Digital Electronics

Tutorial

Our Digital Electronics tutorial is

designed for the aspirants who wish to
know the core concepts of Digital
Electronics. Our tutorial covers the basic
and academic concepts that include
various conversion types, decoders,
multiplexers, logic gates, and many more.
Digital electronics, digital circuits, and
digital technology are electronics that are
operated on digital signals. Digital
techniques are much easier for getting
the electronic device. These devices are
used to switch into one of the known
states apart from reproducing a
continuous range of values. Digital
circuits are made from a large collection
of logic gates and a simple electronic
representation of the Boolean logic
function.

Prerequisite
Digital electronics is the concept of
Digital computers. A good understanding
of the core concepts of computer is
required to understand the concept of
digital electronics better.

Audience
This tutorial is helpful for those students
who are interested in gaining knowledge
of how digital circuits are designed and
how the computer understand the
human language. This tutorial covers all
the basics of Digital Electronics, which
helps us to understand circuitry design.

Problems
We assure that you will not find any
problem with this Digital Electronics
Tutorial. But if there is any mistake,
please post the problem in the contact
form.
Number System
In a digital system, the system can understand only the optional number system. In these systems, digits symbols are used to
represent different values, depending on the index from which it settled in the number system.

In simple terms, for representing the information, we use the number system in the digital system.
The digit value in the number system is calculated using:

1. The digit
2. The index, where the digit is present in the number.
3. Finally, the base numbers, the total number of digits available in the number system.

Note: When the number system represents a digit from 0 - 9, the base of the number will be 10.

Types of Number System

In the digital computer, there are various types of number systems used for representing information.

1. Binary Number System

2. Decimal Number System
3. Hexadecimal Number System
4. Octal Number System
Binary Number System

Generally, a binary number system is used in the digital computers. In this number system, it carries only two digits, either 0 or 1.
There are two types of electronic pulses present in a binary number system. The first one is the absence of an electronic pulse
representing '0'and second one is the presence of electronic pulse representing '1'. Each digit is known as a bit. A four-bit collection
(1101) is known as a nibble, and a collection of eight bits (11001010) is known as a byte. The location of a digit in a binary number
represents a specific power of the base (2) of the number system.

Characteristics:

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1. It holds only two values, i.e., either 0 or 1.

2. It is also known as the base 2 number system.
3. The position of a digit represents the 0 power of the base(2). Example: 2 0
4. The position of the last digit represents the x power of the base(2). Example: 2 x, where x represents the last position, i.e., 1

Examples:

(10100)2, (11011)2, (11001)2, (000101)2, (011010)2.

Decimal Number System

The decimal numbers are used in our day to day life. The decimal number system contains ten digits from 0 to 9(base 10). Here, the
successive place value or position, left to the decimal point holds units, tens, hundreds, thousands, and so on.

The position in the decimal number system specifies the power of the base (10). The 0 is the minimum value of the digit, and 9 is the
maximum value of the digit. For example, the decimal number 2541 consist of the digit 1 in the unit position, 4 in the tens position, 5
in the hundreds position, and 2 in the thousand positions and the value will be written as:

(2×1000) + (5×100) + (4×10) + (1×1)

(2×103) + (5×102) + (4×101) + (1×100)
2000 + 500 + 40 + 1
2541
Octal Number System

The octal number system has base 8(means it has only eight digits from 0 to 7). There are only eight possible digit values to
represent a number. With the help of only three bits, an octal number is represented.  Each set of bits has a distinct value between 0
and 7.

Below, we have described certain characteristics of the octal number system:

Characteristics:

1. An octal number system carries eight digits starting from 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7.

2. It is also known as the base 8 number system.
3. The position of a digit represents the 0 power of the base(8). Example: 8 0
4. The position of the last digit represents the x power of the base(8). Example: 8 x, where x represents the last position, i.e., 1

Number Octal Number

0 000

1 001

2 010

3 011

4 100

5 101

6 110

7 111

Examples:

(273)8, (5644)8, (0.5365)8, (1123)8, (1223)8.

Hexadecimal Number System

It is another technique to represent the number in the digital system called the hexadecimal number system. The number system
has a base of 16 means there are total 16 symbols(0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F) used for representing a number. The
single-bit representation of decimal values10, 11, 12, 13, 14, and 15 are represented by A, B, C, D, E, and F. Only 4 bits are required
for representing a number in a hexadecimal number. Each set of bits has a distinct value between 0 and 15. There are the following
characteristics of the octal number system:

Characteristics:

1. It has ten digits from 0 to 9 and 6 letters from A to F.

 2. The letters from A to F defines numbers from 10 to 15.
3. It is also known as the base 16number system.
4. In hexadecimal number, the position of a digit represents the 0 power of the base(16). Example: 16 0
5. In hexadecimal number, the position of the last digit represents the x power of the base(16). Example: 16 x, where x
represents the last position, i.e., 1

Binary Number Hexadecimal Number

0000 0

0001 1

0010 2

0011 3

0100 4

0101 5

0110 6

0111 7

1000 8

1001 9

1010 A

1011 B

1100 C

1101 D

1110 E

1111 F

Examples:

(FAC2)16, (564)16, (0ABD5)16, (1123)16, (11F3)16.

