CAD: MODULE 11 – MODULE 20

UNIT 1: PRE NATAL PERIOID

MODULE 11: Prenatal Development

 Prenatal development refers to the process in which a baby develops from a single cell after
conception into an embryo and later a fetus.
 The average length of time for prenatal development to complete is 38 weeks from the date of
conception. During this time, a single-celled zygote develops in a series of stages into a full-term
baby. The three primary stages of prenatal development are the germinal stage, the embryonic
stage, and the fetal stage.

Germinal stage

 Conception occurs when the female egg (ovum) is fertilized by a male sperm. Under normal
circumstances, one egg is released approximately once a month from a woman's ovary during a
process called ovulation. The egg makes its way into a fallopian tube, a structure that guides the
egg away from the ovary toward the uterus. For fertilization to occur, sperm ejaculated during
sexual intercourse (or introduced during artificial insemination) in a substance called semen
must have made their way from the vagina into the uterus and subsequently into the fallopian
tube where the ovum has been released. This process can take up to ten hours after ejaculation.
For fertilization to occur, a sperm must penetrate the tough outer membrane of the egg called
the zona pellucid. When one sperm successfully binds with the zona pellucid, a series of
chemical reactions occurs to allow only that sperm to penetrate. Fertilization occurs when the
sperm successfully enters the ovum's membrane. The genetic material of the sperm and egg
then combine to form a single cell called a zygote and the germinal stage of prenatal
development commences.
 The zygote soon begins to divide rapidly in a process called cleavage, first into two identical cells
called blastomeric, which further divide to four cells, then into eight, and so on. The group of
diving cells begins to move along the fallopian tube toward the uterus. About sixty hours after
fertilization, approximately sixteen cells have formed to what is called a morula, still enclosed by
the zona pellucid; three days after fertilization, the morula enters the uterus. As cell division
continues, a fluid-filled cavity called a blastocoel forms in the center of the group of cells, with
the outer shell of cells called trophoblasts and an inner mass of cells called embryoblasts. The
zona pellucida disappears and the morula becomes a blastocyst. At this stage the blastocyst
consists of 200 to 300 cells and is ready for implantation.
 Implantation, the process in which the blastocyst implants into the uterine wall, occurs
approximately six days after conception. Hormones secreted from the mother's ovaries and a
chemical secreted by the trophoblasts begin to prepare the uterine wall. The blastocyst first
adheres to the wall then moves into the uterine tissue. Implantation marks the end of the
germinal stage and the beginning of the embryonic stage.
 Embryonic stage

 The embryonic stage begins after implantation and lasts until eight weeks after conception.
Soon after implantation, the cells continue to rapidly divide and clusters of cells begin to take on
different functions (called differentiation). A process (gastrulation) leads to the formation of
three distinct layers called germ layers: the ectoderm (outer layer), the mesoderm (middle
layer), and the endoderm (inner layer). As the embryo develops, each germ layer differentiates
into different tissues and structures. For example, the ectoderm eventually forms skin, nails,
hair, brain, nervous tissue and cells, nose, sinuses, mouth, anus, tooth enamel, and other
tissues. The mesoderm develops into muscles, bones, heart tissue, lungs, reproductive organs,
lymphatic tissue, and other tissues. The endoderm forms the lining of lungs, bladder, digestive
tract, tongue, tonsils, and other organs.
 The process of differentiation takes place over a period of weeks with different structures
forming simultaneously. Some of the major events that occur during the embryonic stage are as
follows:
 Illustration of prenatal development, from the two-cell, or zygote, stage through the embryonic
stage, in which the major body systems develop, to the fetal stage, during which the baby’s
brain develops and the body adds size and weight.
 Illustration of prenatal development, from the two-cell, or zygote, stage through the embryonic
stage, in which the major body systems develop, to the fetal stage, during which the baby's
brain develops and the body adds size and weight.

Week 3: Beginning development of the brain, heart, blood cells, circulatory system, spinal cord, and
digestive system.

Week 4: Beginning development of bones, facial structures, and limbs (presence of arm and leg buds);
continuing development of the heart (which begins to beat), brain, and nervous tissue.

Week 5: Beginning development of eyes, nose, kidneys, and lungs; continuing development of the heart
(formation of valves), brain, nervous tissue, and digestive tract.

Week 6: Beginning development of hands, feet, and digits; continuing development of brain, heart, and
circulation system.

Week 7: Beginning development of hair follicles, nipples, eyelids, and sex organs (testes or ovaries); first
formation of urine in the kidneys and first evidence of brain waves.

Week 8: Facial features more distinct, internal organs well developed, the brain can signal for muscles to
move, heart development ends, external sex organs begin to form.

By the end of the embryonic stage, all essential external and internal structures have been formed. The
embryo is now referred to as a fetus.
 Fetal stage

 Prenatal development is most dramatic during the fetal stage. When an embryo becomes a
fetus at eight weeks, it is approximately 3 centimeters (1.2 inches) in length from crown to rump
and weighs about 3 grams (0.1 ounce). By the time the fetus is considered full-term at 38 weeks
gestation, he or she may be 50 centimeters (20 inches) or 3.3 kilograms (7.3 pounds). Although
all of the organ systems were formed during embryonic development, they continue to develop
and grow during the fetal stage. Examples of some of the major features of fetal development
by week are as follows:

Weeks 9–12: The fetus reaches approximately 8 cm. (3.2 in.) in length; the head is approximately half
the size of the fetus. External features such as the face, neck, eyelids, limbs, digits, and genitals are well
formed. The beginnings of teeth appear, and red blood cells begin to be produced in the liver. The fetus
is able to make a fist.

Weeks 13–15: The fetus reaches approximately 15 cm. (6 in.) in length. Fine hair called lanugo first
develops on the head; structures such as the lungs, sweat glands, muscles, and bones continue to
develop. The fetus is able to swallow and make sucking motions.

Weeks 16–20: The fetus reaches approximately 20 cm. (8 in.) in length. Lanugo begins to cover all skin
surfaces, and fat begins to develop under the skin. Features such as finger and toenails, eyebrows, and
eyelashes appear. The fetus becomes more active, and the mother can sometimes begin to feel fetal
movements at this stage.

Weeks 21–24: The fetus reaches approximately 28.5 cm. (11.2 in.) in length and weighs approximately
0.7 kg (1 lb. 10 oz.). Hair grows longer on the head, and the eyebrows and eye lashes finish forming. The
lungs continue to develop with the formation of air sac (alveoli); the eyes finish developing. A startle
reflex develops at this time.

Weeks 25–28: The fetus reaches approximately 38 cm. (15 in.) in length and weighs approximately 1.2
kg (2 lb. 11 oz.). The next few weeks mark a period of rapid brain and nervous system development. The
fetus gains greater control over movements such as opening and closing eyelids and certain body
functions. The lungs have developed sufficiently that air breathing is possible.

Weeks 29–32: The fetus reaches approximately 38–43 cm. (15–17 in.) in length and weighs
approximately 2 kg (4 lb. 6 oz.). Fat deposits become more pronounced under the skin. The lungs remain
immature but breathing movements begin. The fetus's bones are developed but not yet hardened.

Weeks 33–36: The fetus reaches approximately 41–48 cm. (16–19 in.) in length and weighs 2.6–3.0 kg (5
lb. 12 oz. to 6 lb. 12 oz.). Body fat continues to increase, lanugo begins to disappear, and fingernails are
fully grown. The fetus has gained a high degree of control over body functions.
Weeks 36–38: The fetus reaches 48–53 cm. (19–21 in.) in length is considered to be full-term by the end
of this period. Lanugo has mostly disappeared and is replaced with thicker hair on the head. Fingernails
have grown past the tips of the fingers. In a healthy fetus, all organ systems are functioning.

Common problems

Although 90 percent of babies born in the United States are considered healthy, abnormalities may arise
during prenatal development that are considered congenital (inherited or due to a genetic abnormality)
or environmental (such as material derived abnormalities). In other cases, problems may arise when a
fetus is born prematurely.

Congenital abnormalities

In some cases abnormalities may arise during prenatal development that cause physical malformations
or developmental delays or affect various parts of the body after the child is born. The cause may be a
small mutation in or damage to the genetic material of cells, or a major chromosomal abnormality (each
normal cell has two copies each of 23 strands [called chromosomes] of genetic material, and
abnormalities can arise if there are three copies of a strand or only one). Sometimes the abnormality is
inherited from one or both parents; in other cases, the defect occurs because of an error in prenatal
development.

Some abnormalities are minor and do not affect the long-term prognosis once the child is born. At the
other end of the spectrum, abnormalities may be so severe that fetal demise is inevitable.
Approximately 10 to 15 percent of pregnancies end before the twentieth week, a process called
miscarriage or spontaneous abortion; congenital abnormalities account for a significant proportion of
miscarriages. Genetic abnormalities account for approximately 5 percent of miscarriages.

Maternal derived abnormalities

The age, health status, nutritional status, and environment of the mother are all closely tied to the
health of a growing embryo or fetus. Some examples of environmental factors that may lead to
developmental abnormalities include:

Age: As of 2004, research showed that babies born to mothers between the ages of seventeen and
thirty-five tend to be healthier. One reason is that the risk of certain congenital abnormalities such as
Down syndrome increases with mother's age (particularly mothers over forty). Another reason is that
the risk of having pregnancy or birth complications is greater with women over the age of thirty-five.

Health status: In some cases a mother may pass a viral or bacterial infection to the fetus, such as in
human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). In other cases, a mother's illness may cause congenital
malformations; an example is rubella, which can cause heart defects, deafness, developmental delays,
and other problems in a fetus if the mother contracts it during pregnancy.

Nutritional status: A well-balanced diet rich in nutrients such as folic acid, calcium, iron, zinc, vitamin D,
and the B vitamins is recommended for pregnant women. Certain vitamin and mineral deficiencies can
interfere with normal prenatal development. For example, a deficiency in folic acid during the early
stages of pregnancy may lead to neural tube defects such as spina bifida. Mothers are recommended to
eat approximately 300 additional calories a day (above and beyond a normal non-pregnancy diet) to
support the fetus's growth and development.

Other environmental factors: Exposure to certain substances called teratogens (agents that may
interfere with prenatal development) during pregnancy may cause embryonic or fetal malformations.
Examples of teratogens include alcohol, thalidomide, cocaine, certain seizure medications,
diethylstilbestrol (DES), and the anti-acne drug Accutane.

