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Doc. Title : ARTIFICIAL LIFT TRAINING MANUAL

5.4. Mechanical and Hydraulic Tools

5.4.1. Useful Information for Some of Mechanical and Measuring Tools

5.4.1.1. Introduction

In each mission in our life tools are the corner stone to achieve our goals
If you intend to cook, you will need cooking tools, oven, and food ingredient, if you will fix your car then
you need a workshop and a group of hand tools and so on in everything in our life
This document will focus on the hand tools proper use in oil and gas industry, will show the safe use and
safety precautions.

5.4.1.2. Definition

An item or implement used for a specific purpose. A tool can be a physical object such as mechanical
tools including saws and hammers or a technical object such as a web authoring tool or software program.
Furthermore, a concept can also be considered a tool. "Creativity is the tool which allows a child's mind to
grow."

5.4.1.3. Types

Hand tools- Pneumatic tools- Hydraulic tools- Measuring tools

5.4.1.4. Measuring tools

General

5.4.1.5. Tape

Equipment: It is made up of a long flexible tape and can

measure objects or places up to 10 – 50 m in length. It has markings
similar to that of the rigid rule. The smallest marking could be as small
as 0.1 cm or could be as large as 0.5 cm or even 1 cm.

How to use: The zero-mark of the measuring tape is first aligned flat to one end of the object and the tape
is stretched taut to the other end, the reading is taken where the other end of the object meets the tape.
Accuracy: ± 1 cm

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5.4.1.6. Ruler

Equipment: It is made up of a long rigid piece of wood or steel and can measure objects up to 100
cm in length. The smallest marking is usually 0.1 cm.

How to use: The zero-end of the rule is first aligned flat with one end of the object and the reading is taken
where the other end of the object meets the rule.

Accuracy: ± 0.1 cm

5.4.1.7. Vernier Caliper

Equipment: It is made up of a main scale and a Vernier scale and can usually measure objects up to
15 cm in length. The smallest marking is usually 0.1 cm on the main scale.
It has:

x A pair of external jaws to measure external diameters

x A pair of internal jaws to measure internal diameters
x A long rod to measure depths

How to use: The jaws are first closed to find any zero errors. The jaws are then opened to fit the object
firmly and the reading is then taken.

Accuracy: ± 0.01 cm

A quick guide on how to read a Vernier caliper. A Vernier caliper outputs measurement readings in
centimeters (cm) and it is precise up to 2 decimal places (E.g. 1.23 cm).

Note: The measurement-reading technique described in this post will be similar for Vernier calipers which
output measurement readings in inches.

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Measurement Reading Technique for Vernier Caliper

In order to read the measurement readings from Vernier caliper properly, you need to remember two things
before we start. For example, if a Vernier caliper output a measurement reading of 2.13 cm, this means that:

The main scale contributes the main number(s) and one decimal place to the reading (E.g. 2.1 cm, whereby
2 is the main number and 0.1 is the one decimal place number)

The Vernier scale contributes the second decimal place to the reading (E.g. 0.03 cm)

Let’s examine the image of the Vernier caliper readings above. We will just use a two steps method to get
the measurement reading from this:

To obtain the main scale reading: Look at the image above, 2.1 cm is to the immediate left of the zero on
the Vernier scale. Hence, the main scale reading is 2.1 cm

To obtain the Vernier scale reading: Look at the image above and look closely for an alignment of the scale
lines of the main scale and Vernier scale. In the image above, the aligned line correspond to 3. Hence, the
Vernier scale reading is 0.03 cm.

In order to obtain the final measurement reading, we will add the main scale reading and Vernier scale
reading together. This will give 2.1 cm + 0.03 cm = 2.13 cm.

Let’s go through another example to ensure that you understand the above steps:

Main scale reading: 10.0 cm (Immediate left of zero)

Vernier scale reading: 0.02 cm (Alignment of scale lines)

Measurement reading: 10.02 cm

Compensating For Zero Error

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Now, we shall try with zero error. If you are not familiar on how to handle zero error for Vernier calipers,
I suggest that you read up on Measurement of Length.

The reading on the top is the measurement obtained and the reading at the bottom is the zero error. Find the
actual measurement. (Meaning: get rid of the zero error in the measurement or take into account the zero
error)

Measurement with zero error: 3.34 cm

Zero error: – 0.04 cm (negative because the Vernier scale is to the left)

Measurement without zero error: 3.34–(–0.04) =3.383.34–(–0.04) =3.38 cm

If you do not understand the subtraction of the negative zero error from the measurement, please read on.
Since the zero error is -0.04 cm, this means that all measurements taken by the Vernier calipers will be
SMALLER by 0.04 cm. Hence, you will have to ADD 0.04 cm to ALL measurements in order to get the
TRUE measurement. The subtraction is done in the above case is to have an elegant way of obtaining a
resultant addition: 3.34+0.04=3.383.34+0.04=3.38 and to make it COMPATIBLE with positive zero error.
This means that once you have determined the nature of the zero error (positive or negative), you can just
subtract the zero error and be sure that your final answer is correct.

