Downloaded from SAE International by Univ of California Berkeley, Thursday, July 26, 2018

Design and Application of

Heavy - Duty Clutches
640038
G. R. Harting
Rockford Clutch Div., Borg-Warner Corp.

This paper was the 1963 L Ray Buckendale Lecture

SINCE THE TIME WHEN automobiles and motor trucks were
struggling to be accepted as a principal means of transporta-
tion, clutch design has been struggling to keep pace with the
ever increasing demands of higher horsepower, higher speeds,
and longer life. Progress from the crude designs of 50 years
ago to the modern clutches of today has c o m e mostly by
evolution and not by revolution. The problem has been and
still is the art of controlling friction to connect a prime
mover to a driven load without destroying the friction
coupling itself.
For the purposes of this paper the "heavy-duty clutch"
is defined as all friction type disc clutches used by the auto-
motive industry except passenger car clutches. By using the
above definition, this paper covers the basic design factors,
testing procedures, and application considerations for clutches
used in motor trucks, farm tractors, stationary power units,
and construction equipment.
8. Coefficient of friction of tentative friction materials.
From the above data, the clutch torque capacity require-
ment can be calculated by multiplying the maximum torque
to be transmitted through the clutch by the service factor.
Service factors are covered in a later section of this paper.
The following torque capacity formula can b e applied:
where:
T = Torque capacity, lb-in.
F = Clamping force, lb
u = Coefficient of friction
Rm = Effective mean radius, in.
N = Number of active torque transmitting surfaces

Basic Design Relationships The effective mean radius (R m ) is calculated by the form-

There is certain data, formulas, and relationships common ula:

to all friction clutches which must be known before a clutch
design can be made. The following is a list of necessary
data:
1. Peak torque of the engine.
2. Horsepower to be transmitted. The derivation of Eq. 2 is shown with aid of Fig. 1.
3. Ratio (if any) between engine and clutch shaft. If uniform pressure is assumed to exist on one friction
4. Maximum speed. surface as in Fig. 1, the differential torque can be expressed
5. Type of vehicle and operation (service factor). by the formula:
6. Dry or wet operation.
7. Single or multiplate. dT = r u P dA