Prematurity

Advances in medical care have made it possible for many infants born prematurely to survive and
develop normally. The earlier the gestational age, the greater the chance of death or significant medical
problems. Whether or not a premature infant will survive is intimately tied to his or her gestational age:

 21 weeks or less: 0 percent survival rate

 22 weeks: 0–10 percent survival rate
 23 weeks: 10–35 percent survival rate
 24 weeks: 40–70 percent survival rate
 25 weeks: 50–80 percent survival rate
 26 weeks: 80–90 percent survival rate
 27 weeks: greater than 90 percent survival rate

KEY TERMS

Miscarriage —Loss of the embryo or fetus and other products of pregnancy before the twentieth week.
Often, early in a pregnancy, if the condition of the baby and/or the mother's uterus are not compatible
with sustaining life, the pregnancy stops, and the contents of the uterus are expelled. For this reason,
miscarriage is also referred to as spontaneous abortion.

Ovary —One of the two almond-shaped glands in the female reproductive system responsible for
producing eggs and the sex hormones estrogen and progesterone.

Teratogen —Any drug, chemical, maternal disease, or exposure that can cause physical or functional
defects in an exposed embryo or fetus.

Uterus —The female reproductive organ that contains and nourishes a fetus from implantation until
birth. Also called the womb.

Parental concerns

Many parents have questions or concerns about the prenatal development of an existing or anticipated
child and what steps they should take to ensure their child's health. During prenatal visits to an
obstetrician, a pregnant mother should be educated in proper nutrition and prenatal care; often,
prenatal vitamins are prescribed to avoid nutritional deficiencies. Prenatal testing is often recommended
to parents-to-be as a means of assessing the fetus's health and the risk of developing certain conditions.
Some common prenatal tests that relate to prenatal development are as follows:

 blood tests to check for diseases that could affect the fetus, such as HIV, hepatitis B , or other
sexually transmitted diseases
 blood tests to check if the mother carries a protein called Rh factor on her red blood cells; if she
does not and her baby does (determined by whether the father is Rh-positive or not), she will
require treatment to prevent a potentially damaging reaction to the baby
 chorionic villus sampling, a prenatal test that takes a tiny sample of the placenta with a needle
to test for chromosomal abnormalities
 nuchal fold or nuchal translucency screening test, which measures a small space at the back of
the fetus's neck using ultrasound; fetuses with larger nuchal folds have a greater risk of having a
chromosomal abnormality
 amniocentesis, a test that takes a sample of the fluid that surrounds the fetus in the uterus to
identify certain genetic disorders, congenital malformations, or the maturity of the fetus's lungs

UNIT 2: INFANCY & TODDLERHOOD

MODULE 12: PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT OF INFANTS AND TODDLERS

Young children rapidly grow, develop, and achieve important milestones between birth and age 3,
creating the foundation for later growth. Physical development is one domain of infant and toddler
development. It relates to changes, growth, and skill development of the body, including development
of muscles and senses. This lesson will introduce developmental milestones in addition to influences on
early physical growth and development.

Physical Development from the Start

 When healthy babies are born, some of their internal systems, such as those developed for
breathing and processing food, are developed and functional. However, infants require
responsive care from loving adults, proper nutrition, and appropriately stimulating
environments to support the best possible physical development. Infant and toddler physical
development occurs quickly, and it is essential to understand physical development during
various stages.
 From birth, infants want to explore their world. While each child has their own schedule for
development and mastering new skills, infants are often eager early on to move their mouths,
eyes and bodies toward people and objects that comfort or interest them. They continue to
practice skills that let them move closer to desired objects. Ongoing observation and frequent
conversations with their families can help you learn what infants and toddlers are able to do,
what they are learning to do, and in what areas they could use your support.
 Infants develop physically from the top down, starting with their heads and necks. At birth, an
infant has a very difficult time holding up their head because the neck muscles are not strong
enough to provide support. As infants and toddlers grow, their determination to master
movement, balance, and fine- and gross-motor skills remains strong. Rolling and crawling occur
as infants develop skills in using large-muscle groups. Grasping and picking up objects with
fingers are signs of small-muscle skill growth.

Influences on Early Physical Growth and Development

There is no exact age at which all infants should be able to grasp objects or hold up their heads without
support. Physical development occurs at different times for all children depending on many factors, such
as the child’s unique characteristics, the family’s values and culture, and available resources. However,
many infants and toddlers experience developmental milestones at similar times. The chart below
outlines information about what infants and toddlers are likely experiencing and learning during
different periods:

Examples of Physical Development Milestones – Infants and Toddlers

2 Months

 Holds head up with support

 Begins to push up when lying on tummy
 Makes smoother movements with arms and legs

4 Months

 Holds head steady without support

 Pushes down on legs when feet are on a hard surface
 Rolls over from tummy to back
 Holds and shakes toys, swings at dangling toys
 Brings hands to mouth
 Pushes up to elbows when lying on tummy

6 Months

 Rolls over both from stomach to back and from back to stomach
 Begins to sit with support
 Supports weight on legs when standing and might bounce
 Rocks back and forth, sometimes crawls backward before moving forward

9 Months

 Crawls
 Sits without support
 Moves into sitting position with support
 Stands, holding on to adult or furniture for support
 Pulls to stand

1 Year

 Moves into sitting position without support

 Pulls up to stand and walks alone while holding onto furniture
 Takes few steps without support of adult or furniture
 Stands alone

18 Months

 Walks alone
 Runs
 Pulls toys while walking
 Helps undress self
 Drinks from a cup
 Eats with a spoon
2 Years

 Begins to run
 Climbs onto and down from furniture without support
 Walks up and down steps while holding on for support
 Throws ball overhand
 Draws or copies straight lines and circles
 Stands on tiptoes
 Kicks a ball
 Keep in mind that the milestones above are simply the average ages at which specific
development is observed.

Certain conditions must exist for an infant or toddler to grow and develop. A young child’s basic
needs, or physical needs, include:

 Food (nutritious and age-appropriate)

 Shelter (protection from harm)
 Warmth
 Clean air and environment
 Health and dental care
 Activity and rest

We also know that the way we ourselves were raised is important to our understanding of how and in
what contexts children develop. The values and beliefs held by our family and culture contribute to our
knowledge of growth and development.

Culture Affects How We See and Interpret Behaviors and Development

Because culture shapes so many parts of an infant’s and toddler’s development, you must understand
the practices, beliefs, and values of the families you support. Without this understanding, it is difficult to
interpret the infant’s or toddler’s behaviors and development. For example, you may believe it is
important to help toddlers learn to become independent and begin to feed themselves using fine-motor
skills. A family, however, may not view independence as important because they believe it is more
valuable to depend upon one another.

Other influences on infant and toddler physical growth and development are:

 Prenatal care and development, including genetic inheritance, family patterns, exposure to
drugs and alcohol, birth experience
 Prematurity (birth before the 38th week of development) and low birth weight, which may bring
respiration difficulties, vision problems, and feeding and digestive problems
 Temperament, or the ways an infant or toddler approaches his or her world
 Family’s composition, lifestyle, level of education, and housing
  Maturation, or the sequence of biological elements that reflect a pattern of growth and
development
 Developmental delays or special needs, including health concerns
 You can also review the handout, Infant and Toddler Physical Development (Learn attachment
below) to learn more about important milestones in physical development and variations in
timing and rate of physical development for infants and toddlers.

The Brain’s Role in Physical Development

 You can easily observe infants making movements with their bodies and refining their physical
skills. Thanks to advances in research and technology, we can now also see how the brain
changes and grows as young children develop. At birth, the brain is 25 percent of its adult size,
and by age 5, it reaches 90 percent of adult size. Early-life interactions and experiences of
infants and toddlers help them make sense of the world and form connections between
different parts of the brain.
 These supportive experiences and connections help improve coordination and strengthen
muscles. Research tells us that as infants repeat and practice different movements, such as
turning their heads or reaching for an object, they are building and maintaining connections
between brain cells. The brain is busy making sense of the experience.
 It is important for infants and toddlers to have time for these new experiences and to explore
the world around them with you, a trusted and caring adult caregiver. The repeated experience
of safely exploring together helps infants and toddlers learn they can trust you, while also
ensuring that their brains focus on learning, developing, and making connections. If infants and
toddlers do not have nurturing and responsive adults to help keep them safe, their brains will
instinctually focus on survival and they will have less opportunity to create and strengthen
connections for further skill development, including physical growth.

Supporting Physical Development for All Learners

Physical development, including gross- and fine-motor skills, consumes the interest of infants and
toddlers as they practice learned skills and look to develop new ones. Healthy physical development is
dependent upon several things: nutrition, development of the brain, central nervous system, muscles,
and bones, and the interactions and experiences that are offered to infants and toddlers. By recognizing
developmental delays during infancy or toddlerhood, early intervention may be more effective than if
the delays were not acknowledged until childhood. Below are some characteristics of possible physical
concerns or developmental alerts:

Signs of Impaired Physical Development - Infants & Toddlers

By 3 months

 Does not notice hands

 Cannot support head well
 Not using hands to grasp or hold objects

By 6 months

 Difficulty sucking
 Not gaining weight or growing in height
 Not responding to sounds and voices
 Does not bring objects to mouth
 Does not roll over from front to back or back to front
 Stiff limbs (arms, legs)
 Weak limbs (arms, legs)
 Not using hands to grasp or hold objects

By 12 months

 Not pointing to communicate needs or ideas

 Not crawling or sitting on own
 Not picking up small objects

By 18 months

 Not imitating
 Not playing with toys
 Not scribbling or picking up objects to, for example, put in a container
 Not self-feeding

By 24 months

 Not physically active

 Not scribbling or stacking blocks
 Not showing interest in playing with toys
 Extra sensitive to or avoiding a variety of textures

By 36 months

 Clumsy or inactive
 Not feeding self
 Not helping dress or undress self
 Not interested in playing with a variety of toys
  Delays in physical development may affect more than gross- and fine-motor skills. For example,
if an infant is unable to smile at her or his parents or lift her or his arms to be picked up, this
could affect social and emotional development in terms of relationship building.

 When an infant is awake and active, offer tummy time — lay the baby on the floor on his or her
tummy while you interact with the infant. Remember; never leave an infant alone when they are on
their stomach.
 Hold an infant or dance with a toddler to music. Toddlers can also swing colorful scarves in the air,
dance or play maracas while the music is playing.
 Offer finger plays and other movement experiences in which mobile infants and toddlers can use
their bodies.
 Have toddlers experience kicking, catching, rolling, and bouncing balls.
 Encourage toddlers to scribble on paper with crayons.
 Incorporate daily physical play into your daily routines. Infants and toddlers enjoy being active!