Consider a zero error of +0.04 cm. With my method, 3.34–(+0.04) =3.303.34–(+0.04) =3.30 cm.

Normal method: Since the zero error is +0.04 cm, this means that all measurements taken by the Vernier
calipers will be larger by 0.04 cm. Hence, you will have to SUBTRACT 0.04 cm from ALL measurements
in order to get the true measurement. The final calculation will be 3.34–0.04=3.303.34–0.04=3.30 cm,
which is the same as my method.

5.4.1.8. Micrometre

5.4.1.8.1. Micrometer Screw Gauge

Equipment: It is made up of a main scale and a thimble scale and can measure objects up to 5 cm in length.
The smallest marking is usually 1 mm on the main scale (sleeve) and 0.01 mm on the thimble scale
(thimble). The thimble has a total of 50 markings representing 0.50 mm.

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It has:

x An anvil and a spindle to hold the object

x A ratchet on the thimble for accurate tightening (prevent over-tightening)

How to use: The spindle is first closed on the anvil to find any zero errors (use the ratchet for careful
tightening). The spindle is then opened to fit the object firmly (use the ratchet for careful tightening) and
the reading is then taken.
Accuracy: ± 0.01 mm

A quick guide on how to read a micrometer screw gauge. Similar to the way a Vernier caliper is read, a
micrometer reading contains two parts:

x The first part is contributed by the main scale on the sleeve

x The second part is contributed by the rotating Vernier scale on the thimble

A typical micrometer screw gauge

The above image shows a typical micrometer screw gauge and how to read it. Steps:

To obtain the first part of the measurement: Look at the image above, you will see a number 5 to the
immediate left of the thimble. This means 5.0 mm. Notice that there is an extra line below the datum line,
this represents an additional 0.5 mm. So the first part of the measurement is 5.0+0.5=5.55.0+0.5=5.5 mm.

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To obtain the second part of the measurement: Look at the image above, the number 28 on the rotating
vernier scale coincides with the datum line on the sleeve. Hence, 0.28 mm is the second part of the
measurement.

You just have to add the first part and second part of the measurement to obtain the micrometer reading:
5.5+0.28=5.785.5+0.28=5.78 mm.
To ensure that you understand the steps above, here’s one more example:

First part of the measurement: 2.5 mm

Second part of the measurement: 0.38 mm
Final measurement: 2.88 mm

Now, we shall try with zero error. If you are not familiar on how to handle zero error for micrometer screw
gauge, I suggest that you read up on Measurement of Length.

The reading on the bottom is the measurement obtained and the reading at the top is the zero error. Find the
actual measurement. (Meaning: get rid of the zero error in the measurement or take into account the zero
error)

Measurement with zero error: 1.76 mm

Zero error: + 0.01 mm (positive because the zero marking on the thimble is below the datum line)

Measurement without zero error: 1.76–(+0.01) =1.751.76–(+0.01) =1.75 mm

The subtraction logic is similar to the method explained in How to read a Vernier caliper. You can take a
look and comment below, if you encounter any difficulties.

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Things you need to know:

Accuracy refers to the maximum error encountered when a particular observation is made.
Error in measurement is normally one-half the magnitude of the smallest scale reading.
Because one has to align one end of the rule or device to the starting point of the measurement, the
appropriate error is thus twice that of the smallest scale reading.
Error is usually expressed in at most 1 or 2 significant figures.

5.4.1.9. Parallax Error

For accurate measurement, the eye must always be placed vertically above the mark being read. This is to
avoid parallax errors which will give rise to inaccurate measurement.

Parallax errors affects the accuracy of the measurement. If you consistently used the incorrect angle to view
the markings, your measurements will be displaced from the true values by the same amount. This is called
systematic error.
However, if you used different angles to view the markings, your measurements will be displaced from the
true values by different amounts. This is called random error.
Parallax error for micrometer screw gauge:

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5.4.1.10. Zero Error

Zero Errors of Vernier Caliper

When the jaws are closed, the Vernier zero mark coincides with the zero mark on its fixed main scale.
Before taking any reading it is good practice to close the jaws or faces of the instrument to make sure that
the reading is zero. If it is not, then note the reading. This reading is called “zero error”.

The zero error is of two types:

x Positive zero error; and

x Negative zero error.

5.4.1.10.1. Positive Zero Error

If the zero on the Vernier scale is to the right of the main scale, then the error is said to be positive zero
error and so the zero correction should be subtracted from the reading which is measured.

5.4.1.10.2. Negative Zero Error

If the zero on the Vernier scale is to the left of the main scale, then the error is said to be negative zero error
and so the zero correction should be added from the reading which is measured.

Zero Error for micrometer screw gauge

Positive Zero Error

If the zero marking on the thimble is below the datum line, the micrometer has a positive zero error.
Whatever reading we take on this micrometer we would have to subtract the zero correction from the
readings.

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Negative Zero Error

If the zero marking on the thimble is above the datum line, the micrometer has a negative zero
error. Whatever readings we take on this micrometer we would have to add the zero correction from the
readings.
Note: You do not have to memorize positive error = subtract, negative error = add, just think this through
for a while. It is rather straightforward and intuitive.

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