Abstract
The paper covers basic design factors, testing procedures,
and application considerations for clutches used in motor
trucks, farm tractors, construction equipment, and stationary
power units. Clutches discussed include spring loaded dry,
spring loaded wet, over-center dry, over-center wet, electro-
405
magnetic single plate dry, electro-magnetic multiple disc
wet, and hydraulic multiple disc.
Basic and theoretical aspects of clutch design are con-
verted into practical information useful in designing and
applying clutches of various types. Because the scope of the
paper is broad, many formula derivations were omitted to
permit presentation of as much practical material as possible.
 Downloaded from SAE International by Univ of California Berkeley, Thursday, July 26, 2018
406
where:
r = Radius of the differential area, in.
u = Coefficient of friction
P = Normal pressure applied to friction surface, psi
dA = 2P r dr (incremental area), in.2
Substituting 2Prdr for dA gives
dT = 2P u P r2 dr
by integrating from Ri to Ro
By expressing Eq. 1 in terms of pressure times area in
place of force, it may be written for one surface as:
By combining Eqs. 3 and 4 and solving for Rm gives Eq. 2
as shown above.
The following formula for mean radius may be used for
the majority of clutch plates where the OD to ID ratio is not
greater than 1.75 without significant error. This formula will
always be slightly conservative.
The static torque capacity of the clutch is the torque ca-
pacity at zero relative velocity of the friction surfaces and
G. R. HARTING
is representative of the torque that may be transmitted after
the clutch is engaged with the driving and driven plates op-
erating at the same velocity.
The dynamic torque capacity of the clutch is the torque
the clutch is capable of exerting on the driven load while
the load is being accelerated and relative velocity exists
between the driving and driven plates.
Most friction materials exhibit a different coefficient of
friction under static and dynamic conditions with the static
coefficient generally higher than the dynamic coefficient.
There are some commercial friction materials, particularly
paper materials operating in on, which have higher dynamic
than static coefficients.
The coefficient of friction for a given material varies
under different operating conditions. Friction material man-
ufacturers generally furnish charts or curves relating the
change in coefficient under varying conditions such as tem-
perature, pressure, and differential velocity. This informa-
tion should be used as a guide in proportioning the clutch
size.
Knowing the above design relationships, data for the de-
sign in question, and the space limitations, several trial cal-
culations are required to establish the approximate size,
number of plates, and general proportions of the particular
design. It is apparent that the diameter of the clutch,
number of discs, and clamping force can be varied to ac-
complisn the given design. At this point, a tentative friction
material should be chosen as each friction material has
certain limitations as to differential velocity, pressure, and
dimensional requirements.
Inertia Loading and Heat Generation
Most automotive type clutches are required to pick up
an inertia load in addition to being capable of carrying a
load after lock-up occurs.
Inertia loads vary widely between various vehicles and
 Downloaded from SAE International by Univ of California Berkeley, Thursday, July 26, 2018
HEAVY-DUTY CLUTCHES
operational duty. Some equipment, such as reciprocating
compressors and pumps, impose fluctuating peak loads which
can exceed the engine torque capacity. In these applica-
tions the clutch must transmit more torque than the steady
output of the engine; the energy for which is obtained from
the kinetic energy in the rotating mass of the engine. Fre-
quency of engagement also varies widely for different a p -
plications. The above factors make it necessary to apply
varying service factors to clutches depending on the type
of application.
When a clutch is engaged under load it must have suf-
ficient torque capacity to carry that load plus an additional
amount to accelerate the inertia load present in the driven
system at the proper rate to prevent the clutch plates from
deteriorating due to heat. During a clutch engagement un-
der dynamic conditions, the energy input is partly converted
into heat and the remainder is converted into useful work.
where:
Ei = Energy input
Q = Heat energy liberated at the friction surface
Eo = Useful work
To study a clutch engagement involving pure inertia load
acceleration, the following assumptions are made: constant
input speed, constant clutch slip torque, and frictionless
bearings. This study reveals that the total amount of heat
407
generated at the friction surfaces is exactly equal to the fi-
nal flywheel kinetic energy. This investigation also reveals
that the rate of heat generation during the clutch engage-
ment is not constant and that heat is generated at a faster
rate at the beginning of the engagement.
If a hypothetical clutch engagement is studied where
there is only a work load present and no inertia or friction
loads, it is found that with a clutch slipping torque capacity
equal to or greater than the work torque load that the en-
gagement time is zero and the heat generated at the friction
surfaces is zero. In this hypothetical case, the energy input
is all converted into useful work. Since this condition does
not occur in actual application, it is of no practical value;
and the work load must be considered as superimposed upon
an inertia load.
A study of a clutch engagement involving a combined
work and inertia load, where the clutch slipping torque c a -
pacity is greater than the work torque load, reveals that the
work torque load must be satisfied first. The remainder of
the torque capacity of the clutch is available to accelerate
the inertia load. Time of a clutch engagement is therefore
dependent upon the available torque capacity of the clutch
to accelerate the inertia load and the amount of inertia load
itself. Under these conditions the heat generated at the fric-
tion surfaces as the result of the work load begins at a higher
rate at the beginning of the clutch engagement and dimin-
ishes to zero at the point of lock-up.
The above information reveals that the maximum rate
of heat generation at the friction surfaces, for both inertia
and combined work loads, occurs at the beginning of the
clutch engagement and diminishes to zero at the point of
lock-up. However, the total heat generated during a clutch
engagement increases with the length of the engagement
time. Varying the torque capacity of the clutch from a lower
amount to a higher amount as the clutch engagement pro-
gresses results in a lower rate of heat generation, but a higher
total amount of heat generated. Since most multiple disc
wet clutches are limited more by the rate of heat gener-
ation than the total amount of heat generated, it is desirable
to start the clutch engagement with a low clamping force
and increase it to the maximum force as the clutch engage-
ment progresses to limit the rate of heat generation.
Dry clutches, particularly those using inorganic lining,
are not so susceptible to heat generation rate since they can
tolerate higher temperatures and incorporate larger heat
sinks in the mass of their pressure plates and the engine fly-
wheels. Dry clutches are generally more limited to the total
amount of heat generated since all the heat must be trans-
ferred to the air surrounding the clutch. For this reason dry
clutches generally are designed with high service factors
within the limits of operator comfort so as to limit the total
amount of heat generated.
A paper dealing with the subject of heat generation during
clutch engagement appears in the 1959 SAE Transactions.*
*L. P. Ludwig, "Engagement Characteristics of Wet-Type
Clutches," SAE Transactions, Vol. 67 (1959), 391-400.
 Downloaded from SAE International by Univ of California Berkeley, Thursday, July 26, 2018
408
Spring Loaded Dry Type Clutch
The spring loaded clutch is used widely in automotive
applications where a normally applied and manually re-
leased clutch is desired. The clamping force for this type
clutch is obtained by coil or Belleville springs which hold
the clutch in the applied state. This clutch utilizes release
levers acting through a lever ratio to compress the springs
and release the driven member. The release levers normal-
ly are actuated by means of a clutch throwout bearing con-