Number Base Conversion
In our previous section, we learned different types of number systems such as binary, decimal, octal, and hexadecimal. In this part of
the tutorial, we will learn how we can change a number from one number system to another number system.

As, we have four types of number systems so each one can be converted into the remaining three systems. There are the following
conversions possible in Number System

1. Binary to other Number Systems.

2. Decimal to other Number Systems.
3. Octal to other Number Systems.
4. Hexadecimal to other Number Systems.

Binary to other Number Systems

There are three conversions possible for binary number, i.e., binary to decimal, binary to octal, and binary to hexadecimal. The
conversion process of a binary number to decimal differs from the remaining others. Let's take a detailed discussion on Binary
Number System conversion.

Binary to Decimal Conversion

The process of converting binary to decimal is quite simple. The process starts from multiplying the bits of binary number with its
corresponding positional weights. And lastly, we add all those products.

Let's take an example to understand how the conversion is done from binary to decimal.

Example 1: (10110.001)2

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We multiplied each bit of (10110.001) 2 with its respective positional weight, and last we add the products of all the bits with its
weight.

(10110.001)2=(1×24)+(0×23)+(1×22)+(1×21)+(0×20)+
              (0×2-1)+(0×2-2)+(1×2-3)
(10110.001)2=(1×16)+(0×8)+(1×4)+(1×2)+(0×1)+
              (0×1⁄2)+(0×1⁄4)+(1×1⁄8)
(10110.001)2=16+0+4+2+0+0+0+0.125
(10110.001)2=(22.125 )10

Binary to Octal Conversion

The base numbers of binary and octal are 2 and 8, respectively. In a binary number, the pair of three bits is equal to one octal digit.
There are only two steps to convert a binary number into an octal number which are as follows:

1. In the first step, we have to make the pairs of three bits on both sides of the binary point. If there will be one or two bits
left in a pair of three bits pair, we add the required number of zeros on extreme sides.
2. In the second step, we write the octal digits corresponding to each pair.

Example 1: (111110101011.0011) 2

1. Firstly, we make pairs of three bits on both sides of the binary point.

111       110       101       011.001       1

On the right side of the binary point, the last pair has only one bit. To make it a complete pair of three bits, we added two zeros on
the extreme side.

111       110       101       011.001       100

2. Then, we wrote the octal digits, which correspond to each pair.

(111110101011.0011)2=(7653.14)8

Binary to Hexadecimal Conversion

The base numbers of binary and hexadecimal are 2 and 16, respectively. In a binary number, the pair of four bits is equal to one
hexadecimal digit. There are also only two steps to convert a binary number into a hexadecimal number which are as follows:

1. In the first step, we have to make the pairs of four bits on both sides of the binary point. If there will be one, two, or three
bits left in a pair of four bits pair, we add the required number of zeros on extreme sides.
2. In the second step, we write the hexadecimal digits corresponding to each pair.

Example 1: (10110101011.0011)2

1. Firstly, we make pairs of four bits on both sides of the binary point.

111 1010 1011.0011

On the left side of the binary point, the first pair has three bits. To make it a complete pair of four bits, add one zero on the extreme
side.
0111 1010 1011.0011

2. Then, we write the hexadecimal digits, which correspond to each pair.

(011110101011.0011)2=(7AB.3)16

Decimal to other Number System

The decimal number can be an integer or floating-point integer. When the decimal number is a floating-point integer, then we
convert both part (integer and fractional) of the decimal number in the isolated form(individually). There are the following steps that
are used to convert the decimal number into a similar number of any base 'r'.

1. In the first step, we perform the division operation on integer and successive part with base  'r'. We will list down all the
remainders till the quotient is zero. Then we find out the remainders in reverse order for getting the integer part of the
equivalent number of base 'r'. In this, the least and most significant digits are denoted by the first and the last remainders.
2. In the next step, the multiplication operation is done with base 'r' of the fractional and successive fraction. The carries are
noted until the result is zero or when the required number of the equivalent digit is obtained. For getting the fractional
part of the equivalent number of base 'r', the normal sequence of carrying is considered.

Decimal to Binary Conversion

For converting decimal to binary, there are two steps required to perform, which are as follows:

1. In the first step, we perform the division operation on the integer and the successive quotient with the base of binary(2).
2. Next, we perform the multiplication on the integer and the successive quotient with the base of binary(2).

