Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Subject Psychology: PAPER No. 3: Qualitative Methods MODULE No. 2: Logical Positivism
Subject Psychology: PAPER No. 3: Qualitative Methods MODULE No. 2: Logical Positivism
Subject Psychology: PAPER No. 3: Qualitative Methods MODULE No. 2: Logical Positivism
Subject PSYCHOLOGY
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Learning Outcomes
2. Introduction
2.1 Historical Background
3. The Vienna Circle
3.1 Themes of Logical Positivism
4. The Main Philosophical Tenets of Logical Positivism
4.1 The Verifiability Principle
4.2 Sources of Knowledge
4.3 Reductionism and the Unity of Science
5. Limitations/Criticisms
5.1 Internal Weakness
5.2 External Criticisms
6. Logical positivism and Psychology
7. Summary
1. Learning Outcomes
After studying this module, you shall be able to
Understand how philosophical debates guide and govern research and knowledge
production.
Learn about the historical emergence of the logical positivist movement.
Identify the influence of logical positivism in psychological research.
Evaluate the major philosophical tenets of logical positivism.
Analyze the weaknesses inherent in the principles of logical positivism.
2. Introduction
One of the most influential schools of philosophy of science in the twentieth century was logical
positivism. This school of philosophy developed in Austria and Germany in the 1920s and was
also known as logical empiricism.
The development of logical positivism was influenced by the rapid changes taking place in
physical science and mathematics. Thus, this view upheld the notion that scientific knowledge
was the most important kind of factual information that was available, and all metaphysical
doctrines were to be rejected as meaningless.
Since, science was believed to be the model for intellectual and social progress, logical positivists
resorted to analyzing the structure of scientific knowledge and reasoning. The practice of logical
positivism, believes in two major sources of knowledge, one being logical reasoning while the
other being empirical experience.
The proponents of logical positivism included Moritz Schlick, founder of the Vienna Circle,
Rudolf Carnap, Hans Reichenbach, founder of the Berlin Circle, Alfred Jules Ayer, Herbert Feigl,
Philipp Frank, Kurt Grelling, Hans Hahn, Carl Gustav Hempel, Victor Kraft, Otto Neurath, and
Friedrich Waismann.
Despite being influential, the movement was short lived. Many philosophers and scientists today
believe that logical positivism has left an indelible mark on the philosophy of science. This
influence of logical positivism is particularly noticeable in the attention philosophers give to the
analysis of scientific thought and to the integration of results from technical research on formal
logic and the theory of probability.
2.1.3 Russell’s Mathematical Logic: Bertrand Russell’s mathematical logic exerted a great
influence on logical positivism. Much of Russell’s work was concerned with the desires
for perfect clarity and absolute certainty resting on the belief that analysis can be pursued
down to certain indivisible elements, which are in some way incorrigible, and hence
justify the intellectual edifice constructed from them. For this purpose he distinguished
knowledge by acquaintance, which is indubitable, from knowledge by description, which
PSYCHOLOGY PAPER No. 3: Qualitative Methods
MODULE No. 2: Logical Positivism
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
2.1.4 Wittgenstein's Tractatus was a text proposed by Ludwig Wittgenstein. It was of great
importance for the positivists. This school of thought believed that the basic building
blocks of reality are objects (simple and unanalyzable piece of information) which
combine together to exist in a context forming the state of affairs. It has further focused
on linguistic reforms by using modern logic and has also drawn attention to deducing
a theoretically principled distinction between intelligible and nonsensical discourse.
Wittgenstein's influence is further evident in certain formulations of the verification
principle. Wittgenstein also influenced interpretation of probability by the logical
positivists’.
Schlick, who was the leader of the distinguished group, had been appointed to Mach's old chair in
Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences at the University of Vienna in 1922. Apart from him, the
group also involved participation of Hans Hahn (the mathematician), the social scientist Otto
Although the varied members, who were a part of the Vienna Circle, disagreed and had issues of
dispute, there were a few positions that they agreed upon as well. These being;-.
First, they advocated reliance on experience as a guide to knowledge. They postulated that all
forms of knowledge (except for the “analytic” truths of mathematics and logic) should be derived
from experience, thereby making it a philosophy of radical empiricism.