nected to an external linkage system and foot pedal. Figs.
2A and 3A illustrate typical spring loaded clutches. Figs.
2B and 3B show the nomenclature of their components. The
clutch shown in Fig. 2A pictures a typical spring loaded
clutch as used in medium and large farm tractors. This de-
sign provides an optional constant running hub in the back
plate for operating power take-off drive systems which are
quite common in the farm tractor industry. The clutch shown
in Fig. 3A is typical of those used in large over-the-highway
motor trucks.
The pressure plate for this type clutch must have suffi-
cient mass to absorb and conduct away the heat generated
during the engagement cycle. It must be sufficiently rigid
so as not to distort under the loading of the pressure springs
and to provide a uniform pressure to the driven clutch plate.
High tensile gray iron is the most common material used
for this part. Ductile iron is sometimes used as a pressure
material, especially where high speeds are encountered.
Ductile iron usually is avoided where possible because the
material distorts due to heat much more readily than gray
iron. Use of inorganic friction material will usually reduce
the distortion of ductile iron pressure plates to an accept-
able range.
The pressure springs must be designed with a low enough
spring rate so as to provide adequate clamping force after
they are extended due to friction material wear. If the pres-
sure springs have too high a spring rate, either excessive re-
lease pressure will be required in the new driven member
condition, or inadequate spring pressure will be available
at the worn driven member condition. A pressure variation
of 10-15% is usually acceptable between the new and worn
G. R. HARTING
positions of the spring. For moderate heat conditions, the
pressure springs are made from oil tempered wire; but under
more severe conditions it is necessary to make them from
chrome-silicon steel or other high temperature wire to pre-
vent heat set. Under the most severe conditions, it is nec-
essary to provide insulating washers to reduce heat conduc-
tion from the pressure plate to the springs.
Back plates for spring loaded clutches usually are made
from stampings, high tensile gray iron castings, and ductile
iron castings. The back plate must be rigid enough to act
as a reaction for the pressure springs and the lever system
without excessive deflection. The back plate should pro-
vide some openings around the periphery of the plate to
allow the worn friction material particles to be ejected and
to provide a means of airflow through the clutch.
The lever system of a spring loaded clutch is a very critical
part of the design; and much effort has been devoted to de-
signing systems with the least possible friction. The prob-
lem of wear and friction presents a real challenge to the de-
sign engineer since the bearing loads are high and the tem-
perature is excessive for maintaining adequate lubrication.
The release levers must be designed in such a manner that
their tendency to rotate about their pivot points, due to cen-
trifugal force, can be controlled to prevent lever throwout
against the release bearing causing premature failure, or re-
act excessively against the pressure springs causing clutch
unloading. To control this effect the release levers are gen-
erally designed so as to have their center of mass as close
to their pivot point as possible.
 Downloaded from SAE International by Univ of California Berkeley, Thursday, July 26, 2018
HEAVY-DUTY CLUTCHES
In the spring loaded clutch, the driven member is clamped
between the clutch pressure plate and the engine flywheel
and is connected to the output shaft by means of a splined
hub. The friction material is either riveted or bonded to
the clutch plate which is riveted in turn to the hub.
Organic friction materials are the most common types
used with the spring loaded clutch. They are made from
woven asbestos yarn or chopped asbestos fibers and some-
times include metallic chips or wire. These materials, along
with an organic resin, are compacted in a mold under tem-
perature and pressure to form the desired shape. Organic
friction materials perform very satisfactorily for most spring
loaded clutch applications as long as the temperature does
not become high enough to bleed the organic resins from
the material.
On the more severe applications, sintered metal friction
material is sometimes used since this material can with-
stand higher temperatures without disintegration. However,
pure sintered metal friction material will tend to weld it-
self to the mating pressure plate and flywheel surfaces under
extreme temperatures. For very heavy vehicles operating
under severe conditions, combination sintered metal-ceram-
ic friction material can be used. These friction materials
usually have somewhat higher coefficients of friction than
the asbestos organic friction materials, and due to their ag-
gressiveness are usually most satisfactorily used with vehicles
which have their engines and axles rigidly mounted to their
frames.
Recent developments by the friction material manufac-
turers have produced friction materials in the sintered metal-
ceramic category which have lower coefficients of friction
409
and show promise for lighter vehicles with spring-mounted
axles. The sintered metal-ceramic materials are more satis-
factory when operating under extreme conditions of heat than
when operating under light duty and low temperature. These
materials tend to have an abrasive action on the mating
plate surfaces when not operating under high temperature
conditions.
The cushion type driven member is a special design uti-
lizing leaf springs between the friction material rings. The
primary purpose of the cushion type driven member is to
permit a smooth, gradual clutch engagement. Wear life of
the friction material is usually longer on a driven member
which utilizes the cushion plate design. Longer wear life
is obtained because the friction material contacts the pres-
sure plate and flywheel under more uniform pressure, there-
by allowing for uniform heat generation over the entire fric-
tion surface. Friction material wears more rapidly if local-
ized spots contact the mating plates absorbing large portions
of the generated heat. Since these high spots absorb ex-
tremely large amounts of heat, localized destruction of the
friction material occurs. As the initial high spots fail, other
high spots are created because of thermal expansion causing
further wear. The construction of a cushion type driven
member is shown in Fig. 4.
Some driven members are equipped with torsional vibra-
tion dampener hubs as shown in Figs. 2 and 3. Their purpose
is to prevent the torsional vibrations of die engine from being
transmitted through the clutch at frequencies which would
create objectionable gear and driveline noises. The subject
of torsional vibrations is beyond the scope of this paper, and
the discussion is limited to the mechanical construction of
the torsional vibration dampener hub.
These hubs are designed to provide a relative rotation
with respect to the driven plate in either direction from a
neutral position. Coil springs generally are utilized to pro-
vide a torque buildup as the hub is rotated with respect to
the clutch plate. Rubber blocks and hydraulic systems also
have been used to provide relative angular movement. Usu-
ally a friction drag is also provided between the hub and the
clutch plate which provides a snubbing action as the coil
springs recoil following a pulsation. The pressure of the coil
springs is designed to produce a counter torque as high as
the torque peaks transmitted by the engine. Since this is
not always possible due to the space limitations of the damp-
ener hub, stops are provided so as not to compress the springs
to their solid height. In some applications, it is desirable
to control lower magnitude vibrations generated by the trans-
mission and driveline and their mass-length relation to the
engine. This is accomplished by using lower rate springs in
conjunction with the higher rate load carrying springs which
are shortened a sufficient amount to allow the lighter springs
to deflect before picking up the heavier springs.
In some cases, several different rate springs are used to
accomplish the desired results; however, the spring distri-
bution should provide a symmetrical pattern to permit the
balance of the completed assembly. It should be stressed
that there is not sufficient space nor can sufficient WR2 be
 Downloaded from SAE International by Univ of California Berkeley, Thursday, July 26, 2018