Example 1: (152.25)10

Step 1:

Divide the number 152 and its successive quotients with base 2.

Operation Quotient Remainder

152/2 76 0 (LSB)

76/2 38 0

38/2 19 0

19/2 9 1

9/2 4 1

4/2 2 0

2/2 1 0
 1/2 0 1(MSB)

(152)10=(10011000)2

Step 2:

Now, perform the multiplication of 0.27 and successive fraction with base 2.

Operation Result carry

0.25×2 0.50 0

0.50×2 0 1

(0.25)10=(.01)2

Decimal to Octal Conversion

For converting decimal to octal, there are two steps required to perform, which are as follows:

1. In the first step, we perform the division operation on the integer and the successive quotient with the base of octal(8).
2. Next, we perform the multiplication on the integer and the successive quotient with the base of octal(8).

Example 1: (152.25)10

Step 1:

Divide the number 152 and its successive quotients with base 8.

Operation Quotient Remainder

152/8 19 0

19/8 2 3

2/8 0 2

(152)10=(230)8

Step 2:

Now perform the multiplication of 0.25 and successive fraction with base 8.

Operation Result carry

 0.25×8 0 2

(0.25)10=(2)8

So, the octal number of the decimal number 152.25 is 230.2

Decimal to hexadecimal conversion

For converting decimal to hexadecimal, there are two steps required to perform, which are as follows:

1. In the first step, we perform the division operation on the integer and the successive quotient with the base of
hexadecimal (16).
2. Next, we perform the multiplication on the integer and the successive quotient with the base of hexadecimal (16).

Example 1: (152.25)10

Step 1:

Divide the number 152 and its successive quotients with base 8.

Operation Quotient Remainder

152/16 9 8

9/16 0 9

(152)10=(98)16

Step 2:

Now perform the multiplication of 0.25 and successive fraction with base 16.

Operation Result carry

0.25×16 0 4

(0.25)10=(4)16

So, the hexadecimal number of the decimal number 152.25 is 230.4.

Octal to other Number System

Like binary and decimal, the octal number can also be converted into other number systems. The process of converting octal to
decimal differs from the remaining one. Let's start understanding how conversion is done.

Octal to Decimal Conversion

The process of converting octal to decimal is the same as binary to decimal. The process starts from multiplying the digits of octal
numbers with its corresponding positional weights. And lastly, we add all those products.

Let's take an example to understand how the conversion is done from octal to decimal.

Example 1: (152.25)8

Step 1:

We multiply each digit of 152.25 with its respective positional weight, and last we add the products of all the bits with its weight.

(152.25)8=(1×82)+(5×81)+(2×80)+(2×8-1)+(5×8-2)
(152.25)8=64+40+2+(2×1⁄8)+(5×1⁄64)
(152.25)8=64+40+2+0.25+0.078125
(152.25)8=106.328125

So, the decimal number of the octal number 152.25 is 106.328125

Octal to Binary Conversion

The process of converting octal to binary is the reverse process of binary to octal. We write the three bits binary code of each octal
number digit.

Example 1: (152.25)8

We write the three-bit binary digit for 1, 5, 2, and 5.

(152.25)8=(001101010.010101)2

So, the binary number of the octal number 152.25 is (001101010.010101)2

Octal to hexadecimal conversion

For converting octal to hexadecimal, there are two steps required to perform, which are as follows:

1. In the first step, we will find the binary equivalent of number 25.

2. Next, we have to make the pairs of four bits on both sides of the binary point. If there will be one, two, or three bits left in
a pair of four bits pair, we add the required number of zeros on extreme sides and write the hexadecimal digits
corresponding to each pair.

Example 1: (152.25)8

Step 1:

We write the three-bit binary digit for 1, 5, 2, and 5.

(152.25)8=(001101010.010101)2

So, the binary number of the octal number 152.25 is (001101010.010101)2

Step 2:

1. Now, we make pairs of four bits on both sides of the binary point.

0       0110       1010.0101       01

On the left side of the binary point, the first pair has only one digit, and on the right side, the last pair has only two-digit. To make
them complete pairs of four bits, add zeros on extreme sides.

0000       0110       1010.0101       0100

2. Now, we write the hexadecimal digits, which correspond to each pair.

(0000       0110       1010.0101       0100)2=(6A.54)16

Hexa-decimal to other Number System

Like binary, decimal, and octal, hexadecimal numbers can also be converted into other number systems. The process of converting
hexadecimal to decimal differs from the remaining one. Let's start understanding how conversion is done.

Hexa-decimal to Decimal Conversion

The process of converting hexadecimal to decimal is the same as binary to decimal. The process starts from multiplying the digits of
hexadecimal numbers with its corresponding positional weights. And lastly, we add all those products. 