MODULE 13: COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT OF INFANTS AND TODDLERS

 Infants and toddlers usually follow predictable patterns in how they grow and learn. This lesson
will help you understand typical cognitive development, or how infants and toddlers develop
thinking skills. You will learn about developmental milestones and what to do if you are
concerned about a child’s development.
 Infants and toddlers are born ready to learn. They learn through cuddling with a caregiver,
listening to language, trying out sounds, stretching on the floor, reaching for objects, tasting
foods, and exploring their environments in countless ways everyday. Their brains go through
amazing changes during the first three years of life. This lesson will highlight cognitive
developmental milestones for infants and toddlers.
 Infants' and toddlers' thinking skills grow as they interact with the world and people around
them. As you learned in the first lesson, early experiences matter. Consistent, nurturing
experiences help infants and toddlers make sense of the world. Those experiences literally build
brain architecture. As infants and toddlers develop, they begin to understand and predict how
things work: they open and close a cabinet door over and over, they fill and dump a cup of
water in the water table, they bang a spoon on a high chair to hear the sound.

 Watching an infant or toddler make new discoveries is truly exciting. Think of how exciting it is
the first time an infant stacks blocks (and knocks them down) or the first time a toddler pretends
to "read" a book to you. The chart below highlights infant and toddler cognitive development as
they grow. Keep in mind that individual differences exist when it comes to the specific age at
 which infants and toddlers meet these milestones and that each infant and toddler is unique. As
you may have already learned in other courses, milestones provide a guide for when to expect
certain skills or behaviors to emerge. Think of milestones as guidelines to help you understand
and identify typical patterns of growth and development, or to help you know when and what to
look for as young children mature. As an infant and toddler caregiver, you can use this
information, what you learn from families and your own knowledge in the interactions,
experiences, and environments you create for infants and toddlers.

Chart: Cognitive Developmental Milestones

2 months

 Pays attention to faces

 Begins to follow things with eyes and recognize people at a distance
 Begins to act bored (cries, fussy) if activity doesn't change

6 months

 Looks around at things nearby

 Brings things to mouth
 Shows curiosity about things and tries to get things that are out of reach
 Begins to pass things from one hand to another

12 months

 Explores things in different ways like shaking, banging, throwing

 Finds hidden things easily
 Looks at the right picture or thing when it's named
 Copies gestures
 Starts to use things correctly (like drinks from a cup, brushes hair)
 Bangs two things together
 Puts things in a container, takes things out of a container
 Lets things go without help
 Pokes with index (pointer) finger
 Follows simple directions like "pick up the toy"

18 months

 Knows what ordinary things are; for example telephone, brush, spoon
 Points to get the attention of others
 Shows interest in a doll or stuffed animal by pretending to feed
 Point to one body part
 Scribbles on his own
  Can follow 1-step verbal commands without any gestures; for example, sits when you say "sit
down"

24 months

 Finds things even when hidden under two or three covers

 Begins to sort shapes and colors
 Completes sentences and rhymes in familiar books
 Plays simple make-believe games
 Builds towers of 4 or more blocks
 Might use one hand more than the other
 Follows two-step directions like, "Pick up your shoes and put them in the closet."

36 months

 Can work toys with buttons, levers, and moving parts

 Plays make-believe with dolls, animals, and people
 Does puzzles with 3 or 4 pieces
 Understands what "two" means
 Copies a circle with a pencil or crayon
 Turns book pages one at a time
 Builds towers of more than 6 blocks
 Screws and unscrews jar lids or turns door handles

 It's important to know that how infants and toddlers are assigned to classrooms may not reflect the
age spans listed above. There are programs that regroup children every six months and those that
use multi-age or family-style groupings, which keep children and their teachers together for a longer
period of time. It is best practice to minimize the number of times infants and toddlers have to
transition from one age group to the next.

 Cognitive development is a unique process and is specific to each infant, toddler, and family. Many
factors influence cognitive development including genes, prenatal events (i.e., before or during
birth), and aspects of the child's environment. A family may wonder about their young child's
cognitive development and feel uncertain about what they are observing, as well as what to expect.
As an infant and toddler caregiver, you have an opportunity to learn first from a family and consider
offering additional developmental information, including possible warning signs. The Kids Included
Together can be a valuable resource for you (http://www.kitonline.org), as well as the
developmental milestones and act early information located on the Centers for Disease Control and
 Prevention website, http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/actearly/milestones/index.html. The table below
also highlights possible warning signs for infants and toddlers:

Possible Warning Signs for Cognitive Development Issues for Infants and Toddlers

Young Infants

 Doesn't watch things as they move

 Doesn't bring things to mouth
 Mobile Infants
 Doesn't try to get things that are in reach
 Has difficulty getting things to mouth
 Doesn't play any games involving back-and-forth play (i.e., Peek-a-Boo)
 Doesn't seem to recognize familiar people
 Doesn't look where you point
 Doesn't transfer toys from one hand to another
 Doesn't learn gestures like waving or shaking head
 Loses skills he once had
 Doesn't search for things she sees you hide

Toddlers

 Doesn't copy others

 Doesn't point to show things to others
 Doesn't know what to do with common things, like a brush, phone, spoon
 Doesn't follow simple directions
 Doesn't play pretend or make-believe (at 3 years)
 Loses skills she once had

See

Just as children's bodies grow throughout infancy and toddlerhood, their brains are growing too. You
will see major changes between birth and three years old in a child's thinking skills. Watch this video to
learn about milestones for infants and toddlers.

Do

 As an infant and toddler teacher, do the following to support developmental milestones:

 Give infants and toddlers the safe space they need for movement and discovery (areas for
climbing, crawling, pulling up, etc.).
 Provide a consistent, nurturing relationship with each infant and toddler.
  Read all you can about the stages of development especially for the ages of the children you
serve.
 Post developmental milestone charts for reference.
 Recognize that children need different things from you as they move through the developmental
stages.
 Observe children on a regular basis to determine where they are developmentally so you can
both support and challenge their emerging skills.
 Remember that children are unique and progress at different rates and that one area of
development may take longer than other areas.
 Consult with your supervisor, trainer, or coach if you feel that there might be a concern with
how a child is developing.

MODULE 13: SOCIO- EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF INFANTS AND TODDLERS

Emotional well-being during the early years has a powerful impact on social relationships. Children who
are emotionally healthy are better able to establish and maintain positive relationships with adults as
well as with peers. Social-emotional development is essential to a young child’s sense of well-being.
Their first relationships help shape who they are, who they become, and their understanding of the
world. The important people in young children’s lives help lay the foundation for a range of social-
emotional skills such as:

 Self-regulation
 Empathy
 Turn-taking and sharing
 Positive relationships with adults and peers

Through early relationships and with nurturing, responsive interactions, infants and toddlers learn ways
of being in relationships, how to get their needs and wants met, and how to identify and regulate
emotions. Because these skills develop together, this area of development is referred to as social-
emotional development.

Below is a chart that highlights how infants and toddlers develop social-emotional skills at different ages.
Keep in mind that individual differences exist when it comes to the precise age at which infants and
toddlers meet these milestones. As highlighted in the Cognitive, Physical, and Communication courses,
milestones are not checklists with which to judge children’s development. Rather, they provide a guide
for when to expect certain skills or behaviors to emerge in young children so you are ready to meet their
needs. Think of milestones as guidelines to help you understand and identify typical patterns of growth
and development in infants and toddlers or to help you know when and what to look for as they
develop. You can continue to use your knowledge of these milestones to help meet the needs of infants
and toddlers in your care. Even though the skills highlighted in the chart develop in a predictable
sequence over the first three years of life, each infant and toddler is unique. Your goal is to help all
infants and toddlers grow and learn to their potential.

Infants & Toddlers Social-Emotional Developmental Milestones

6 Months

 Knows familiar faces and begins to know if someone is a stranger

 Likes to play with others, especially parents
 Responds to other people’s emotions and often seems happy
 Likes to look at self in mirror

It is helpful to remember that expectations about social-emotional milestones are driven by cultural
values and preferences. Theorist Lev Vygotsky said that adults share their cultural values and beliefs
with children through daily interactions. Ideas, beliefs and expectations about child development are
just some of the ways cultures are unique. Becoming aware of and respecting these differences can help
you better understand families’ experiences that help shape the infants and toddlers in your care.

Connection of Social-Emotional Development to Other Areas of Development

With our evolving understanding of brain growth and young children’s development, we continue to
learn about the ways adult caregivers can be supportive and most effective in helping children develop
and learn. This growing understanding also includes how adult caregivers can help children develop
social-emotional skills. Through nurturing and trusting relationships, infants and toddlers learn about
the world. Their brains mature through interactions, and they can learn that the world is safe as adults
are responsive to young children’s needs. They also learn how to form relationships, communicate,
respond to challenges, and how to recognize, experience, and regulate their emotions from
relationships with caregivers. When infants and toddlers feel safe and alert, they are more likely to
observe, explore, play, interact and experiment with people and objects. These experiences lead young
children to learn and remember new things. This foundation for learning depends greatly on the quality
of infants’ and toddlers’ early environments and relationships.

Understanding and Supporting the Social-Emotional Development of Infants and Toddlers

Within the context of one’s family, community and cultural background, social emotional health is the
child’s developing capacity to form secure relationships, experience and regulate emotions and, explore
and learn.

Birth to 3 months:
  The first three months are a time all about helping an infant learn to feel safe, comfortable,
secure, and curious about his or her world. “Your smile and gentle touch help me to feel safe
and happy.”
 When caregivers respond to an infant’s cues with comfort and care, infants develop trust. “Your
soothing voice and touch helps me to feel safe, secure, and loved.”
 A smiling infantInfants use sounds, facial expressions, and body movements to tell caregivers
what they need and how they are feeling. “I am learning how to tell you what I need. Sometimes
I look away when I need a break. I yawn sometimes when I am feeling tired. Thank you for
watching and getting to know me.”

