Control Systems

by

Dr. Kollu Ravindra

Associate Professor
EEE Department
University College of Engineering Kakinada (A)
JNTU Kakinada

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Topics covered till now:
• Root locus method
• Effect of addition of poles and zeros on Root locus
• Non-minimum phase systems
• P, PI, PD, PID controllers
• Sinusoidal transfer function, Bode diagrams

Topics to be covered in this lecture:

• Transfer function from Bode diagrams
• Polar or Nyquist plot

References: 1.Modern control engineering- K Ogata

2. Control systems Engineering-Norman S. Nise
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Transport lag or delay
• Time delay occurs in control systems when there is a delay between the commanded
response and the start of the output response.
• For example, consider a heating system that operates by heating water for pipeline
distribution to radiators at distant locations. Since the hot water must flow through the
line, the radiators will not begin to get hot until after a specified time delay.
• In other words, the time between the command for more heat and the commencement
of the rise in temperature at a distant location along the pipeline is the time delay.
• Notice that this is not the same as the transient response or the time it takes the
temperature to rise to the desired level. During the time delay, nothing is occurring at
the output.

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Draw the Bode diagram of the following transfer function

The log-magnitude and phase-angle curves for this transfer

function with L=0.5 and T=1 areshown in figure

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Transfer function from Bode plot
• First step in analysis and design of a control system is to derive a mathematical
model of the plant under consideration
• Obtaining a model analytically may be quite difficult and tiresome.
• Transfer function of a plant or any other component of a system, may be
determined by simple frequency-response measurements.
• Measurement of amplitude ratio and phase shift for sufficient number of
frequencies in the frequency range of interest may be used to plot Bode plot of the
plant (or system).
• Transfer function can be determined by asymptotic approximations.
• With some trial and error the corner frequencies can be determined and it is
possible to find a suitable close fit to the curve.

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 Methodology
• The first step in determining the transfer function is to approximate the log-
magnitude curve by asymptotes with slopes ±20 dB/decade and multiples thereof.
• The asymptotes must have slopes of multiples of ±20 dB/decade. If the slope of the
log magnitude curve changes by −20 dB/decade or 20 dB/decade at ω=𝜔1 , then
1 𝜔
there exists a factor of 𝜔 or 1 + 𝑗 , respectively, in the transfer function.
1+𝑗 𝜔 𝜔 1
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• If the slope of the log magnitude curve changes by −40 dB/decade at ω= 𝜔2 , then
1
there exists a factor of 𝜔 𝜔 2
in the transfer function.
1+2𝜁 𝑗 𝜔 + 𝑗 𝜔
2 2
• The undamped natural frequency of the quadratic factor is the corner frequency.
• The damping ratio 𝜁 can be determined by measuring the amount of peak near the
corner frequency 𝜔𝑛
• The gain can be determined from the low frequency region. At very low
2 ∓1
𝜔 𝜔 𝜔 ∓1
frequencies, the terms 1 + 2𝜁 𝑗 + 𝑗 , 1 +𝑗 tend to be unity.
𝜔2 𝜔2 𝜔1
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 1
𝐺 𝑗𝜔 = 2
𝜔 𝜔
1 + 2𝜁 𝑗 𝜔 + 𝑗 𝜔
2 2

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• At very low frequencies, the transfer function can be written as
𝐾
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝐺 𝑗𝜔 = 𝑁
𝜔→0 𝑗𝜔
• For N=0 or type 0 systems
G (jω)=K =𝐾𝑝 , for ω≪1
or, 20lo𝑔𝐺 j𝜔 =20log𝐾𝑝 , for ω≪1

• The low frequency asymptote is a horizontal line at 20log𝐾𝑝 dB. The value of 𝐾𝑝 can be
determined from the horizontal asymptote.
𝐾 𝐾𝑣
• For N =1 or type 1 systems, G (jω) = = , for ω≪1
𝑗𝜔 𝑗𝜔
20lo𝑔𝐺 j𝜔 =20log𝐾𝑣 - 20logω, for ω≪1
which indicates that the low frequency asymptote has the slope −20 dB/decade. The
frequency at which the low frequency asymptote intersects the 0 dB line is numerically
equal to 𝐾𝑣 .
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 𝐾 𝐾𝑎
• For N =2 or type 2 systems, G (jω) = = , for ω≪1
𝑗𝜔2 𝑗𝜔2
20lo𝑔 𝐺(j𝜔) =20log𝐾𝑎 - 40logω, for ω≪1

• The slope of the low frequency asymptote has the slope −40 dB/decade. The frequency at
which the low frequency asymptote intersects the 0 dB line is numerically equal to 𝐾.