Let's take an example to understand how the conversion is done from hexadecimal to decimal.

Example 1: (152A.25)16

Step 1:

We multiply each digit of 152A.25 with its respective positional weight, and last we add the products of all the bits with its weight.

(152A.25)16=(1×163)+(5×162)+(2×161)+(A×160)+(2×16-1)+(5×16-2)
(152A.25)16=(1×4096)+(5×256)+(2×16)+(10×1)+(2×16-1)+(5×16-2)
(152A.25)16=4096+1280+32+10+(2×1⁄16)+(5×1⁄256)
(152A.25)16=5418+0.125+0.125
(152A.25)16=5418.14453125

So, the decimal number of the hexadecimal number 152A.25 is 5418.14453125

Hexadecimal to Binary Conversion

The process of converting hexadecimal to binary is the reverse process of binary to hexadecimal. We write the four bits binary code
of each hexadecimal number digit.

Example 1: (152A.25)16
We write the four-bit binary digit for 1, 5, A, 2, and 5.

(152A.25)16=(0001 0101 0010 1010.0010 0101)2

So, the binary number of the hexadecimal number 152.25 is (1010100101010.00100101)2

Hexadecimal to Octal Conversion

For converting hexadecimal to octal, there are two steps required to perform, which are as follows:

1. In the first step, we will find the binary equivalent of the hexadecimal number.
2. Next, we have to make the pairs of three bits on both sides of the binary point. If there will be one or two bits left in a pair
of three bits pair, we add the required number of zeros on extreme sides and write the octal digits corresponding to each
pair.

Example 1: (152A.25)16

Step 1:

We write the four-bit binary digit for 1, 5, 2, A, and 5.

(152A.25)16=(0001 0101 0010 1010.0010 0101)2

So, the binary number of hexadecimal number 152A.25 is (0011010101010.010101)2

Step 2:

3. Then, we make pairs of three bits on both sides of the binary point.

001     010     100     101     010.001     001     010

4. Then, we write the octal digit, which corresponds to each pair.

(001010100101010.001001010)2=(12452.112)8

So, the octal number of the hexadecimal number 152A.25 is 12452.112

Gray Code
The Gray Code is a sequence of binary number systems, which is also known as reflected binary code. The reason for calling this
code as reflected binary code is the first N/2 values compared with those of the last N/2 values in reverse order. In this code, two
consecutive values are differed by one bit of binary digits. Gray codes are used in the general sequence of hardware-generated
binary numbers. These numbers cause ambiguities or errors when the transition from one number to its successive is done. This
code simply solves this problem by changing only one bit when the transition is between numbers is done.

The gray code is a very light weighted code because it doesn't depend on the value of the digit specified by the position. This code
is also called a cyclic variable code as the transition of one value to its successive value carries a change of one bit only.

How to generate Gray code?

The prefix and reflect method are recursively used to generate the Gray code of a number. For generating gray code:
1. We find the number of bits required to represent a number.
2. Next, we find the code for 0, i.e., 0000, which is the same as binary.
3. Now, we take the previous code, i.e., 0000, and change the most significant bit of it.
4. We perform this process reclusively until all the codes are not uniquely identified.
5. If by changing the most significant bit, we find the same code obtained previously, then the second most significant bit
will be changed, and so on.
Process of generating Gray Code

Gray Code Table

Decimal Number Binary Number Gray Code

0 0000 0000

1 0001 0001

2 0010 0011

3 0011 0010
 4 0100 0110

5 0101 0111

6 0110 0101

7 0111 0100

8 1000 1100

9 1001 1101

10 1010 1111

11 1011 1110

12 1100 1010

13 1101 1011

14 1110 1001

15 1111 1000

Excess-3 Code
The excess-3 code is also treated as XS-3 code. The excess-3 code is a non-weighted and self-complementary BCD code used to
represent the decimal numbers. This code has a biased representation. This code plays an important role in arithmetic operations
because it resolves deficiencies encountered when we use the 8421 BCD code for adding two decimal digits whose sum is greater
than 9. The Excess-3 code uses a special type of algorithm, which differs from the binary positional number system or normal non-
biased BCD.

We can easily get an excess-3 code of a decimal number by simply adding 3 to each decimal digit. And then we write the 4-bit
binary number for each digit of the decimal number. We can find the excess-3 code of the given binary number by using the
following steps:

1. We find the decimal number of the given binary number.

2. Then we add 3 in each digit of the decimal number.
3. Now, we find the binary code of each digit of the newly generated decimal number.

We can also add 0011 in each 4-bit BCD code of the decimal number for getting excess-3 code.