Second, they rejected “metaphysical” claims that is- the claims that could not be verified by
appealing to the given facts and evident (literally, the data) experience. In this sense they were
positivistic in their approach.
Third, they hailed the methods of physics as truly scientific and the only way to true knowledge.
Thus they propagated the use of methods, like observation, experimentation, that were used by
physicists to learn more about the world.
Finally, they emphasized on the importance of logical constructions, since these constructions
relate the basic forms of data (sensations, measurements, etc.) to the higher order objects which
are ingrained in scientific theories (atoms, waves, energy, etc.).
One of the chief tenets of logical positivism was the verifiability principle. According to this
principle, the meaning of a sentence depends upon its method of verification. They ask the
question – how do words get meaning? Whereas Plato conceived of a realm of ideal forms, from
which meaning is received, the logical positivists held the view that meaning of a sentence is the
means by which we verify it. In other words, its meaning encompasses the measurements one
would make to determine its truth or falsity. As Schlick observed:
The criterion of the truth or falsity of the proposition then lies in the fact that under
definite conditions (given in the definition), certain data are present, or not present. If this
is determined then everything asserted by the proposition is determined, and I know its
meaning.
PSYCHOLOGY PAPER No. 3: Qualitative Methods
MODULE No. 2: Logical Positivism
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
To better understand the fundamental thesis, let’s review the terms used above
A priori is Latin for “from the earlier” and Kant used it to refer to those objects of our
knowledge that are known outside of our experience. In other words, their justification does not
rely on experience. Eg: All Unicorns have horns.
A posteriori is Latin for “from the later and refers to those aspects of our knowledge that are
known through experience. Eg: All crows are black.
These distinctions were used by Kant in The Critique of Pure Reason (1781).
Kant believed that synthetic a priori can exist, that is to say that something whose justification
does not rely on experience but which can be empirically verified. For e.g. The axiom 8 + 5 = 13,
according to Kant is an a priori but at the same time synthetic, since it can be verified empirically
and because the concept of 13 (the predicate) is not contained in the concepts of 8 and 5 (the
subject), the statement is synthetic.
However, with the developments in logic by Frege and Russell, (a) indicated that statements in
arithmetic can be considered analytic a priori rather than synthetic a priori and (b) created a
distinction between logical analysis and empirical investigation.
Influenced by the work of Russell and Frege, the logical positivists denied the possibility of
synthetic a priori statements
The logical positivists heralded physics as the highest science and believed that all knowledge
could be reformulated in terms of the language of physics. In other words, propositions expressed
in biological terms could be restated in physical terms. In this manner all knowledge could be
reduced to physics.
The thesis of physicalism emphasized that the language of physics is a universal language
of science — that is to say, that every language of any sub-domain of science can be
equipollently translated into the physical language. From this it follows that science is
unitary system within which there are no fundamentally diverse object-domains, and
consequently no gulf, for example, between natural and psychological sciences. This is
the thesis of the unity of science. (Carnap, LSL, p. 320)
The proponents of logical positivism were not able to follow this principle. But, their belief to
explain phenomena in physical terms and to accept the methodology of physics as the standard of
“real science” is still widely accepted in the scientific field.
5. Limitations/ Criticisms
By the end of 1930s, the logical positivist movement had started to break down and was drawing
towards its end. However, the ideas and methods of logical positivism continue to this day in
various disciplines. The reasons for the breakdown of logical positivism can be grouped into two
categories: internal weakness and external criticism
One of the foremost criticisms was that logical positivism rendered certain forms of languages
like poetry, ethics and theology meaningless for they are untestable. Even though this problem
did not bother them, it created contradictions and inconsistencies for their model. Consider the
following example:
PSYCHOLOGY PAPER No. 3: Qualitative Methods
MODULE No. 2: Logical Positivism
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
“Water is blue and god is good” is testable under the rules of logic If A is false, then A and B
must be false. While part of this statement is meaningless another part is verifiable but it makes
for a tricky position to occupy. They tried but failed to solve this contradiction.
Another point of criticism for logical positivists was the status of verifiability principle. The
verifiability principle could not be classified as an analytic statement which meant that it had to
be synthetic. However the logical positivists were confronted with the problem of reflexivity:
How could the theory of verifiability be verified?
