What is a eukaryotic cell?

Eukaryotic cells are more complex, evolving from a prokaryote-like predecessor. Most of the
living things that we are typically familiar with are composed of eukaryotic cells; animals,
plants, fungi and protists. Eukaryotic organisms can either be single-celled or multi-celled. The
most noticeable feature that differentiates these more complex cells from prokaryotes is the
presence of a nucleus, a double membrane-bound control center separating the genetic material,
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), from the rest of the cell.

In addition to the plasma membrane, eukaryotic cells contain internal membrane-bound

structures called organelles. Organelles, such as mitochondria and chloroplasts, are both believed
to have evolved from prokaryotes that began living symbiotically within eukaryotic cells. These
vital organelles are involved in metabolism and energy conversion within the cell. Other cellular
organelles within eukaryotic cell structure carry out the many additional functions required for
the cell to survive, thrive, grow and reproduce.

Eukaryotic cells can reproduce in one of several ways, including meiosis (sexual reproduction)
and mitosis (cell division producing identical daughter cells).

Differentiate between a eukaryotic and a prokaryotic cell

What is an antibody and an antigen?

Antibodies are all globular glycoproteins and form the group of plasma proteins called
immunoglobulins. The basic molecule common to all antibodies consist of 4 polypeptide chains:
2 ‘heavy/long’ and 2 ‘light/short’ chains. Disulphide bridges hold the chains together.

An antigen is a substance/molecule that, when introduced into the body triggers the production
of an antibody by the system, which will then kill or neutralize the antigen that is recognized as a
foreign and potentially harmful invader. These invaders can be molecules such as pollen or cells
such as bacteria. Antigens are usually proteins or polysaccharides. This includes parts (coats,
capsules, cell walls, flagella, fimbrae, and toxins) of bacteria, viruses, and other microorganisms.
Lipids and nucleic acids are antigenic only when combined with proteins and polysaccharides.
Non-microbial exogenous (non-self) antigens can include pollen, egg white, and proteins from
transplanted tissues and organs or on the surface of transfused blood cells. Vaccines are
examples of immunogenic antigens intentionally administered to induce acquired immunity in
the recipient.

Discuss the importance of antibodies in our body

 Combine with viruses and bacteria toxins preventing them entering or damaging cells.
 Attach to flagella of bacteria making them less active and easier for phagocytes to engulf.
 Antibodies with multiple antigen sites cause agglutination of bacteria reducing the
chances of spread throughout the body.
 Together with other molecules some antibodies ‘punch’ holes in the cell walls of bacteria
causing them to burst (lysis) when they absorb water by osmosis.
 Coat bacteria making them it easier for the phagocytes to ingest them; phagocytes have
receptor proteins for the heavy polypeptide chains of antibodies.
 Combine with toxins, neutralizing them and making them harmless; these antibodies are
called antitoxins.