The Excess-3 code for the decimal number is as follows:

Decimal Digit BCD Code Excess-3 Code

 0 0000 0011

1 0001 0100

2 0010 0101

3 0011 0110

4 0100 0111

5 0101 1000

6 0110 1001

7 0111 1010

8 1000 1011

9 1001 1100

In excess-3 code, the codes 1111 and 0000 are never used for any decimal digit. Let's take some examples of Excess-3 code.

Example 1: Decimal number 31

1. We find the BCD code of each digit of the decimal number.

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Digit BCD

3 0011

1 0001

2) Then, we add 0011 in both of the BCD code.

Decimal BCD Excess-3

3 0011+0011 0110
 1 0001+0011 0100

3. So, the excess-3 code of the decimal number 31 is 0110 0100

Example 2: Decimal number 81.61

1. We find the BCD code of each digit of the decimal number.

Digit BCD

8 1000

1 0001

6 0110

1 0001

2) Then, we add 0011 in both of the BCD code.

Decimal BCD Excess-3

8 1000+0011 1011

1 0001+0011 0100

6 0110+0011 1001

3) So, the excess-3 code of the decimal number 81.61 is 1011 0100.1001 0100

Self-complementary property

A self-complementary binary code is a code which is always complimented in itself. By replacing the bit 0 to 1 and 1 to 0 of a
number, we find the 1's complement of the number. The sum of the 1'st complement and the binary number of a decimal is equal to
the binary number of decimal 9.

Note: if we perform the 1's complement of excess-3 of a decimal number, it will be equal to the excess-3 code of the 9's complement of that
decimal number.

For example: If we perform 1's complement of the excess-3 code 1000(decimal 5), complement value will be 0111, which is the
excess-3 code of 9's complement of 5, i.e., 4(0111).

Why use Excess-3 code?

There are the following advantages of excess-3 code which make it required to use:
 1. These codes are self-complementary.
2. These codes use biased representation.
3. The excess-3 code has no limitation, so that it considerably simplifies arithmetic operations.
4. The codes 0000 and 1111 can cause a fault in the transmission line. The excess-3 code doesn't use these codes and gives
an advantage for memory organization.
5. These codes are usually unweighted binary decimal codes.
6. This code has a vital role in arithmetic operations. It is because it resolves deficiencies which are encountered when we use
the 8421 BCD code for adding two decimal digits whose sum is greater than 9.

ASCII Code
The ASCII stands for American Standard Code for Information Interchange. The ASCII code is an alphanumeric code used for data
communication in digital computers. The ASCII is a 7-bit code capable of representing 2 7 or 128 number of different characters. The
ASCII code is made up of a three-bit group, which is followed by a four-bit code.

o The ASCII Code is a 7 or 8-bit alphanumeric code.

o This code can represent 127 unique characters.
o The ASCII code starts from 00h to 7Fh. In this, the code from 00h to 1Fh is used for control characters, and the code from
20h to 7Fh is used for graphic symbols.
o The 8-bit code holds ASCII, which supports 256 symbols where math and graphic symbols are added.
o The range of the extended ASCII is 80h to FFh.

The ASCII characters are classified into the following groups:

Signed and Unsigned Binary Numbers
The integer variables are represented in a signed and unsigned manner. The positive and negative values are differentiated by using
the sign flag in signed numbers. The unsigned numbers do not use any flag for the sign, i.e., only positive numbers can be stored by
the unsigned numbers.

It is very easy to represent positive and negative numbers in our day to day life. We represent the positive numbers without adding
any sign before them and the negative number with - (minus) sign before them. But in the digital system, it is not possible to use
negative sign before them because the data is in binary form in digital computers. For representing the sign in binary numbers, we
require a special notation.

Binary Numbers Representation

Our computer can understand only (0, 1) language. The binary numbers are represented in both ways, i.e., signed and unsigned. The
positive numbers are represented in both ways- signed and unsigned, but the negative numbers can only be described in a signed
way. The difference between unsigned and signed numbers is that unsigned numbers do not use any sign bit for positive and
negative numbers identification, but the signed number used.

Unsigned Numbers

As we already know, the unsigned numbers don't have any sign for representing negative numbers. So the unsigned numbers are
always positive. By default, the decimal number representation is positive. We always assume a positive sign in front of each decimal
digit.

There is no sign bit in unsigned binary numbers so it can only represent its magnitude. In zero and one, zero is an unsigned binary
number. There is only one zero (0) in this representation, which is always positive. Because of one unique binary equivalent form of a
number in unsigned number representation, it is known as unambiguous representation technique. The range of the unsigned
binary numbers starts from 0 to (2n-1).

Example: Represent the decimal number 102 in unsigned binary numbers.

 C++ vs Java

We will change this decimal number into binary, which has the only magnitude of the given name.