410 G. R. HARTING

tolerated in driven member torsional vibration mechanisms factors have been established by experience. These factors
to dampen completely some very severe torsional vibration of safety have had to be adjusted to compensate for oper-
problems resulting in matching some engines and driveline ators' misuse of the vehicle and their lack of understanding
systems. of the mechanics of the driveline system. This factor of
Since the spring loaded clutch is widely used in motor safety must also be high enough to allow for the fatiguing
trucks and other high speed engines, it is important to con- of the parts and the possible heat checking of the pressure
sider the loading of the parts due to centrifugal force. The plate. A burst speed factor of safety of two is most com-
pressure plate, back plate, and driven member are the com- monly used with spring loaded type clutches and through the
ponents most susceptible to failure due to centrifugal force. years has proved to allow adequately for the above indeter-
Since the above components are modifications of an annular minate factors. A burst factor of safety of two, or a burst
ring structure, the design will have the highest burst strength speed of the clutch that is twice the engine operating speed,
the more closely it approximates an annular ring of constant results in a strength factor of safety of four since the cen-
cross-section. It is obvious that pressure plates and back trifugal force varies as the square of the speed. It is some-
plates cannot approach a true annular ring since bosses must times necessary to have a burst factor of safety for the clutch
be provided to locate the pressure springs, drive the pressure driven member greater than two, particularly with slow mov-
plate, and carry the lever system. The bosses which carry ing vehicles with large reduction ratios. In these vehicles
the pressure springs and lever system must be of sufficient the driven member can be accelerated to extremely high
strength to carry the centrifugal loading imposed by these speeds by the wheels or tracks if the clutch is disengaged
parts without having excessive mass which must, in turn, be when descending sharp grades. Overspeed of the engine and
carried by the basic ring structure. The height of these boss- clutch can also occur in vehicles if the operator disengages
es should also be kept to the minimum required for their the clutch while descending a steep grade and then re-en-
function since they are cantilever beams and centrifugal gages the clutch after the driven member has been acceler-
force creates bending stresses on the basic ring where they ated to a high speed by the wheels. This causes the clutch
are joined. Since all of the other components of the clutch cover and engine to be accelerated to higher than normal
are either carried by the pressure plate or the back plate, operating speeds by the inertia of the vehicle.
their weight should be kept to the minimum required for
The first piece of testing equipment used in evaluating
good design.
the spring loaded clutch is the scale checking fixture which
Since there are so many forces acting upon the clutch is shown in Fig. 5. The clutch cover is mounted into a spe-
cover assembly and the contour of the components varies cial flywheel provided with blocks made to the thickness of
greatly, it becomes impractical to calculate the burst speed the driven member. Openings are provided at the periphery
of the assembly. The practical approach is to consider the of the flywheel so the spacer blocks can be removed during
above factors while the design is being made, then build test. The back side of the flywheel is provided with three
and test the completed design. If the test results reveal too round, equally spaced openings so that push rods can be in-
low a burst speed, the above factors must be reconsidered serted through the flywheel to engage the pressure plate face.
and adjustments made in the design. At this point, the use The clutch cover and flywheel are inserted into the scale
of alternate materials with higher or lower tensile strength
should be considered to obtain the desired results and the
greatest economy.
Burst strength of the driven member assembly is usually
limited by the type of friction material used and the method
of fastening. The most common methods of fastening fric-
tion material to clutch plates for spring loaded clutches are
by riveting or bonding. Organic materials are usually riv-
eted with brass rivets or bonded, while inorganic materials
are usually riveted with steel rivets. Some calculation can
be made to determine the number of rivets required for se-
curing the friction material. However, the completed as-
sembly must be tested to determine the actual burst speed.
This test should also reveal whether the method of fastening
or the friction material itself is limiting the burst speed.
It cannot be stressed too highly that burst strength is an
important factor in clutch design, as serious consequences
can result if the clutch bursts during vehicle operation. It
should also be stressed that the flywheel to which the clutch
assembly is attached should be of sufficient strength to carry
the clutch load; and it should have as high a burst strength
as the clutch assembly. Over the years, burst speed safety
 Downloaded from SAE International by Univ of California Berkeley, Thursday, July 26, 2018
HEAVY-DUTY CLUTCHES
fixture with the release levers up. An adaptor is then placed
between the release levers and the hydraulic cylinder pro-
vided in the fixture. A manual hydraulic pump is provided
so that the clutch can be released by actuating the pump.
Three dial indicators are used to measure the travel of the
release levers, the pressure plate release, and the back plate
deflection.
The first portion of this test consists of measuring the re-
lease force, pressure plate release, and back plate deflection
at various increments of release lever travel. These meas-
urements are taken in the down or release direction of the
release levers and also in the up direction or engaging di-
rection at the same increments of release lever travel. The
values are entered into chart form as shown in Table 1.
The clutch and flywheel are then removed from the scale
check fixture, turned over, and replaced in the scale check
fixture with the release levers down. Support blocks are
placed between the flywheel and the scale bedplate; and a
push rod adaptor is placed between the hydraulic cylinder
through the holes in the flywheel so as to engage the pres-
sure plate. With the clutch mounted in this position, the
clamping force of the clutch is measured at various incre-
411
ments of driven member thickness. A dial indicator is pro-
vided to measure the movement of the pressure plate. The
manual hydraulic pump and cylinder are used to build up
enough load gradually so that the driven member block spac-
ers can just be removed through the openings at the periph-
ery of the flywheel. This value is recorded on Table 1 in
the space marked "Force Down" and represents the clamping
force of the clutch plus friction at the condition of a new
driven member.
Pressure in the hydraulic cylinder is then increased to
cause the pressure plate to move approximately 0.030 in.
beyond the new driven member thickness. Hydraulic pres-
sure in the cylinder is then gradually released until the
clutch pressure plate is again in the same position as for a
new driven member. The scale reading is taken at this point
and entered into the chart as shown in Table 1 in the space
marked "Force Up" and represents the clamping force of the
clutch less friction. The hydraulic pressure is then gradually
released so that the pressure plate moves up by increments
as would be represented by the position of the pressure plate
in the clutch assembly with various thicknesses of worn driv-
en member assemblies.
Information accumulated in Table 1 is very useful for
evaluating the performance of a spring loaded clutch. This
information reveals the effective clamping force of the
clutch, the friction in the clutch, the effective lever ratio,
the release effort required, the lost motion in the clutch due
to deflection, the amount of pressure plate release at various
increments of release lever travel, and the limits of release
lever travel in both the release position and the extended
position which occurs with a worn driven member.
The information shown in Table 1 may also be plotted
graphically as is shown in Fig. 6. This chart becomes very
useful in comparing various spring loaded clutches as to
lever ratio, release travel, and particularly internal friction.
Internal friction consists of the friction in the lever system
and drive lugs. The frictional hysteresis loop, as shown in
Fig. 6, permits an easy means of comparing the internal
friction between clutches since the wider the hysteresis loop
the greater the internal friction of the clutch.
The next testing procedure involved in evaluating the
spring loaded clutch involves testing of the clutch lever
system's ability to withstand repeated engagement without
breakage, excessive wear, or excessive frictional buildup.
The equipment used for this testing is shown in Fig. 7. One
end of this machine is designed to rotate the clutch by means
of an electric motor and variable speed drive while the
other end of the machine is designed to engage the clutch
repeatedly by means of an electric motor, variable speed
drive, and adjustable eccentric. The machine provides
clutch rotational speeds up to 3600 rpm and engagement
rates up to 200 engagements per minute. Spring loaded
clutches should undergo 500,000 engagements in this ma-
chine without any breakage of the component parts or ex-
cessive wear which would make the clutch inoperable.
After the clutch lever system has undergone the above
500,000 engagement test, it is re-evaluated in the scale
 Downloaded from SAE International by Univ of California Berkeley, Thursday, July 26, 2018