3 to 6 months:

 The infant is active, responsive, and increasingly in control of his or her body. “I stretch my arms
toward you when I want you to pick me up and hold me gently.”
 Infant offers smiles and communicates with a gaze and basic vocalizations. “I’m smiling to let
you know I am ready to communicate.”
 A staff member and an infant sit by a mirrorSense of security and well-being are totally
dependent upon relationships with important caregivers.
 Emphasis is on routine and exploration—showing caregivers what they like and dislike, and how
they prefer to sleep, eat, and play. “I’m beginning to notice daily routines and the things we do
together. When you turn the lights down, I know that it is time for sleep.”

6 to 9 months:

 An infant plays with a bookMoving and exploring is the goal – infants become eager explorers
who are thrilled to discover that they can make things happen.
 Infants are learning to solve problems. “When a toy drops, I look to see where it went. I expect
you will help me to get it back. I then try it again to see if I can make the same thing happen
again.”
 An infant is beginning to understand that people still exist even when they are out of sight. “I
realize that my mommy is about to leave me. I will protest in hopes that she stays. Being
separated from her is hard for me.”

9 to 12 months:

 Infants are enjoying increased independence. “Please stay calm even when I demand to do
things on my own. It’s hard work for me to learn and figure out all of these new things and
sometimes I get frustrated, but I want to keep trying.”
 Infants can understand more than they can verbally communicate.
 Infants enjoy doing things over and over again. “Watch me practice and figure out how things
work! Repetition is also helping me build my memory!”
 Infants take action with a goal in mind. “When I crawl away from you quickly, I am not trying to
upset you. I am having fun and do not want my diaper changed right now. This is how I take
 control of my world and let you know how I am feeling. Please talk to me and give me time to
transition from my activity, and let me know that when we’re done I can go back to what I was
doing.”

12 to 18 months:

 A toddler pretends with a play phoneInfants and toddlers are watching others and imitate what
they see. “I have been watching and am able to use things the way they are supposed to be
used. Watch me talk on this toy telephone!”
 Infants and toddlers are using skills to explore and discover the boundaries of what they can do.
“I may get frustrated when you try to feed me and I want to do it on my own.”
 Infants and toddlers are beginning to understand feelings of self and others. “My feelings can be
hard for me to handle. I may become frustrated and have tantrums. I need your help to calm
down.”

18 to 24 months:

 Two toddlers lay on the floor with ribbonsToddlers work hard to be in control, explore the
boundaries of their experiences, and engage in problem solving. “I am beginning to sort things.
Notice how I put my train cars in one place and all of my other cars in another.”
 They are increasingly aware of themselves as separate from others and are becoming more
enthusiastic about playing with peers.
 They are starting to show negative behaviors (hitting, biting, kicking) in response to frustration.
“I understand, ‘No,’ but cannot control my feelings and actions. Please be patient and help me
when I get frustrated.”

24 to 36 months:

 A staff member assists a toddler as he tries pouring milk into his glass during family-style
diningToddlers are using language to express thoughts and feelings. “When you started to put
the blocks away too soon, I yelled, ‘That’s not right!’ I wanted to make a path for the cows
before we put things away.”
 Toddlers are using enhanced thinking skills to solve problems. “I am getting really good at
playing pretend. I can act out my own stories and use a bottle to feed my teddy bear.
Sometimes, I feel scared because I am not certain yet what is real and what is pretend.”
 Toddlers take pride in their accomplishments, such as, pouring milk.

Supporting All Infants and Toddlers

 Every child is born with her or his unique way of approaching the world. This is called
temperament. Some young children, for example, are constantly on the move while others
prefer to sit and watch the world around them. Some young children enjoy new experiences and
meeting new people while others are slower to warm up in new situations. Rothbart (1989)
defined temperament as the individual personality differences in infants and young children. As
 Murphy and Moon describe, “infants and young children vary greatly in their interest in
different sensory areas, in the intensity of their attention to sensory stimuli, and in their
sensitivity to feelings of comfort and discomfort, familiarity and strangeness, and the emotional
context in which sensory experiences occur.”
 Infants are born with a unique temperament. There is no right or wrong, good or bad
temperament. By understanding temperament, you can continue to use what you know about
infants and toddlers to encourage their strengths and support their needs. In the Apply section
you will review more information about temperament and consider what it means for your role
as a responsive caregiver.
 No matter how well you understand temperament and are attuned and responsive, there will be
times that an infant or toddler in your care may not seem to be developing socially and
emotionally. Some infants and toddlers may experience social or emotional difficulties. These
difficulties may be related to inborn (nature) or environmental (nurture) influences. The
caregiving strategies in this lesson apply and relate to all children; however, some children may
require an additional level of support.
 Each infant’s or toddler’s relationship experiences and pattern of growth is different. In your
work, you observe and track each young child’s particular strengths and possible areas of need.
Your screening and assessment process is part of your ongoing routine, and it helps you to
recognize and celebrate infants’ and toddlers’ accomplishments. It also helps you to identify red
flags—some aspect of the infant’s or toddler’s development that is outside the expected age
range.

The following general strategies can help you care for infants and toddlers who are experiencing social
and emotional difficulties. You can also talk with your supervisor, trainer or coach about additional
community resources and specialists who support your program who may offer additional support.

 Observe and notice the infant’s or toddler’s cues and responses to environmental stimuli. Think
about ways to limit noise level, for example, or visual stimuli.
 Observe and ask yourself if you notice increased frustration or irritability in the infant or toddler
during particular routines or times of day.
 Think about ways to maintain physical closeness and offer gentle touch to help infants and
toddlers maintain a sense of control.

Do

 You can promote social-emotional development of infants and toddlers in several ways:
 Respond to infant and toddler’s needs in caring ways.
 Acknowledge an infant's or toddler who points to a picture of himself or his family – “That’s
right, Bobby, that is a picture of you and your dad!”
 Model caring behaviors and empathy during all interactions.
 Read stories about and show infants and toddlers pictures of different emotions.
  Build strong relationships with the families of infants and toddlers in your care.

UNIT 3: EARLY CHILDHOOD (THE PRESCHOOLER)

MODULE 15: PRESCHOOLER’S PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

The preschool years are a time of what seems like constant movement. Preschoolers are busy moving in
their environments, both indoors and outdoors. They spend large amounts of time running, climbing,
jumping, and chasing each other; they scribble, paint, build, pour, cut with scissors, put puzzles
together, and string beads. Their motor skills are significantly refined from the time they were toddlers;
they are more coordinated than toddlers and more purposeful in their actions. They demonstrate speed
and strength, and they become increasingly more independent.

Physical Growth and Appearance

During the preschool years, there is a steady increase in children’s height, weight, and muscle tone.
Compared with toddlers, preschoolers are longer and leaner. Their legs and trunks continue to grow,
and their heads are not so large in proportion to their bodies. As preschoolers’ bodies develop over
time, the areas in their brains that control movement continue to mature, thus enabling them to
perform gross-motor skills such as running, jumping, throwing, climbing, kicking, skipping, and fine-
motor skills such as stringing beads, drawing, and cutting with scissors.

Chart: Movement and Physical Developmental Milestones in Preschool

Age 3

 Climbs well
 Runs easily
 Pedals a tricycle
 Walks up and down stairs, one foot on each step
 Washes and dries hands

Age 4

 Hops and stands on one foot up to 2 seconds

 Pours, cuts with supervision, and mashes own food
 Catches a bounced ball most of the time
 Draws a person with two to four body parts
 Uses scissors

Age 5
  Stands on one foot for 10 seconds or longer
 Hops, and may be able to skip
 Can do a somersault
 Uses a fork and spoon and sometimes a table knife
 Swings and climbs

Influences on Physical Growth

Physical growth and development entails more than just becoming taller, stronger, or larger. It involves
a series of changes in body size, composition, and proportion. Biological and environmental factors also
affect physical growth and development. In this section, we will examine factors that affect physical
growth in young children.

Brain development: Even though motor abilities in preschool emerge as a result of physical growth and
development, many new motor skills are also the result of brain growth. In other words, movement
involves more than simply using arms or legs. Think about a preschooler kicking a ball back and forth
with a peer or caregiver. Being able to do this task can be attributed not only to skill mastery and
development, but also to the brain’s ability to organize visual and auditory messages that guide a child
to help make decisions, such as adjusting movement, deciding how hard or soft to kick the ball, waiting if
needed and kicking the ball back accordingly. As a family child care provider, you can enhance children’s
brain development by engaging children in meaningful interactions that enable them to form
connections with their environment and create understanding about how things work, how things are
done, how to treat others, how to deal with emotions, and how to go about their daily lives. Ultimately,
in doing so, you help children improve existing skills and acquire new ones.

Heredity: Genetic inheritance plays a significant part in children’s physical growth. Nevertheless, it is
important to acknowledge that even though genes influence children’s development, physical growth,
like other aspects of development, happens as the result of the interplay between heredity and the
environment. Think about your role in creating rich and stimulating environments that foster children’s
optimal physical development.

Nutrition: In order to reach optimal physical growth and development, especially at times when their
brains and bodies are developing so rapidly, young children require healthy, balanced diets that provide
vitamins, minerals, and other nutrients. As a family child care provider, you serve as a role model for
children by promoting these healthy habits yourself.

Cultural differences: Despite universal patterns in child development, there are variations, such as how
children develop motor skills. Children’s environments, places of origin, and particular life circumstances
can affect how they develop and master motor skills. Always be respectful and sensitive about children’s
backgrounds and prior experiences. Your goal is to help each child reach their full potential.

See
During the preschool years, you will see significant development in children’s motor skills. Watch this
video to learn about milestones in physical growth during the preschool years.

Do

Understanding developmental milestones is an important part of working with young children. Learning
about and understanding how preschoolers use their bodies will help you know how to support them in
developing their motor skills and will also help you decide what kinds of learning experiences to plan.
Keep in mind that each child is different and that you may have to adapt routines and activities to meet
children’s unique needs. Consider the following:

Plan meaningfully: In your daily interactions with the children in your care, you can purposefully plan
activities that will enable you to gauge how children are developing and refining their motor skills. For
example, you can observe how children move around during free play, how they follow directions as you
lead them through activities, or how they manipulate objects in their hands as you play with them. You
should use this valuable observational information to plan activities that promote further development
in children or to adapt activities to meet the particular learning needs of individual children.

Be sensitive to individual children’s needs: As you engage in these observations, remember that each
child is different and that sometimes children may not reach milestones as expected. If you are unsure
about a child’s development, talk to your trainer, coach or family child care administrator. If you are
concerned about a child’s development, talk with the child’s family. As a family child care provider, your
input can support the child greatly as you help the family find any additional support they may need.
You should share information with all families about typical child development and let them know you
are available to talk.

