as they vary
.... .... .... slightly from one another but the average
length is not accurate. The data for C are
Δan = amean – an both precise and accurate. The resolution for
The Δa calculated above may be positive in A is 0.01 m and that B or C is 0.001 m.
certain cases and negative in some other Example. In a series of successive
cases. But absolute error |Δa| will always be measurements in an experiment, the
positive. readings of the period of oscillation of a
Mean absolute error simple pendulum were found to be 2.63s,
It is the arithmetic mean of the magnitude of 2.56 s, 2.42s, 2.71s and 2.80s. Calculate
absolute errors in all the measurement of the (i) the mean value of the period of oscillation
quantity. It is generally represented by Δamean (ii) the absolute error in each measurement
= Δa1 + Δa2 + Δa3 +…….+ Δan/n (iii) the mean absolute error (iv) the relative
If we do a single measurement, the value we error (v) the percentage error.(vi) Express the
get may be in the range amean ± Δamean result in proper form.
i.e., a = amean ± Δamean Solution: (i) Mean period of oscillation.
Relative Error =
. . . . .
=
.
= . = .
The relative error is the ratio of the mean (ii) Absolute error in each measurement
absolute error Δamean to the mean ∆ = . − . =− .
value amean of the quantity measured. ∆ = . − . =− .
i.e., Relative error = Δamean/ amean ∆ = . − . = .
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∆ = . − . =− . For error ∆ to be maximum, ∆ and ∆ must
∆ = . − . =− . have the same sign, therefore ∆ = ∆ + ∆

(iii) Mean absolute error (iii) Error in the Product of two quantities.
|∆ | |∆ | |∆ | |∆ | |∆ | .
∆ = = = . = . Z = AB
(iv) Relative error, =
∆
=
.
= . = . The error ∆Z in Z is given by
.
∆ Z ±∆ Z = (A ± ∆A)(B ± ∆B)
(v) Percentage error in T= × %
= AB ±∆A B ± B∆ A ± ∆A∆B
= . × % = 4% ∆ ∆ ∆ ∆ ∆
(vi) In term of absolute error, T = (2.62 ± 0.11)s + = ± ± ±
∆ ∆
In term of percentage error, T = (2.62 ± 4%)s As are small quantities their product
Example . The length of a rod as measured in term can be neglected. The maximum
an experiment was found to be 2.48m, 2.46m, ∆ ∆ ∆
2.49m, 2.50m and 2.48m. Calculate fractional error in Z is = +
(i) the mean value of the length (iv) Error in the division or quotient.
(ii) the absolute error in each measurement
=
(iii)the mean absolute error
(iv) the percentage error. The error ∆Z in Z is given by
∆
(Ans : (i)2.48m, (ii) 0.00m, 0.02m, -0.01m, -0.02m, ±∆ ± ∆ ∆
0.00m, (iii) 0.01m, (iv) 0.40%) Z ±∆ Z= ±∆
= ∆ = ± ±
±
Example . In an experiment, refractive index ∆ ∆
of glass was observed to be 1.45, 1.56, 1.54, = ± + [∵ ( + ) = + , ≪ ]
1.44, 1.54 and 1.51 Calculate (i) Mean value of Dividing both side by Z, we get
∆ ∆ ∆ ∆ ∆
refractive index (ii) Mean absolute error (iii) + = ± ± ±
Fractional error (iv)Percentage error. (Ans : ∆ ∆
(i)1.51,(ii) 0.06, -0.05, -0.03, 0.07, -0.03, -0.02 (iii) As are small quantities their product
0.04, (iv) 0.03 (vi) 3% ) term can be neglected. The maximum
∆ ∆ ∆
Combination of Error fractional error in Z is = +
(i) Error in the sum of two quantities. (v) Error in the power of a quantity.
Let ∆A and ∆B be the absolute error in two If =
quantities A and B respectively. Then
Taking logarithms, we get
Measured value of A = A ± ∆A
= + −
Measured value of B = B ± ∆B
Differentiating both side, we get
Consider the sum Z=A+B
the error ∆Z in Z is then given by = + −
Z ±∆ Z = (A ± ∆A) + (B ± ∆B) writing the above equation in terms of
= (A + B) ± ( ∆A + ∆B) = Z ± ( ∆A + ∆B) fractional errors,
∆ ∆ ∆ ∆
∆ = ∆ + ∆ ± =± ± ±
(ii) Error in the difference of two quantities. The maximum permissible error in Z is given
Let ∆A and ∆B be the absolute error in two ∆ ∆ ∆ ∆
quantities A and B respectively. Then by = + +
Measured value of A = A ± ∆A
Measured value of B = B ± ∆B
Consider the difference Z=A-B
the error ∆Z in Z is then given by
Z ±∆ Z = (A ± ∆A) - (B ± ∆B)
= (A - B) ± ∆A + ∆B = Z ± ∆A + ∆B
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