412 G. R. HARTING

testing fixture; and the results of the scale tests made before
and after the cycling test are compared.
The next step involves testing of the release lever's sta-
bility at various operating speeds. The equipment used for
this test is shown in Fig. 8. This equipment provides a means
of mounting the clutch so that it can be rotated at various
speeds. It is equipped for measuring the movement of the
release levers to determine whether they are stable at vari-
ous operating speeds. If the levers move an excessive a-
mount in the direction of the clutch throwout bearing, the
free play in an actual clutch installation would be elimi-
nated and the clutch throwout bearing would be subject to
premature failure due to continuous loading. Excessive
movement in the opposite direction would indicate some
unloading of the clutch clamping force.
Typical engine and dynamometer equipment as used for
testing spring loaded clutches is shown in Fig. 9. The test
equipment shown in Fig. 9 incorporates a heavy duty high
manner simulating actual vehicle installations. An auto-
speed V-8 truck engine and a high speed absorption dyna-
matic cycling device is provided so that the clutch may be
mometer with a low WR2 . The engine is provided with a endurance tested. The clutch output shaft is constructed so
power take-off and special flywheels so that various size that a strain gage torque meter may be inserted in the drive-
spring loaded clutches can be mounted in a conventional line. By using amplifiers attached to the strain gage torque
 Downloaded from SAE International by Univ of California Berkeley, Thursday, July 26, 2018
HEAVY-DUTY CLUTCHES
meter and speed pickups on the engine and dynamometer,
oscillograph traces can be made so that the torque charac-
teristics of the clutch may be studied.
Since burst testing is a destructive test, it is the last test
performed on the cover assembly. Fig. 10 shows the equip-
tnent used to check the burst speed of clutches and com-
ponents. This equipment is built underground for the pro-
tection of the operators. The equipment shown in Fig. 10
incorporates an engine and speed-up gear box, capable of
output speeds up to 12,000 rpm. This equipment is mounted
below the floor with the output shaft projecting through a
wall into an adjoining pit which is constructed of reinforced
concrete lined with heavy steel plates. A magnetic speed
pickup is provided on the output shaft and is attached to an
electronic counter for indicating the speed.
Another type of spin chamber is shown in Fig. 11. This
equipment is used to burst smaller components which must
have spin strengths higher than 12,000 rpm. In thischamber,
the part is suspended by a vertically mounted quill shaft at-
tached to an air turbine which is capable of speeds up to
40,000 rpm. The chamber is constructed so that it can be
evacuated by a vacuum pump which is provided.
413
Burst speed of driven members is checked in the same
chamber where the lever throwout check was made and is
shown in Fig. 8. This chamber is capable of speeds up to
12,000 rpm. Driven members are heated to 500 F to simu-
late operating conditions prior to checking their burst speed.
Organic clutch facings, as used in spring loaded clutches,
are checked in an inertia type test machine shown in Fig.
12. The equipment provides an electric motor as power
source with one clutch used to accelerate a flywheel and
another clutch used as a brake to stop the flywheel after the
flywheel has been accelerated to speed by the first clutch.
An automatic cycling device is provided to engage alter-
nately the pickup clutch and the clutch mounted as a brake.
The frame of the machine is provided with strain gages so
that the reaction torque can be measured. This method has
provided adequate results for the study of engagement char-
acteristics. All friction materials undergo a standard 60,000
engagement test on this equipment. This test is useful for
evaluating wear rates and engagement characteristics of
various friction material compositions.
 Downloaded from SAE International by Univ of California Berkeley, Thursday, July 26, 2018
414
Endurance of torsional vibration dampener hubs is checked
with the equipment shown in Fig. 13. A part of this equip-
ment is the same as shown in Fig. 7 which was used to cycle
the cover assembly with the addition of a special fixture for
mounting the driven member. This fixture permits the
dampener hub to be alternately rotated with respect to the
clutch plate between the angular limits of the stops provided
in the design. Reaction members of the fixture are provided
with heavy coil springs so that overtravel can occur, sub-
jecting the unit to high shock loads when the stops make
contact.
Most equipment builders require the clutch manufacturer
to furnish WR2 values for clutches and components they
supply. Since it is difficult to calculate the WR2 of irregu-
lar annular objects, it is desirable to be able to measure
the WR2 values of completed components. Fig. 14 shows
G. R. HARTING
a sketch of a device which can be constructed and used to
measure the WR2 values of annular ring type components.
The device consists of a circular disc suspended by a steel
wire anchored in such a manner that the wire must twist tor-
sionally when the disc is rotated. The particular device, as
used in the Rockford Clutch Div. Test laboratory, incorpor-
ates a 14 in. diameter disc 0.547 in. thick to which is at-
tached an arbor 1 in. in diameter and 6.2 in. in length. This
assembly is then attached to the ceiling by an 0.080 in. di-
ameter wire which is 116.5 in. in length. The formula used
for calculating the unknown WR2 of the part directly using
the Rockford Clutch fixture is also shown in Fig. 14. This