Be responsive to families’ needs and preferences: If a family approaches you and shares concerns
about their child’s development, encourage them to talk to their child’s health-care provider. A health-
care provider can perform a developmental screening and possibly refer the child to a specialist.
Families of children over age 3 may contact their local public school district. Most school districts can
arrange a free developmental screening to learn more about the child’s overall development.

MODULE 16: COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT OF THE PRESCHOOLERS

Children usually follow predictable patterns in how they grow and learn. This lesson will help you
understand typical cognitive development, or how children develop thinking skills during the preschool
years. You will learn about developmental milestones and what to do if you are concerned about a
child’s development.

During preschool, amazing changes happen in children's "thinking skills." Their memories are becoming
stronger-they often remember surprising details. They can share their ideas in new and interesting ways.
Their imaginations are becoming a primary vehicle for play and learning. They begin to compare,
contrast, organize, analyze, and come up with more and more complex ways to solve problems. Math
and scientific thinking become more sophisticated.

Cognitive Developmental Milestones

Age 3

 Plays make-believe with dolls, animals, and people

 Does puzzles with 3 or 4 pieces
 Understands what “two”means
 Copies a circle with pencil or crayon
 Turns book pages one at a time

Age 4

 Understands the idea of counting

 Starts to understand time
 Remembers parts of a story
 Understands the idea of “same” and “different”
 Draws a person with 2 to 4 body parts

Age 5

 Counts 10 or more things

 Can draw a person with at least 6 body parts
 Can print some letters or numbers
 Copies a triangle and other geometric shapes
 Knows about things used every day, like money and food

All of these thinking skills usually develop in a predictable sequence. Remember, though, that every
child is unique. You have the ability to help children learn and grow to their potential. Along with a
family's pediatrician, preschool teachers must be knowledgeable about children's developmental
milestones. Developmental milestones help adults to understand and recognize typical ages and stages
of development for children. Milestones are not rigid rules for when or how a child should develop.
Rather, milestones provide a guide for when to expect certain skills or behaviors to emerge in young
children based on cognitive, gross motor (movement), fine motor (finger and hand skills), hearing,
speech, vision, and social-emotional development. You can use your knowledge of these milestones to
meet children's needs in your classroom.

Cognitive development is a unique process and is specific to each child. A family may wonder about their
child's cognitive development and feel uncertain about what they are observing, as well as what to
expect. You have an opportunity to learn first from a family and consider offering additional
developmental information, including possible warning signs. The Kids Included Together can be a
valuable resource for you (http://www.kitonline.org), as well as the developmental milestones and act
early information located on the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention website,
http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/actearly/milestones/index.html. The chart below also highlights possible
warning signs for preschool children:

Possible Warning Signs for Preschool Children

Three Years

 Can't work simple toys (such as peg boards, simple puzzles, turning handle)
 Doesn't play pretend or make-believe
 Doesn't understand simple instructions

Four Years

 Has trouble scribbling

 Shows no interest in interactive games or make-believe
 Doesn't follow 3-part commands
 Doesn't understand "same" and "different"

Five Years

 Doesn't respond to people, or responds only superficially

 Can't tell what's real and what's make-believe
 Doesn't play a variety of games and activities
 Can't give first and last name
 Doesn't draw pictures

If you are concerned about a child's development, talk with your trainer, coach, or supervisor so that
you can brainstorm and work together to talk with parents about your observations. This may be
difficult, but it can make the difference in meeting a child's needs. With the guidance of your supervisor,
trainer, or coach along with program management, you can share information with families about
typical child development and let them know you are available to talk. If your program provides
developmental screening tools, these can help you start a conversation about your concerns.

Ultimately, if families are concerned about a child's development, they should talk to the child's
pediatrician about their concerns. The pediatrician can perform developmental screenings and possibly
refer the child to specialists. Families should also contact their local school district (for children over age
3). The school district can arrange a free evaluation of the child's development. This can help the child
get the services and help he or she needs.

See
Just as children's bodies grow throughout the preschool years, their brains are growing too. You will see
major changes between three and five years old in a child's thinking skills. Watch this video to learn
about milestones during the preschool years.

Do

Understanding these milestones will help you know what kinds of learning experiences to plan in your
classroom. Based on your knowledge of development, you can plan activities that are challenging but
achievable for individual children. Remember, milestones are markers that let us know a child is growing
in a healthy way. These markers are not thresholds or "tests" that a child must pass. Think about
milestones when you:

Set learning goals for your class.

 Read all you can about the stages of development especially for the ages of the children you
serve.
 Post developmental milestone charts for reference.
 Recognize that children need different things from you as they move through the developmental
stages.
 Provide a range of interesting materials that spark preschoolers' interests and allow for hands-
on exploration.
 Provide a range of developmentally appropriate and culturally diverse books.
 Find teachable moments to encourage learning and development.
 Observe children on a regular basis to determine where they are developmentally.
 Remember that children are unique and progress at different rates and that one area of
development may take longer than other areas.
 Consult with your supervisor, trainer, or coach if you feel that there might be a concern with
how a child is developing.

MODULE 17: SOCIO- EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE PRESCHOOLERS

Children’s emotional well-being during their early years has a powerful impact on their social
relationships. Children who are emotionally healthy are better able to establish and maintain positive
relationships with adults and peers (Trawick-Smith, 2014). Consider some of the children in your own
life and the different stages in their social-emotional development as they were growing up.

Preschool-age children are learning to talk about their feelings and the feelings of others. Social-
emotional development, however, involves more than just expressing emotions. It entails taking turns,
becoming independent in following routines, interacting more with peers, engaging in meaningful
relationships with others, controlling emotions, and developing a positive self-image. These skills are
crucial for children’s successful participation in school and home experiences and for their overall
growth.
Social-Emotional Developmental Milestones in Preschool

Age 3

 Copies adults and friends

 Shows affection for friends without prompting
 Takes turns in games
 Shows concern for a crying friend
 Dresses and undresses self
 Understands the idea of “mine” and “his” or “hers”
 Shows a wide range of emotions
 Separates easily from family members
 May get upset with major changes in routine

Age 4

 Enjoys doing new things

 Is more and more creative with make-believe play
 Would rather play with other children than alone
 Cooperates with other children
 Plays “Mom” or “Dad”
 Often can’t tell what’s real and what’s make-believe
 Talks about what he or she likes and is interested in

Age 5

 Wants to please friends

 Wants to be like friends
 More likely to agree with rules
 Likes to sing, dance, and act
 Is aware of gender
 Can tell what’s real and what’s make-believe
 Shows more independence
 Is sometimes demanding and sometimes cooperative

Remember that expectations about developmental milestones are driven by cultural values and
preferences. For example, in some cultures, children are not expected to feed themselves independently
until they are 3 or 4 years old. In other cultures, children are expected to start eating independently in
early infancy and toddlerhood. In your daily interactions with children and their families, you should
remind yourself that culture and family priorities influence children’s social-emotional competence.
If you are concerned about a child’s development, talk with your trainer, coach, or supervisor first. Share
your observations of the child’s behavior and the reasons you are concerned. Your trainer, coach, or
supervisor may choose to observe the child and set up a meeting with the child’s family. In some
situations, families might be encouraged to contact their local school district, which can arrange a free
evaluation of the child’s development and can help the child get any needed help and services.

Preschoolers and Social-Emotional Development

As you study the chart, you may notice that the milestones are associated with different aspects of
social-emotional development: Some are associated with children’s ability to engage in relationships
with others, whereas others are associated with positive self-awareness. Some milestones relate to
children’s ability to regulate or control emotions and others correspond with children’s ability to
perform various tasks independently. Let’s take a closer look at these aspects of social-emotional
development:

Relationships with others: Preschool-age children engage in pretend play with friends and use words
and sentences to express their feelings and thoughts. Even though they may still need adult support to
share toys and materials with friends, they improve on their own as time passes. Preschoolers also
improve in their ability to understand and appropriately respond to their friends’ feelings. Children with
healthy social-emotional development have a balance of all of these components.

Self-awareness: Preschool-age children improve their ability to control their bodies during different
activities throughout the day (e.g., sitting at circle time or playing in the gym), take turns and have
conversations with peers, acknowledge and use their own names and the names of others, and self-
evaluate and know when they made appropriate or inappropriate choices.

Emotional regulation: Preschool-age children display a variety of emotions in different ways. For
example, they may say, “I’m upset,” they may match facial expressions to happy, mad or sad, or they
may laugh when excited. At the same time, they also improve their ability to manage their emotions to
match the situation and environment and to control their emotions (e.g., separate easily from family
members). Although preschoolers are better than toddlers at regulating emotions, they still need a great
deal of help and practice with developing these appropriate behaviors.

Independence: Preschoolers with healthy independence will follow predictable daily routines and
activities at school and at home, start identifying a favorite friend and ask that friend to play,
independently play with toys and materials at home, school, or an outdoor playground, and complete
many self-care tasks, such as getting dressed, going to the bathroom, eating snacks, feeding themselves,
or getting ready for bed. Independent preschoolers will also tell caregivers about their day and learn and
use new vocabulary daily.

Emotional Literacy
Emotional literacy is children’s ability to label and talk about their own emotions or feelings, as well as
the feelings and emotions of others. This is an essential component of social-emotional development
because it helps children understand their own emotional experiences and, at the same time, helps
them to acknowledge and understand the emotional experiences of others. Emotional literacy helps
children solve problems and regulate their own emotions; these skills are essential for success in
preschool and beyond. Children who label, talk about, and are aware of their emotions are more likely
to focus on and engage in classroom routines and activities and less likely to become easily frustrated,
have excessive tantrums, or act impulsively.

Many children learn to identify and discuss emotions through interactions or conversations with
responsive adults in the context of positive relationships and supportive environments. In your work at a
preschool program, you should embed opportunities for social skill development throughout the day.
For example, you can share your emotions about events or experiences and encourage children to share
their own emotions. You can also read books that discuss emotions or social interactions. In the Apply
section of this lesson, you will find additional examples of resources and activities you can use to foster
children’s emotional literacy.

Supporting the Social-Emotional Development of Children in Preschool

Children learn social-emotional skills in the context of their relationships by watching, imitating and
responding to the social behaviors of others. Children also learn from the ways others respond to their
emotions. Social-emotional skills are closely connected to a child’s family, cultural background and early
experiences. Children learn by interacting and forming relationships with members of their families,
schools and communities.