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 1+𝑠
2. 𝐺 𝑠 = . The corner frequencies are
𝑠(1+0.5 𝑠)
a) 0 and -1 b) 0 and 2 c) 0 and -1 d) 1 and 2

3. An all-pass network imparts only

a) Negative phase to the input b) Positive phase to the input
c) ± 900 phase shift to the input d) ± 1800 phase shift to the input

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4. A lead network has a pole at s=-1 and a zero at s=-2. if this network is excited by
sinusoidal input, the output
a) Leads the input b) lags the input
c) Is in phase with input d) decays exponentially to zero

5. If in a linear system an input of 5 sinωt produces an output of 10 cosωt, the

output corresponding to 15 sinωt will be equal to
10
a) 3
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 b) 30 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 c) 30𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 d) 30 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜔𝑡

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6. The system having the Bode magnitude plot shown in figure has the transfer
function

60(𝑠+0.01)(𝑠+0.1) 10(1+10𝑠)
a) 𝑠 2 𝑠+0.05 2
b)
𝑠(1+20𝑠)
3(𝑠+0.05) 5(𝑠+0.1)
c) d)
𝑠(𝑠+0.1)(𝑠+1) 𝑠(𝑠+0.05)

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7. The very low frequency asymptote of the magnitude plot of a OLTF of a unity
feedback system has a slope of -40 dB/decade. It can follow without any steady state
error
a) A ramp input b) a parabolic input
c) A step input d) none of the above

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8. The asymptotic approximation of the log magnitude versus frequency plot of a
minimum phase system with real poles and one zero is shown in figure. Its transfer
function is

20(𝑠+5) 10(𝑠+5)
a) 𝑠(𝑠+2)(𝑠+25)
b)
(𝑠+2)2 (𝑠+25)
20(𝑠+5) 50(𝑠+5)
c) d) 2
(𝑠)2 (𝑠+2)(𝑠+25) (𝑠) (𝑠+2)(𝑠+25)

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 Polar plot or Nyquist plot
• The polar plot of a sinusoidal transfer function G(jω) is a plot of the
magnitude of G(jω) versus the phase angle of G(jω) on polar coordinates as
ω is varied from zero to infinity.
• Polar plot is the locus of vectors as ω is varied from zero to infinity. Note
that in polar plots a positive (negative) phase angle is measured
counterclockwise (clockwise) from the positive real axis. The polar plot is
often called the Nyquist plot.
• Each point on the polar plot of G(jω) represents the terminal point of a vector
at a particular value of ω. In the polar plot, it is important to show the
frequency graduation of the locus.
• An advantage in using a polar plot is that it depicts the frequency-response
characteristics of a system over the entire frequency range in a single plot.
• One disadvantage is that the plot does not clearly indicate the contributions
of each individual factor of the open-loop transfer function.

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• The projections of G(jω) on the real and imaginary axes are its real and imaginary
components.

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• Integral Factor (𝒋𝝎)−𝟏

1 1 1
𝐺 𝑗𝜔 = = −𝑗 = ∠ − 90°
𝑗𝜔 𝜔 𝜔
1
• The polar plot of G(j𝜔) = is the negative imaginary axis
𝑗𝜔

Derivative factor (𝒋𝝎)

𝐺 𝑗𝜔 = jω = 𝜔∠90°
The polar plot of G(j𝜔) = j𝜔 is the positive imaginary axis

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• First – order Factor 𝟏 + 𝐣𝛚𝐓 ∓𝟏

1 1
𝐺 𝑗𝜔 = = ∠ − 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 𝜔𝑇
1 + 𝑗𝜔𝑇 1 + 𝜔2𝑇2

Values of G(j𝜔) at 𝜔=0 and 𝜔 = 1/T are, respectively,

1 1
𝐺 𝑗0 = 1∠0° 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐺 𝑗 = ∠ − 45°
𝑇 2

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 1
𝐺 𝑗𝜔 = 𝐺 𝑗𝜔 = 𝑋 + 𝑗𝑌
1 + 𝑗𝜔𝑇

1
𝑋= = 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐺(𝑗𝜔)
1+𝜔2 𝑇 2

−𝜔𝑇
𝑌= = 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐺(𝑗𝜔)
1+𝜔2 𝑇 2

2 2 2 2
1 2
1 1 − 𝜔2 𝑇 2 −𝜔𝑇 1
𝑋− +𝑌 = + =
2 2 1 + 𝜔2𝑇2 1 + 𝜔2𝑇2 2
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Quadratic factor in denominator
1
𝐺(𝑗𝜔) = 2
𝜔 𝜔
1 + 2𝜁 𝑗 + 𝑗
𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛

2 2
1 𝜔2 𝜔
20 log 2 = −20 log 1− 2 + 2𝜁
𝜔 𝜔 𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛
1 + 2𝜁 𝑗 + 𝑗
𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛

𝜔
1 2𝜁
𝜔𝑛
𝜙=∠ 2 = − tan−1 2
𝜔 𝜔 𝜔
1 + 2𝜁 𝑗 + 𝑗 1−
𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛

lim 𝐺 𝑗𝜔 = 1∠0° 𝑎𝑛𝑑 lim 𝐺 𝑗𝜔 = 0∠ − 180°

𝜔→0 𝜔→∞

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Resonant peak derivation:

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• Quadratic factor in numerator
2
jωൗ jωൗ
𝐺 𝑗𝜔 = 1 + 2ξ ωn + ωn

𝜔2 2𝜉𝜔
𝐺 𝑗𝜔 = 1 − 2 + 𝑗
𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛

• The low – frequency portion of the curve is

lim 𝐺 𝑗𝜔 = 1∠0°
𝜔→0

• high – frequency portion is

lim 𝐺 𝑗𝜔 = ∞∠180°
𝜔→∞

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