is a special formula applicable only to a device having
dimensions as shown in Fig. 14. These dimensions may be
modified to fit the individual requirements and the space
available. The following three formulas can be used to de-
sign and use a device similar to the one described above.
 Downloaded from SAE International by Univ of California Berkeley, Thursday, July 26, 2018
HEAVY-DUTY CLUTCHES
where:
g = Gravitational acceleration, in./sec 2
T = Time for one period, sec
K = Spring Scale constant of the wire used, in. -lb
/radian
Es = Shearing Modulus of elasticity
D = Diameter of wire, in.
L = Length of wire, in.
W = Weight, lb
R = Radius of gyration, in.2
WR2x = WR2 of unknown
WR2 = WR2 of fixture
WR2t = WR2 of the total (fixture and unknown)
After establishing the diameter and length of wire to be
used, the "K" factor is calculated by Eq. 7. After the fix-
ture has been suspended, the disc is rotated approximately
270 deg and released. The average time for several oscil-
lations is measured. After determining the "T" value, it is
substituted into Eq. 8 which gives the WR2 value for the total
of the fixture and the unknown part. By utilizing Eq. 9 the
WR2 value of the unknown part can be calculated.
Over-Center Operating Dry Type Clutch
A typical over-center dry type clutch is shown in Fig.
15A. A cross-section of this clutch showing the nomencla-
ture of the components is shown in Fig. 15B. The over-
center clutch differs from the spring loaded clutch in the
method by which the clamping force is generated. The lever
system usually incorporates an over-center toggle lever ac-
tion or camming device to develop the clamping force. The
over-center clutch will, therefore, remain in the released
or engaged position with no external force being applied.
This clutch is usually hand operated through a linkage sys-
415
tem and clutch throwout yoke. Crawler tractors and certain
farm tractors are typical applications for the over-center
clutch.
The same design considerations for the pressure plate,
back plate, and lever system that apply to the spring loaded
clutch will also apply to the over-center dry clutch. There
may be some additional requirements for the back plate de-
pending upon whether the clutch is to be provided with a
Belleville spring or whether the back plate itself is made to
deflect when the clamping force is developed.
Some over-center clutches are equipped with Belleville
springs so that a predetermined clamping force may be de-
veloped without precise adjustment and so the clutch will
be capable of compensating for driven member facing wear
without excessive loss of clamping force. If the Belleville
spring is utilized, it is necessary to construct the back plate
and adjusting ring as rigid as possible. The typical Belle-
ville spring as used in over-center clutches is designed to
provide a zero or negative rate over a portion of its spring
curve. The spring is then trapped in the assembly at the be-
ginning of the zero or negative portion of the spring curve.
If the components of the clutch which form the reaction for
the Belleville spring deflect excessively under the spring load
of the Belleville spring, the positive rate spring force of
these parts will affect the zero or negative rate of the Belle-
ville spring force and much of its benefit is lost.
Many over-center clutches are constructed without in-
corporating the Belleville spring design. In these designs,
 Downloaded from SAE International by Univ of California Berkeley, Thursday, July 26, 2018
416
it is necessary for the back plate and adjusting ring to de-
flect when the clamping force is developed so as to provide
follow-up for driven member wear. This design is advan-
tageous in applications where the driven member does not
wear rapidly, requiring frequent adjustment, since the clutch
is capable of developing much higher clamping forces. The
over-center clutch has a variable lever ratio which becomes
infinite at the point of over-center action. In designs not
using the Belleville spring, deflection is small compared to
the deflection provided in the Belleville spring; therefore,
the load is picked up at a point in the over-center action
where the mechanical advantage is higher.
Although higher clamping forces are possible in clutches
not incorporating the Belleville spring, clutches equipped
with Belleville springs are capable of maintaining a much
more uniform clamping force over a much wider range of
deflection thereby providing more adequate follow-up for
wear of the clutch driven member without readjustment.
Since the over-center clutch is generally used in heavy
duty vehicles with rigidly mounted axles, the use of the
cushion plate and the vibration type dampener hub are not
common. Since the service is severe, the most common
driven member used with over-center clutches incorporates
inorganic friction material and a rigid hub.
Inorganic friction materials fall into three categories —
bronze ceramic button type, bronze ceramic whole ring type,
and iron ceramic type. The bronze ceramic button type
lining offers the advantage of providing a driven member
2 system is not so apparent as in the spring loaded clutch since
with lower WR and the possibilities of better cooling of the
pressure plate and flywheel surfaces. The bronze ceramic
whole ring and the iron ceramic whole ring linings generall
provide the possibility of installations in lighter vehicles
without excessive aggressiveness or chatter. Characteristics
of the above mentioned friction materials are based on cur-
rent field experience with available production materials;
G. R. HARTING
however, the technology of friction material is constantly
being advanced. New friction materials are continually be-
ing made available for experimentation.