As highlighted in Lesson One (Social-Emotional Development: An Introduction), social-emotional

learning begins in infancy and adults are the most influential models for young children. Caregivers who
understand their infants’ emotional cues and respond immediately and sympathetically have infants
who are less fussy and easier to soothe. The same happens with preschoolers; if caregivers validate
children’s feelings, address their needs, and are responsive and supportive, preschoolers are better able
to communicate their needs and emotions and are more likely to demonstrate healthy social-emotional
development.

Healthy social-emotional development is highly associated with responsive caregiving. Responsive

caregivers are supportive and positive, provide stimulating materials, play and engage with children,
share events and experiences, follow children’s lead, and support children’s interests and learning.
Responsive caregivers plan meaningful opportunities throughout the day to help children practice and
learn social skills. As you read this section, envision the role you play in fostering healthy social-
emotional development for the children in your care.

In Lessons 3 and 4, you will learn additional strategies to support the social-emotional development of
all preschoolers.
Do

Preschool-age children in your care need daily opportunities to participate in activities that help them
learn new social-emotional skills or practice existing skills in fun, stimulating, and supportive
environments. You should purposefully use strategies throughout your day to support young children’s
social-emotional development. Understanding developmental milestones is an important aspect of
working with young children. Learning and understanding how preschoolers develop social-emotional
skills and competence will help you foster their social-emotional learning and determine what kinds of
experiences to plan in your classroom and program. You will find additional resources to foster
children’s social-emotional competence in the Apply section. Consider the following in your daily work
with preschoolers:

 Be responsive to children’s interaction attempts and build on what children say.

 Engage in frequent, developmentally appropriate social interactions with children and adults in
your classroom throughout your daily experiences and routines.
 Follow children’s leads, cues and preferences.
 Include emotion words in conversations with children.
 Make books available that discuss feelings and social interactions.
 Ask children meaningful questions about their actions, interests, events and feelings.
 Encourage children to use their words and talk to their peers when conflicts arise. Use
developmentally appropriate language and provide conversation models and cues for children
to follow if they need help solving a problem.
 Ensure you are sensitive to children’s unique needs, experiences and backgrounds.
 Reach out to children’s families and be responsive to their needs and preferences.

UNIT 4: MIDDLE CHILDHOOD (THE PRIMARY SCHOOLER)

MODULE 18: PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PRIMARY SCHOOLERS

Developmental milestones are a set of benchmarks consisting of skills and abilities that children reach
throughout their lifetimes. Educators and health-care providers use these milestones to check a child’s
development. Although each milestone corresponds with an age or grade level, it is important to
remember that all children develop at their own pace. It is normal for members of a peer group to reach
milestones at a variety of ages, even spanning a few years in either direction.

Physical Developmental Milestones for School-Age Children

 School-age children, ranging in age from 5 years to about 12 years of age, will have a vast range
in their cognitive development. The same is true for their physical development. Below are
general guidelines for physical developmental milestones for school-age children:
 School-age children will gain between four and seven pounds each year and continue to have
height increases. Increases in height will vary, and a three- to six-inch height difference in an age
group is typical.
 Growth spurts are common in school-age children, as are periods of slow growth. Children in a
growth spurt usually need an increase in calorie intake. Growth spurts can also lead to body
parts being out of proportion. For example, a child could stay at one height while his or her feet
keep growing. This can lead to school-age children feeling awkward or clumsy. This feeling of
awkwardness or clumsiness typically passes once puberty is over.
 School-age children will begin to see an improvement in their motor skills. They will have better
control, coordination, and balance.

Muscle mass increases in school-age children, making them stronger.

Brain Development in School-Age Children

A child’s brain develops rapidly during the first few years of life. Because of rapid changes and growth
spurts, there is much focus on children’s brains from birth until 5 years of age. A school-age child’s brain
is still developing as they learn how to do new things and think differently. School age children are able
to understand logic and concrete information, especially in their own lives. They may still struggle to
grasp abstract concepts, especially events that will happen in the long-term future. School-age children
begin to be less egocentric and can think about and understand different viewpoints. Other brain
functions begin to improve such as:

Concentration: School-age children are able to focus on a task or topic. They also begin to develop
methods of ignoring distractions when they have a task to focus on.

Memory: Both long- and short-term memory skills improve in school-age children. They can recall
important things from months or even years in the past and remember where they left their jacket after
outdoor time.

Attention span: School-age children can focus on important tasks for longer periods. They begin to read
longer books, stay interested in topics at school, and may participate in long-term projects.
Brain development is a form of physical development—it is a part of a child’s body that is growing and
changing. The three major brain functions mentioned above allow school-age children to develop their
motor skills and participate in sports and other physical activities.

Puberty: What to Expect

This age group will experience body changes that come with the beginning of puberty. This happens
when certain hormones become present and begin to create changes to parts of our bodies. Sometimes
these changes can be drastic and seem to happen overnight, while other times they happen gradually
over a few years. The changes that accompany the onset of puberty can often be confusing and even
scary for school-age children. The average age of beginning puberty is around 12; however, children are
beginning to show signs of these changes at a much younger age. It is important for you to be aware of
what kinds of changes school-age children could be going through. This will help prepare you to answer
questions from children or their families and be understanding and sympathetic to the children in your
care.

Typical changes for boys

 The development of the testosterone hormone creates physical changes to the male
reproductive organs.
 Hair growth can begin in the underarms, pubic area, chest and face.
 Shoulders grow wider.
 The voice begins to change or deepen. This usually involves a period when the voice “cracks” as
it begins to deepen.
 Typical changes for girls
 Hormones begin working together to create estrogen, which prepares a girl’s body to begin
menstrual cycles.
 Hair growth in underarm and pubic areas can begin.
 Bodies begin to change and become curvier with wider hips and breast development.
 Other changes
 All of the hormonal changes in the body can cause the skin to be oily, which can cause acne, or
pimples. Pimples can be present anywhere on the body, but the most common places are the
face, upper back and chest.
 Body odor is common. New hormones stimulate the glands in the skin, including the sweat
glands located under the arms. These sweat glands mix with bacteria to cause body odor.
 Hormone changes can lead to mood swings and strong emotions. Sometimes, children will feel
upset or sad and not be able to explain why. Many times, the reason can be attributed to
hormones.
 These changes can also lead to self-esteem issues as children have difficulty feeling comfortable
in their changing bodies.

Supporting All Learners

  There will be times when family members grow concerned about their child’s development. As a
family child care provider, you may also notice a child who doesn’t seem to be developing like
his or her peers. It is very important to keep in mind that all children develop at their own pace.
This is especially true in school-age children and multi-age environments. If you discover that
motor skills are not emerging or growth is not occurring as it should, first discuss your concerns
with the child’s family.
 The family may have information about their child’s development to share with you. School staff
members and health-care providers have resources about school-age children’s physical growth.
Keep information available about local community resources (e.g., counseling center, park
programs, fine arts programs) so you can refer parents to them.

There are a few key points to remember when supporting all learners in a school-age environment:

 Children develop at their own pace. Never compare children and their abilities. If a family
member compares their child to one of their peers, encourage them not to do so. This can be
harmful to a child’s development if they feel that they are “not as smart” as their peers.
 Most children will catch up and be on pace with developmental milestones.
 If you begin to have concerns that a child may not be developing typically, make observations
and record the behaviors that cause you concern. Always share your observations with the
child’s parents.
 If a school-age child in your program has a diagnosed need that affects physical development or
physical abilities, she or he should have an individualized education plan, or IEP. You should
work with the child’s family to discuss how best to support the child’s development.

Influences and Factors Affecting School-Age Growth

There are a variety of outside factors and influences that can affect the development of children. It is
important to be sensitive to these factors and influences and to remember that all children will develop
at their own pace. The major contributing factors that can affect the development of school-age children
are:

Environment: Living and learning in a positive environment where one feels valued, loved, and
challenged, both at home and school, will help foster positive growth and self-esteem. Factors such as
environmental pollution and a lack of cleanliness can have negative effects on a child’s physical
development.

Culture: A child’s culture may be one of the biggest contributing factors to overall development. A
family’s culture or religious views can influence the nutrition, activities, and daily routines of a child.

Nutrition: Malnutrition occurs when certain nutrients are either lacking or in excess in a child’s diet. A
child who does not receive enough nutrients can be at risk for delayed or stunted growth. A child who
has an excess of specific nutrients or food types can be at risk for obesity. Both types of malnutrition can
lead to other risks, diseases, and disorders.
Genetics: Certain physical attributes such as height and body build can be a result of the family’s
genetics. Genetics can also be an influence on the onset of puberty and developmental milestones, as
well as certain diseases, disorders, and special needs.

Socioeconomics: The financial status of a family can affect the types of food that are available as well as
the types of activities a child can participate in. Families having financial issues may also not be able to
provide proper medical care.

Do

 The changes that school-age children go through as they develop and grow can be difficult for
children and families to understand. It is important that you provide any resources necessary to
answer questions about a child’s development.
 Recognize that it is normal for all children to develop at their own pace.
 Support children as they go through changes in their physical appearance.
 Create an environment that supports all learners.

Explore

Children’s brains continue to develop while their bodies undergo rapid change during the school-age
years. For children, this can be an exciting, and yet sometimes awkward, age. To think about how best to
support school-agers in your care, read and review the Explore: Scenarios activity. As you work through
each scenario, think about how you would respond if this were happening in your family child care
setting. When you are finished, share your work with your trainer, coach or family child care
administrator.

MODULE 19: COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT OF PRIMARY SCHOOLERS

School-age children usually follow predictable patterns in how they grow and learn. This lesson will help
you understand typical cognitive development, or how school-age children develop thinking skills during
early and later ages. You will learn about developmental milestones and what to do if you are concerned
about a school-age child’s development.