Decimal Operation Result Remainder

102 102/2 51 0

51 51/2 25 1

25 25/2 12 1

12 12/2 6 0

6 6/2 3 0

3 3/2 1 1

1 1/2 0 1

So the binary number of (102)10 is (1100110)2, a 7-bit magnitude of the decimal number 102.
Signed Numbers

The signed numbers have a sign bit so that it can differentiate positive and negative integer numbers. The signed binary number
technique has both the sign bit and the magnitude of the number. For representing the negative decimal number, the
corresponding symbol in front of the binary number will be added.

The signed numbers are represented in three ways. The signed bit makes two possible representations of zero (positive (0) and
negative (1)), which is an ambiguous representation. The third representation is 2's complement representation in which no double
representation of zero is possible, which makes it unambiguous representation. There are the following types of representation of
signed binary numbers:

1. Sign-Magnitude form
In this form, a binary number has a bit for a sign symbol. If this bit is set to 1, the number will be negative else the number
will be positive if it is set to 0. Apart from this sign-bit, the n-1 bits represent the magnitude of the number.
2. 1's Complement
By inverting each bit of a number, we can obtain the 1's complement of a number. The negative numbers can be
represented in the form of 1's complement. In this form, the binary number also has an extra bit for sign representation as
a sign-magnitude form.
3. 2's Complement
By inverting each bit of a number and adding plus 1 to its least significant bit, we can obtain the 2's complement of a
number. The negative numbers can also be represented in the form of 2's complement. In this form, the binary number
also has an extra bit for sign representation as a sign-magnitude form.

1's complement
In number representation techniques, the binary number system is the most used representation technique in digital electronics. The
complement is used for representing the negative decimal number in binary form. Different types of complement are possible of the
binary number, but 1's and 2's complements are mostly used for binary numbers. We can find the 1's complement of the binary
number by simply inverting the given number. For example, 1's complement of binary number 1011001 is 0100110. We can find the
2's complement of the binary number by changing each bit(0 to 1 and 1 to 0) and adding 1 to the least significant bit. For example,
2's complement of binary number 1011001 is (0100110)+1=0100111.

For finding 1's complement of the binary number, we can implement the logic circuit also by using NOT gate. We use NOT gate for
each bit of the binary number. So, if we want to implement the logic circuit for 5-bit 1's complement, five NOT gates will be used.

Example 1: 11010.1101
For finding 1's complement of the given number, change all 0's to 1 and all 1's to 0. So the 1's complement of the number
11010.1101 comes out 00101.0010.

Example 2: 100110.1001

For finding 1's complement of the given number, change all 0's to 1 and all 1's to 0. So, the 1's complement of the number
100110.1001 comes out 011001.0110.

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1's Complement Table

Binary Number 1's Complement

0000 1111

0001 1110

0010 1101

0011 1100

0100 1011

0101 1010

0110 1001

0111 1000

1000 0111

1001 0110

1010 0101

1011 0100

1100 0011

1101 0010

1110 0001

1111 0000
Use of 1's complement

1's complement plays an important role in representing the signed binary numbers. The main use of 1's complement is to represent
a signed binary number. Apart from this, it is also used to perform various arithmetic operations such as addition and subtraction.

In signed binary number representation, we can represent both positive and negative numbers. For representing the positive
numbers, there is nothing to do. But for representing negative numbers, we have to use 1's complement technique. For representing
the negative number, we first have to represent it with a positive sign, and then we find the 1's complement of it.

Let's take an example of a positive and negative number and see how these numbers are represented.

Example 1: +6 and -6

The number +6 is represented as same as the binary number. For representing both numbers, we will take the 5-bit register.

So the +6 is represented in the 5-bit register as 0 0110.

The -6 is represented in the 5-bit register in the following way:

1. +6=0 0110
2. Find the 1's complement of the number 0 0110, i.e., 1 1001. Here, MSB denotes that a number is a negative number.

Here, MSB refers to Most Significant Bit, and LSB denotes the Least Significant Bit.

Example 2: +120 and -120

The number +120 is represented as same as the binary number. For representing both numbers, take the 8-bit register.

So the +120 is represented in the 8-bit register as 0 1111000.

The -120 is represented in the 8-bit register in the following way:

1. +120=0 1111000
2. Now, find the 1's complement of the number 0 1111000, i.e., 1 0000111. Here, the MSB denotes the number is the
negative number.

2's complement
Just like 1's complement, 2's complement is also used to represent the signed binary numbers. For finding 2's complement of the
binary number, we will first find the 1's complement of the binary number and then add 1 to the least significant bit of it.

For example, if we want to calculate the 2's complement of the number 1011001, then firstly, we find the 1's complement of the
number that is 0100110 and add 1 to the LSB. So, by adding 1 to the LSB, the number will be (0100110)+1=0100111. We can also
create the logic circuit using OR, AND, and NOT gates. The logic circuit for finding 2's complement of the 5-bit binary number is as
follows:

Example 1: 110100

For finding 2's complement of the given number, change all 0's to 1 and all 1's to 0. So the 1's complement of the number 110100 is
001011. Now add 1 to the LSB of this number, i.e., (001011)+1=001100.