Some organic friction materials are still being provided
with over-center clutches where service is not so severe that
the lining is destroyed by heat. Organic friction material
still exhibits the smoothest engaging characteristics when
applied to light vehicles. If the application should require
a cushion plate, the cushions prove much more satisfactory
when used with organic friction material. It is difficult to
prevent heat set of the cushions when they are applied to
driven members incorporating inorganic friction material
since the inorganic friction material conducts heat into the
springs causing heat set.
Fig. 16 shows driven members equipped with the various
types of lining as used with the over-center clutch. Driven
member A incorporates bronze ceramic button type friction
material. Driven member B incorporates bronze ceramic
whole ring type friction material. Driven member C in-
corporates iron ceramic whole ring type friction material.
Driven member D incorporates organic friction material.
The scale check fixture, shown in Fig. 5, used to check
the spring loaded clutch is also used to evaluate the over-
center type clutch. Evaluation is limited, however, to the
measurement of release sleeve engaging force, pressure plate
release, and deflection of components. Strain gage load
cells are used in conjunction with the above fixture for meas-
uring clamping force. Evaluation of friction in the linkage
the over-center type linkage system gives an increasing lever
ratio to infinity at the over-center point. Friction evalua-
tion is, therefore, limited to the evaluation of two clutches
of like design.
The clutch engagement cycling machine, as shown in
Fig. 7, is also used to evaluate the linkage system in the
over-center clutch. Clutches are cycled for 500,000 engage-
ment cycles after which time they are checked for over-
center action and wear of the components.
General performance of the over-center clutch and the
 Downloaded from SAE International by Univ of California Berkeley, Thursday, July 26, 2018
HEAVY-DUTY CLUTCHES
evaluation of friction materials are determined by use of
an engine and absorption dynamometer installation as shown
in Fig. 17. The normal test includes engaging the clutch
15,000 times at a rate of six engagements per minute at loads
much greater than those anticipated in an actual installation.
Dynamometer testing is useful for locating malfunctions in
the cover assembly caused by heat such as drive lug bind,
excessive dishing of the pressure plate, and excessive buildup
of friction in the linkage system. The test is used to eval-
uate the friction material as to torque capacity, wear rate,
scoring characteristics, resistance to heat, and engagement
characteristics.
Strain gage torque meter and oscillograph equipment are
provided for evaluating the clutch torque capacity and the
engagement characteristics. By providing speed recording
equipment on the engine and dynamometer and taking sim-
ultaneous traces of the engine speed, the dynamometer speed
and the engaging torque, the work and heat characteristics
of the engagement may be studied.
Burst testing equipment, as shown in Fig. 10, is used to
determine the burst speed of the clutch assembly and its var-
ious components.
Over-Center Power Take-Off Dry Type Clutch
The power take-off type over-center clutch is used in
conjunction with a power take-off attached to an engine used
to drive auxiliary or stationary equipment. The power take-
off type clutch is not designed to be used on applications
requiring repeated cycle engaging since the driven portion
2
of the clutch has a much higher WR than the operating type
over-center clutch. In this type clutch the friction material
is either made in the form of a ring with gear teeth on the
OD, or it is attached to an auxiliary ring with gear teeth on
the OD, and acts as the driving member. The engine fly-
417
wheel is provided with a driving ring which engages with the
teeth of the driving friction plate, with the remainder of the
clutch becoming the driven member. Fig. 18A shows a typ-
ical power take-off type over-center clutch; Fig. 18B shows
a cross-section of this clutch with the nomenclature of the
various parts. A study of Fig. 18 will reveal that the power
take-off type clutch does not utilize the engine flywheel as
a friction surface and utilizes a clutch body which carries
the reaction of the pressure plate. The over-center mech-
anism generally incorporates some type of toggle lever sys-
tem.
The same general testing procedures employed to eval-
uate the operating type over-center clutch are also used to
evaluate the power take-off type clutch.
Both organic and inorganic friction materials are used
in the power take-off type clutch. The organic type clutch
plate is generally a thick solid ring with gear teeth provided
on the OD and molded from a chopped asbestos resin mix-
ture. Use of inorganic friction material with the power take-
off clutch is somewhat limited since its finished structure
must generally conform to the organic part in order for it
to be adapted to the clutch. Rings of organic material simi-
lar to those used as the friction material, but compounded
for their strength properties and recessed for the mounting
of the whole ring inorganic friction material are generally
used. Metallic gear tooth carriers to which bronze ceramic
button type friction material is attached are also used. Fig.
19 shows examples of each of these clutch plates with plate
A made of organic, plate B inorganic whole ring mounted
to organic carrier, and plate C bronze-ceramic button fric-
tion material attached to metallic carrier.
 Downloaded from SAE International by Univ of California Berkeley, Thursday, July 26, 2018