Think about the school-age children in your program. You have likely already noticed the differences
between the youngest five-year-olds and the oldest twelve-year-olds. As school-age children grow from
kindergarteners to pre-teens, their bodies and minds undergo extraordinary changes. They are on their
way to adulthood, and they are learning the skills they need to be successful in their homes,
communities, and schools. Cognitive development is a major part of the changes you see, but it is not
the only change. It is important to remember that physical development and social-emotional
development also contribute to cognitive development during the school-age years. You will learn more
about social-emotional development in the Social course and physical development in the Physical
course. This lesson will highlight the cognitive developmental milestones you can expect during the
school-age years.
School-age children's thinking skills become increasingly sophisticated as they encounter new people,
places, and ideas. They develop the ability to learn in abstract ways from books, art, movies, and
experiences. You have the exciting opportunity to witness some children's first encounter with formal
schooling and to watch others learn as they move between grades and schools. As a school-age program
staff member, you also have the opportunity to observe all the ways school-age children learn outside of
school time. The chart below highlights cognitive development during the school-age years. Keep in
mind that individual differences exist when it comes to the specific age at which children meet these
milestones and each child is unique. As you may have already learned in other courses, milestones
provide a guide for when to expect certain skills or behaviors to emerge. Think of milestones as
guidelines to help you understand and identify typical patterns of growth and development, or to help
you know when and what to look for as school-age children mature. You can use this information, what
you learn from families, and your own knowledge in the interactions, experiences, and environments
you create for school-age children.

Cognitive Developmental Milestones

Middle childhood (ages 5-7)

 They begin to see things from other school-age children's perspectives and begin to understand
how their behavior affects others.
 They are developing their oral language skills, acquiring new vocabulary, and sentence
structures.
 They enjoy planning and building.
 They understand concepts of space, time, and dimension. They understand concepts like
yesterday, today, and tomorrow. They know left and right.
 They begin to develop a sense of self-confidence and mastery of their learning.
 They are learning to read and write and can sound out simple words.
 They begin to reason and argue.
 They can perform simple addition and subtraction.

Early adolescence (ages 8-12)

 Most early adolescents are fully capable of perspective taking and understand and consider
other's perspectives.
 They begin to think hypothetically, considering a number of possibilities, and are able to think
logically.
 They become more goal oriented.
 They may develop special interests that are a source of motivation.
 Cognitive development may be impacted by school-age children's emotional state.
 They begin to understand facets of the adult world like money and telling time.
 They may enjoy reading a book. They can interpret the context of a paragraph and writes
stories.
 They appreciate humor and word games.
  Cognitive development is a unique process and is specific to each school-age child. Sometimes
school-age children may exhibit cognitive difficulties that can affect their learning and impact
their behavior. These difficulties may be viewed as school-age children "going through a stage."
School-age children experiencing difficulties may not receive proper interventions, supports, or
care from caregivers and other adults. We might ignore some behaviors because we think that
they are related to mood changes most middle and early adolescent school-age children
experience. However, certain behaviors should not be overlooked. These include (Center for
Disease and Control and Prevention, 2014):

Excessive depression

 Antisocial behaviors, or the inability to relate to peers or fit into a peer group
 Acting out
 Difficulty staying engaged in an academic task
 It's important to recognize behaviors that might be annoying to us (e.g., listening to loud music,
talking back once in a while, occasional moody behavior) and behaviors that are truly hurtful
(e.g., excessive depression, antisocial, harmful risk-taking). If you are concerned about a school-
age child's development, those feelings should not be ignored.

If you are concerned about a child's development, talk with your trainer, coach, or supervisor so that
you can brainstorm and work together to talk with parents about your observations. This may be
difficult, but it can make the difference in meeting a child's needs. With the guidance of your supervisor,
trainer, or coach along with program management, you can share information with families about
typical child development and let them know you are available to talk.

Ultimately, if families are concerned about a child's development, they should talk to the child's
pediatrician about their concerns. The pediatrician can perform developmental screenings and possibly
refer the child to specialists. Families should also contact their local school district. The school district
can arrange a free evaluation of the child's development. This can help the child get the services and
help he or she needs.

See

Just as children's bodies grow through the school-age years, their brains are growing too. You will see
major changes in a child's thinking skills between the ages of five and twelve years old. Watch this video
to learn about milestones for school-age children and youth.

Do
A school-age child's positive cognitive development can sometimes be disrupted and they may not
achieve the expected milestones. This can cause a delay in learning. Youth programs, such as before,
after, and summer- school programs, can play a key role in helping school-age children develop and
enhance their thinking. Researchers suggest using school-age children's personal strengths might
increase the likelihood of positive healthy development (Benson, 2006). This has been called a
"developmental assets" approach, and you can learn more about this approach in the Apply section of
this lesson. The following is a list of ways you can support school-age children's development.

 Provide thought-provoking materials and challenging games for school-age children to complete
if or when they have some downtime.
 Provide a variety of developmentally appropriate and culturally diverse books for school-age
children to read.
 Model the values of caring, respect, honesty, and responsibility.
 Make sure that the space is culturally sensitive and that there are no negative portrayals of
different genders, races, or ethnicities.
 Ensure the space reflects the needs and interests of school-age children.
 Provide spaces where school-age children can cool down or de-stress.
 Allow school-age children to design or personalize part of the space.
 Implement activities where children and youth can use their strengths and abilities.

Explore

Observing school-age children and youth can help you see where they are developmentally which is
important as you plan learning experiences for them. View and complete the Stages of Development
Observation Activity. Share with your administrator, trainer or coach.

MODULE 20- SOCIO EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF PRIMARY SCHOOLERS

Think about how you use social skills every day. When you wait your turn to comment in a staff meeting,
receive constructive criticism from your supervisor, apologize, spend time with a friend or accept others’
differences, you are using the social skills you learned as a child. You also use your social skills adjusting
to new situations and getting to know new people. This can occur when you begin a new job or take a
class by yourself. This can be difficult for many people, especially if transitions and changes are hard to
accept. As a school-age staff member, it is important that you find ways to interact with other adults so
that children can observe your use of social skills. When you interact with other staff members, family
members or other adults, be sure to always model the skills you are teaching the children in your
program.

Young children tend to focus on themselves and the world around them. They are working hard to learn
and discover how their environment can help them learn, develop, and imagine. They are focused on
how they can make the world around them translate and relate to themselves. As children grow, they
are expected to develop a set of skills that allow them to interact more broadly. To do this, children
must go outside of their own world and take other people’s emotions, cultures, and perspectives into
consideration.

Typical Social-Emotional Development of School-Age Children (Children Ages 5 to 12 Years Old)

5- to 7-Year-Olds

 Develop greater empathy

 Establish and maintain positive relationships and friendships
 Start developing a sense of morality
 Control impulsive behavior
 Identify and manage emotions
 Form a positive self-concept and self-esteem (identity formation has begun)
 Become resilient
 Begin to function more independently (from looking after personal possessions to making
decision without needing constant support)
 Form opinions about moral values and learn right and wrong
 Be able to express an opinion and negotiate
 Begin understanding different viewpoints
 Start making more sense of “who I am” ("Who am I like? Who likes me?)
 Develop a sense of family history (identity)
 Tackle questions about death
 Accept that parents are not all powerful

8- and 9-Year-Olds

 Fit in and are accepted by peers (preoccupied with comparisons—Do I fit in?)
 Have a best friend
 Strengthen cooperative skills
 Adjust to a sexually developing body and handle the agonies of feeling awkward and self-
conscious (What will I look like? Do I look normal?)
 Continue refining a sense of self (fluid and constantly changing)
 Work out values and beliefs and often passionately adopt an ethical stance
 Establish independence and individuality (intensely private, wanting alone time, displays of
noncompliance at school and home)

10- and 11-Year-Olds

  Behave appropriately in a variety of social situations
 Refine communication skills
 Resolve interpersonal conflicts and understand the difference between passive, assertive and
aggressive responses
 Become more independent and responsible for actions
 Value and respect rules and authority
 Know how to act appropriately and safely in cyber social world
 Manage emotional changes accompanying puberty (torn between needing the security of the
familiar and craving the unknown)
 Develop more positive self-esteem and resilience by building strengths and accepting limitations
 Acknowledge “who I am” through an optimistic lens

12 Years and Onward

 Establish independence
 Adjust to a larger social world with greater expectations and demands
 Overcome the awkward and clumsy stage
 Find acceptance within a peer group
 Becoming more self-assured and able to say no
 Move further away from family and closer to friends for support
 Handle issues and growing concerns about sexuality and relationships
 Manage confusing and unexpected feelings, such as anger and rebellion
 Move toward self-acceptance
 School-Age Children and Social-Emotional Development
 As a school-age staff member, part of your role is to observe and assess the children in your
care. You will accomplish this using a variety of developmental guidelines to support children
and their families. Because having a solid foundation of social-emotional development is crucial
for a child’s success in school and in life, it is important to observe children in their learning
environment.

When assessing a child’s social-emotional development, we will look at a variety of components such
as:

The Ability to Establish and Maintain Relationships

Relationships are the core of social-emotional development. A child’s ability to establish and keep
relationships is a very important aspect of their development. This is primarily seen in a child’s ability to
make and keep friends. According to the American Academy of Pediatrics, friendships allow children to
“broaden their horizons beyond the family unit, begin to experience the outside world, form a self-
image, and develop a social support system.” Because relationships are so vital to a child’s social-
emotional development, a lesson will be dedicated to the topic later in this course.
The Ability to Manage Emotions

As children grow, they learn how to regulate their emotions and feelings. The emotional surges we see
in young children, such as crying when separating from their family or hitting when they become
frustrated, will begin to lessen as the children age. School-age children will begin to have a better
understanding of what emotions are and will be able to discuss how they are feeling. Feeling of
sympathy and empathy for others will also begin to develop.