Example 2: 100110

For finding 1's complement of the given number, change all 0's to 1 and all 1's to 0. So, the 1's complement of the number 100110 is
011001. Now add one the LSB of this number, i.e., (011001)+1=011010.

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2's Complement Table

Binary Number 1's Complement 2's complement

0000 1111 0000

0001 1110 1111

0010 1101 1110

0011 1100 1101

0100 1011 1100

0101 1010 1011

0110 1001 1010

 0111 1000 1001

1000 0111 1000

1001 0110 0111

1010 0101 0110

1011 0100 0101

1100 0011 0100

1101 0010 0011

1110 0001 0010

1111 0000 0001

Use of 2's complement

2's complement is used for representing signed numbers and performing arithmetic operations such as subtraction, addition, etc.
The positive number is simply represented as a magnitude form. So there is nothing to do for representing positive numbers. But if
we represent the negative number, then we have to choose either 1's complement or 2's complement technique. The 1's
complement is an ambiguous technique, and 2's complement is an unambiguous technique. Let's see an example to understand
how we can calculate the 2's complement in signed binary number representation.

Example 1: +6 and -6

The number +6 is represented as same as the binary number. For representing both numbers, take the 5-bit register.

So the +6 is represented in the 5-bit register as 0 0110.

The -6 is represented in the 5-bit register in the following way:

1. +6=0 0110
2. Now, find the 1's complement of the number 0 0110, i.e. 1 1001.
3. Now, add 1 to its LSB. When we add 1 to the LSB of 11001, the newly generated number comes out 11010. Here, the sign
bit is one which means the number is the negative number.
Example 2: +120 and -120

The number +120 is represented as same as the binary number. For representing both numbers, take the 8-bit register.

So the +120 is represented in the 8-bit register as 0 1111000.

The -120 is represented in the 8-bit register in the following way:

1. +120=0 1111000
2. Now, find the 1's complement of the number 0 1111000, i.e. 1 0000111. Here, the MSB denotes the number is the negative
number.
3. Now, add 1 to its LSB. When we add 1 to the LSB of 1 0000111, the newly generated number comes out 1 0001000. Here,
the sign bit is one, which means the number is the negative number.

Addition and Subtraction using 1's complement

In our previous section, we learned about different complements such as 1's complement, 2's complement, 9's complement, and 10's
complement, etc.. In this section, we will learn to perform the arithmetic operations such as addition and subtraction using 1's
complement. We can perform addition and subtraction using 1's, 2's, 9's, and 10's complement.

Addition using 1's complement

There are three different cases possible when we add two binary numbers which are as follows:

Case 1: Addition of the positive number with a negative number when the positive number has a greater magnitude.

Initially, calculate the 1's complement of the given negative number. Sum up with the given positive number. If we get the end-
around carry 1, it gets added to the LSB.

Example: 1101 and -1001

1. First, find the 1's complement of the negative number 1001. So, for finding 1's complement, change all 0 to 1 and all 1 to
0. The 1's complement of the number 1001 is 0110.
2. Now, add both the numbers, i.e., 1101 and 0110;
1101+0110=1 0011
 3. By adding both numbers, we get the end-around carry 1. We add this end around carry to the LSB of 0011.
0011+1=0100

Case 2: Adding a positive value with a negative value in case the negative number has a higher magnitude.

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Initially, calculate the 1's complement of the negative value. Sum it with a positive number. In this case, we did not get the end-
around carry. So, take the 1's complement of the result to get the final result.

Note: The resultant is a negative value.

Example: 1101 and -1110

1. First find the 1's complement of the negative number 1110. So, for finding 1's complement, we change all 0 to 1, and all 1
to 0. 1's complement of the number 1110 is 0001.
2. Now, add both the numbers, i.e., 1101 and 0001;
1101+0001= 1110
3. Now, find the 1's complement of the result 1110 that is the final result. So, the 1's complement of the result 1110 is 0001,
and we add a negative sign before the number so that we can identify that it is a negative number.

Case 3: Addition of two negative numbers

In this case, first find the 1's complement of both the negative numbers, and then we add both these complement numbers. In this
case, we always get the end-around carry, which get added to the LSB, and for getting the final result, we take the 1's complement
of the result.

Note: The resultant is a negative value.

Example: -1101 and -1110 in five-bit register

1. Firstly find the 1's complement of the negative numbers 01101 and 01110. So, for finding 1's complement, we change all 0
to 1, and all 1 to 0. 1's complement of the number 01110 is 10001, and 01101 is 10010.
2. Now, we add both the complement numbers, i.e., 10001 and 10010;
10001+10010= 1 00011
3. By adding both numbers, we get the end-around carry 1. We add this end-around carry to the LSB of 00011.
00011+1=00100
4. Now, find the 1's complement of the result 00100 that is the final answer. So, the 1's complement of the result 00100 is
110111, and add a negative sign before the number so that we can identify that it is a negative number.