Even the distinctions that the logical positivists based their theory on were not empirically
testable. For instance, one may ask whether there is a scientific way to make sense of the
analytic-synthetic distinction. In fact, the distinction between analytic and synthetic propositions
can collapse with a revision of analytic statements in the light of new experiences. E.g. “Parallel
lines do not intersect” is an analytic statement. However, with the discovery of black holes we
know that space warps make it possible for parallel lines to intersect.
A final problem with the verifiability principle was to do with its application itself. The
application of this principle would suggest that no scientific law is meaningful. For example, it
can be verified that Socrates is mortal, that Plato is mortal and that Aristotle is mortal. However,
it is not possible to verify the statement ‘all people are mortal’. This is because an infinite number
of cases would have to be observed in order to verify this proposition. Scientific laws are
applicable to an infinite number of situations and since it is not possible to verify innumerable
cases, they remain strictly unverifiable.
Quine(1908-2000) in his seminal paper “The Two Dogmas of Empiricism” (1951) stated that
testing and meaning are holistic in nature. That is to say, when testing one idea or hypothesis, we
test other related ideas as well and any time we get a result that is not anticipated, the problem
may lie with one of the assumed or related ideas and not necessarily with the hypothesis being
tested. If testing an idea means testing other statements associated with it, and then we also
subject the analytic statements to testing which contradicts the very supposition that analytic
statements are immune from testing.
Karl Popper (1902-1994), like the logical positivists, was concerned with the problem of
demarcation. He said that questions of meaning were of little or no relative importance; instead a
demarcation was required in the theories and the methods of testing them. In other words, Popper
proposed the distinction between science and pseudoscience on the basis of falsifiability. Popper
believed that scientific theories could not be proved to be true because of the theory of induction.
He thought the logical positivists were on an incorrect path and that the thing that marked out
science was its potential to be falsified. While it is the case that no finite number of observations
can ever prove the truth of a universal scientific theory, logically only one case is required to
contradict a theory’s universal assertion in order for it to be falsifiable or refuted. What is
distinctive about scientific theories is not that they can be proved true, but they are testable,
therefore falsifiable.
Logical positivism believed in theorizing while maintaining objectivity and thus, led to the
emergence of more complex forms of behaviorism. S. S. Stevens, a prominent American
psychologist, tried to formulate a psychology which followed the dictates of logical positivism, in
an attempt to bring it on par with physics.
With the growth of logical positivism, operationism grew rapidly and was established within the
discipline of psychology immediately. Operational definitions began to be used for converting
theoretical terms such as drive, learning, anxiety, and intelligence into empirical events. These
terms were thus stripped of their metaphysical connotations by being operationally defined. This
approach was in line with psychology’s new emphasis on observable behavior. For example,
learning could be operationally defined as being able to make ‘n’ number of successive correct
turns in a T-maze, and anxiety and intelligence could be operationally defined as scores on their
respective tests. Such definitions were entirely based on publicly observable behavior; they had
no excess “mentalistic” meaning. Most psychologists soon agreed with the logical positivists that
unless a concept can be operationally defined, it is scientifically meaningless.
Neo behaviorism resulted when behaviorism was combined with logical positivism. Logical
positivism paved the way for various forms of behaviorism: “Objectivity in data collection; and
agreement about specific modes of objectivism, and about the theoretical implications of
‘objective’ data”.
7. Summary
Logical positivism is a school of philosophy born in 1920s in Austria and Germany when
a group of scientists, philosophers and mathematicians came together to formulate a
science which was certain and clear.
Its main assertion was that only statements that could be verified empirically were
genuine. Logical positivists denied the soundness of metaphysics and traditional
philosophy and went on to assert that many philosophical problems were indeed
meaningless.
According to logical positivism, there are only two sources of knowledge: logical
reasoning and empirical experience.
The verifiability principle was the cornerstone of their philosophy along with the goals of
reductionism and unification of all sciences.
The inherent contradictions in the verifiability principle and the critique of their
assumptions by other philosophers led to the fall of Logical Positivism.
The impact of logical positivism continues to exist today, a number of their ideas have
been assimilated by other philosophies or research methodologies.