The Ability to Cope with Stress

As adults, we know that stress can come from a variety of circumstances and can be overwhelming if we
don’t find a way to cope with it. You might cope with stress by going for a walk, spending some time
with friends, exercising, or taking some time for your favorite hobby. Other ways adults cope with stress
are deep breathing, meditation exercises, or visiting a therapist or counselor. As adults, we know when a
situation is causing too much stress and can decide to use one of these methods to help alleviate the
stressor. School-age children are just learning how to identify and deal with stress in their lives.
According to the American Academy of Pediatrics, the following are the most common circumstances
that cause school-age children to worry:

Bucket of Stress

 Feeling sick
 Having nothing to do
 Not having enough money
 Feeling pressure to get good grades
 Feeling left out of a group of peers
 Not spending enough time with parents
 Not having homework done
 Not being good enough at sports
 Not being able to dress as desired
 Experiencing body changes
 Being late for school
 Being smaller than other children of the same age
 Having parents argue in front of them
 Not getting along with teachers
 Being overweight or bigger than other children of the same age
 Moving
 Changing schools
 Arguing with parents about rules in the family
 Adjusting to parents separating or divorcing
 Being pressured to try something they didn’t really want to (e.g., smoking)
 Stressed out girl
School-age children are learning how to recognize what causes stress and how it affects their behavior.
Some children may still openly act out their feelings, whereas others will keep their stress to themselves.
We want children to learn how to manage their stress in a healthy and positive way. Keeping the lines of
communication open with families will help you be on alert if a child may be experiencing a stressful
situation at home or at school. As a school-age staff member, it is important to watch for signs that a
child may be overloaded with stress so that you can help them cope with it in a healthy way. According
to the American Academy of Pediatrics, common signs of stress overload are when a child:

 Develops physical symptoms such as headaches or stomach pains

 Appears restless, tired and agitated
 Appears depressed and is uncommunicative about emotions
 Becomes irritable, negative, and shows little excitement or pleasure in activities
 Seems less interested in an activity that was once extremely important
 Grades at school begin to fall
 Has less interest than usual in attending classes and doing homework
 Exhibits antisocial behavior such as lying and stealing, forgets or refuses to do chores/tasks and
seems much more dependent on family members or teachers than in the past

Do

As a school-age staff member, you will be supporting children and their social-emotional development.
You can do this by:

 Providing opportunities for children to identify and understand their feelings and emotions and
discuss them with others
 Encouraging critical thinking, problem solving, and supervised risk taking
 Working hard to create an environment that is structured, safe, and allows children to learn and
discover
 Demonstrating respect for others
 Providing an environment that recognizes, embraces, and celebrates diversity
 Providing an environment that is nurturing and inclusive to children with special needs
 Acknowledging the contributions of all children to the community
 Encouraging children and youth to experiment with a variety of activities, materials, and
experiences to discover talents and preferences

Explore

Observing school-age children in the learning environment is the best way to see which children are
developing strong social-emotional skills and which ones may need help. View and complete the
Observing Social-Emotional Skills activity. Share your finished work with your trainer, coach, or
administrator.
Observation

Observing Social-Emotional Skills during the School-Age Years

Identify instances of social emotional behaviors in your classroom

UNIT 5: LATE CHILDHOOD (THE INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLER)

MODULE 21: PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLERS

PHYSICAL GROWTH & MATURATION

 Girls are years ahead of boys in terms of physical maturity.

 Many of the bodily structures like the muscles, skeletons, kidneys and face follow a normal
curve of development for both girl and boys. Other structures like brain, intestines and other
organs and bodily system mature at their own time, thus affecting growth pattern.
 Children gain an average of seven pounds of weight and average of 2 and half inches in head
circumference each year.
 Increase in body fats also occurs in preparation for growth that occurs during adolescence.

Physical Development of the Intermediate Pupil

 The steady and gradual changes happening in children at this stage, especially with their
increasing familiarity with school work and other possible activities provide them with greater
opportunity to develop their motor skill functioning.
 Children in late childhood stage always seem to be in a hurry. They get so busy with their friends
exploring other possible activities, but this period of physical development seems to take on a
leisure time.
 The period of late childhood is the period of calm before the growth spurt of adolescence.
 The body fats increase occurs earlier in girls and is greater quantity.
 Appropriate activities must be designed so that will be guided in to the right direction. Engage
themselves in a worthwhile activity that :
- promote health growth
- give them a feeling of accomplishments
- reduce the risk of the certain diseases
 This stage is also characterized by advance development of their fine and gross motor skills.
Muscle strength and stamina increase as they are offered different physical activities.
 The period of late childhood is the period of calm before the growth spurt of adolescence".
 On the average, girls are generally as much as two (2) years ahead of boys in terms of physical
maturity.
 Puberty begin early. Budding breast for girls – which is the initial sign of puberty for girls.
 Some girls may also start menstrual period as early as 8 and some as late 13
 Many of the bodily structures like the liver, muscles, skeletons, kidneys and face follow a normal
curve of development for both girls and boys.
  Other structures like the brain, intestine and other organs and bodily systems mature at their
own time, thus, affecting growth patterns.
 Children gain an average of 7 pounds in weight , and average of 2 1/2 inch in head
circumference (height) each year. Children at this stage have growth spurts (sudden boost in
height and weight) which are usually accompanied by increase in appetite and food intake.
 Increase in body fats also occurs in preparation for growth that occurs during adolescence. The
body fats increase occurs earlier in girls and is greater in quantity.
 Girls appear to be chubby while boys tend to have more lean body mass per inch of height than
girls.
 Children may become concerned about their physical appearance. Girls, especially, may become
more aware of their weight and decide to eat less. Boys may become aware of their stature and
muscle size and strength. Appropriate activities must be designed so that will be guided into the
right direction.
 Engage themselves in worthwhile activities that; > promote healthy growth > give them a feeling
of accomplishment > reduce the risk of certain disease This stage is also characterized by
advance development of their fine and gross motor skills. Muscle strength and stamina increase
as they are offered different physical activities.
 Children may also become interested in physical activities where they interact with their friends
and family.
 Activities which they can share with their parents
 shows children that exercising can be fun.

MODULE 22: COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT OF THE INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLERS

 Since children in this stage are already in their childhood, rapid development of mental skills is
evident.
 According to Jean Piaget, concrete operational thinkers can now organize thoughts effectively,
although, they can logically perceive the immediate situation.
 They can apply what they have learned to situation and events that they can manipulate.

Initial Cognitive Characteristics

 Intermediate school children greatly enjoy the abilities that they can now utilize. Their thinking
skills have become more effective as compared during their primary years.
 Their school works is now complicated. Reading text have become longer; problem solving have
become every part of their lives.

Reading Development Children

  Children in this stage, is marked by a wide application of word attack. Because of previous
knowledge, they have a wide vocabulary which enables them to understand the meaning of
unknown words through context clues.
 This is the “Reading to learn” Stage in reading development.
 Attention- Older children have longer and more flexible attention span compare to younger
children. Their span of attention is dependent on how much they is required by the giving task.
In terms of school works, older children can concentrate and focus more for longer period of
hours especially if they are interested in what they are doing.
 “CREATIVITY is not the finding of a thing, but making something out of it after it is found” -James
Russel Lowell
 Children at this stage are open to explore new things. Creativity is innate in children, they just
need a little guidance and support from parents, teacher and people around them. They are
usually at their best when the work is done in small pieces.

Creativity in children in encouraged when the activities..

 Encourage different responses from each child

 Celebrate uniqueness.
 Break stereotypes
 Value process over product
 Reduce stress and anxiety of children
 Support to share ideas, not only with the teacher / parent but also with other children •
Minimize competition and external rewards

THE IMPACT OF MEDIA

 “Television viewing is a highly complex, cognitive activity during which children are actively
involved in learning.” - (Anderson and Collins, 1988)
 The dream of having a television unit in every classroom started in the 1950’s. It was considered
as one of the first technological advancement in schools.

THE IMPACT OF THE USE OF TELEVISION AND OTHER MEDIA…

 Communicate effectively in speech and in writing.

 Work collaboratively.
 Use technological tools.
 Analyzed problems, set goals, and formulate strategies for achieving those goals.
 Seek out information or skills on their own, as needed, to meet their goals.

MEDIA AND AGGRESESSION

  Violence and aggression are often dubbed as one of the results of media. According to the Public
Health Summit in 2000, the following are some of the negative results of media:
 Children will increase anti-social and aggressive behaviour
 Children may become less sensitive to violence and those who suffer from violence.
 Children may review the world as violent and mean.
 Children will desire to see more violence in entertainment and real life.
 Children will review violence as an acceptable way to settle conflicts.

 The school and the home provide children with unlimited access to media, not only television
and computers, but also videos, movies , comic books and music lyrics. •The responsibility now
lies with the parents, teachers and the whole community. It should be a collective effort among
the factors working together to support children in every aspect of development. •Having a role
model is extremely important for children at this stage of transition (from childhood to
adolesence). It gives children an adult to admire and emulate. Role models also provide them
with motivation to succeed. •One of the most important roles of teachers is to become a very
good role model to children.

TEACHERS

 Need to be an eager participant in children’s growth and development

 Must understand how to use the children’s natural curiosity to help make the appropriate
developmental leaps in their skills and abilities.
 Must create an atmosphere where risks can be taken and discoveries made while children
remain safe.

MODULE 23: SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLERS

 At this period of socio-emotional development children are spending less time in the home. The
volk of their time is spent outside the home, either alone or with other children, rather than
with adults.
 One of the most widely recognized characteristic of this period of development is the acquisition
of feelings of self-competence. This is what Erik Erickson referred to when he described the
developmental task of middle childhood- the social crisis industry versus inferiority. Industry
refers to the drive to acquire new skills and do meaningful work.
 The child should have a growing sense of competence. The child’s definitions of self and
accomplishment vary greatly according to interpretations in the surrounding environment.
Varied opportunities must be provided in order for children to develop a sense of perseverance.
They should be offered chances for both fail and succeed along with sincere feedback and
support.
  During late childhood children can now describe themselves with internal and psychological
characteristics and traits. They most likely employ more social comparison distinguishing
themselves from others. In dealing with other children, they should increase in perspective-
taking. This ability increases with age. Perspective taking enables the child to:
a. Judge others intentions purposes and actions.
b. Give importance to social attitude and behaviors.
c. Increase skepticism of others claims.

EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

 Show improved emotional understanding

 Increased understanding that more than one emotion can be experienced in a single experience.
 show greater ability to show conceal emotions
 Utilize ways to redirect feelings and a capacity for genuine empathy.

EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE

 developing emotional self-awareness

 managing emotions
 reading emotions
 handling emotions

BUILDING FRIENDSHIPS

 As children go through their late childhood, the time they spend in peer interaction increases. For
them, good peer relationships are very important. The approvals of belongingness they receive
contribute to the stability and security of their emotional development. Peer size also increases and
less supervision of adults is required. At this stage, children prefer to belong to same-sex peer
groups.

5 TYPES OF PEER STATUS

1. POPULAR frequently nominated as the best friend and one who is rarely dislike by peers.
2. AVERAGE receives an average numbers of positive and negative nominations from peers
3. NEGLECTED very seldom nominated as best friend but is not really disliked.
4. REJECTED infrequently nominated as a best friend but one who is also dislike by peer
5. CONTROVERSIALS frequently nominated as a best friend but as the same time is disliked by peers.

FAMILY
 Family support is crucial at this stage which characterized by success and failure.
 If children do not find a supportive family when they find their interest they can easily get
frustrated.
 If families are seen as primary support system, failures and setbacks become temporary and
surmountable rather than something that is attributed to personal flaws or defects.