Subtraction using 1's complement

These are the following steps to subtract two binary numbers using 1's complement

o In the first step, find the 1's complement of the subtrahend.

o Next, add the complement number with the minuend.
o If got a carry, add the carry to its LSB. Else take 1's complement of the result which will be negative

Note: The subtrahend value always get subtracted from minuend.

Example 1: 10101 - 00111

We take 1's complement of subtrahend 00111, which comes out 11000. Now, sum them. So,

10101+11000 =1 01101.

In the above result, we get the carry bit 1, so add this to the LSB of a given result, i.e., 01101+1=01110, which is the answer.

Example 2: 10101 - 10111

We take 1's complement of subtrahend 10111, which comes out 01000. Now, add both of the numbers. So,

10101+01000 =11101.

In the above result, we didn't get the carry bit. So calculate the 1's complement of the result, i.e., 00010, which is the negative
number and the final answer.

Addition and Subtraction using 2's complement

In our previous section, we learned how we could perform arithmetic operations such as addition and subtraction using 1's
complement. In this section, we will learn to perform these operations using 2's complement.

Addition using 2's complement

There are three different cases possible when we add two binary numbers using 2's complement, which is as follows:

Case 1: Addition of the positive number with a negative number when the positive number has a greater magnitude.

Initially find the 2's complement of the given negative number. Sum up with the given positive number. If we get the end-around
carry 1 then the number will be a positive number and the carry bit will be discarded and remaining bits are the final result.

Example: 1101 and -1001

1. First, find the 2's complement of the negative number 1001. So, for finding 2's complement, change all 0 to 1 and all 1 to 0
or find the 1's complement of the number 1001. The 1's complement of the number 1001 is 0110, and add 1 to the LSB of
the result 0110. So the 2's complement of number 1001 is 0110+1=0111
2. Add both the numbers, i.e., 1101 and 0111;
1101+0111=1  0100
3. By adding both numbers, we get the end-around carry 1. We discard the end-around carry. So, the addition of both
numbers is 0100.

Case 2: Adding of the positive value with a negative value when the negative number has a higher magnitude.

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Initially, add a positive value with the 2's complement value of the negative number. Here, no end-around carry is found. So, we take
the 2's complement of the result to get the final result.

Note: The resultant is a negative value.

Example: 1101 and -1110

 1. First, find the 2's complement of the negative number 1110. So, for finding 2's complement, add 1 to the LSB of its 1's
complement value 0001.
0001+1=0010
2. Add both the numbers, i.e., 1101 and 0010;
1101+0010= 1111
3. Find the 2's complement of the result 1110 that is the final result. So, the 2's complement of the result 1110 is 0001, and
add a negative sign before the number so that we can identify that it is a negative number.

Case 3: Addition of two negative numbers

In this case, first, find the 2's complement of both the negative numbers, and then we will add both these complement numbers. In
this case, we will always get the end-around carry, which will be added to the LSB, and forgetting the final result, we will take the2's
complement of the result.

Note: The resultant is a negative value.

Example: -1101 and -1110 in five-bit register

1. Firstly find the 2's complement of the negative numbers 01101 and 01110. So, for finding 2's complement, we add 1 to the
LSB of the 1's complement of these numbers. 2's complement of the number 01110 is 10010, and 01101 is 10011.
2. We add both the complement numbers, i.e., 10001 and 10010;
10010+10011= 1 00101
3. By adding both numbers, we get the end-around carry 1. This carry is discarded and the final result is the 2.s complement
of the result 00101. So, the 2's complement of the result 00101 is 11011, and we add a negative sign before the number so
that we can identify that it is a negative number.

Subtraction using 2's complement

These are the following steps to subtract two binary numbers using 2's complement

o In the first step, find the 2's complement of the subtrahend.

o Add the complement number with the minuend.
o If we get the carry by adding both the numbers, then we discard this carry and the result is positive else take 2's
complement of the result which will be negative.

Example 1: 10101 - 00111

We take 2's complement of subtrahend 00111, which is 11001. Now, sum them. So,

10101+11001 =1 01110.

In the above result, we get the carry bit 1. So we discard this carry bit and remaining is the final result and a positive number.

Example 2: 10101 - 10111

We take 2's complement of subtrahend 10111, which comes out 01001. Now, we add both of the numbers. So,

10101+01001 =11110.

In the above result, we didn't get the carry bit. So calculate the 2's complement of the result, i.e., 00010. It is the negative number
and the final answer.