418 G. R. HARTING

Since many power take-off type clutches area applied to

applications having very rough and fluctuating loads, it is
necessary to reduce the backlash of the gear teeth in the
drive ring to an absolute minimum. Since it is not practical
to design the plates for an extremely tight fit because of
binding due to heat expansion, the plates are cut into three
segments, as shown in Fig. 19, D. When the three segment
plates are mounted into the drive ring of the clutch assem-
bly, they are forced outward into the drive ring by centri-
fugal force making possible a nearly backlash free system
when the clutch is operating. This design greatly reduces
the wear on the gear teeth caused by very rough and torque
reversing loads.

Electro-Magnetic Single Plate Dry Clutch

The electro-magnetic single plate dry clutch is beginning

to find use in automotive applications involving remote con-
trol of auxiliary equipment. This type clutch can easily be
adapted for remote operation since no linkages are required
to control its engagement. The control system of this clutch
can also be provided with a power rheostat control for vary-
ing the clamping force of the clutch. The single plate elec-
tro-magnetic clutch incorporates only one friction surface
as compared to two friction surfaces in the mechanical sin-
gle plate clutch. Despite this limitation the clutches are
capable of developing fairly high torque capacities for their tograph of a single plate electro-magnetic clutch. Fig. 20B
size. Their major limitation is that of heat capacity since shows a cross-sectional sketch of this clutch and the nomen-
the clutch operating temperature is limited by the temper- clature of the various components.
ature rating of the magnet coil insulation. In order for this The procedure for designing a single plate electro-mag-
type clutch to be competitive with the mechanical clutch, netic clutch is divided into two parts. The first part deals
it must be applied in applications where the linkage required with the designing of the magnetic circuit involving the siz-
for the mechanical clutch is a major portion of the total cost ing of the poles, sizing of the iron circuit, and the calcula-
of the installation since the electro-magnetic clutch is con- tion of the amount of magnetizing force required. The sec-
structed of more expensive materials. Fig. 20A shows a pho- ond part involves the calculations required to design the coil
 Downloaded from SAE International by Univ of California Berkeley, Thursday, July 26, 2018
HEAVY-DUTY CLUTCHES
to meet the magnetizing force requirement of the clutch
magnetic circuit.
In order to proportion the size of a tentative design, the
material covered under the basic design relationships should
be considered. It should also be noted that the maximum
clamping force obtainable with a magnetic type clutch is
limited to approximately 170 l b / i n . 2 of pole area. This
force limitation is imposed by the magnetic saturation points
of common magnetic materials available. Having estab-
lished a tentative design in which the clamping force has
been determined, the required pole area may be calculated
by using the formula:
where:
A = Area of both poles, in.2
F = Clamping force, lb
B = Flux density, Maxwells/in.2
Since the area given by Eq. 10 is the area for the sum of
both poles, this figure is divided by two to get the area of
each pole. It is then necessary to determine the outside di-
ameter and inside diameter of the outer pole, and the out-
419
side diameter and the inside diameter of the inner pole, so
that the area of the outer pole and the area of the inner pole
are equal. This proportioning should be accomplished in a
manner which gives a mean radius the same as that assumed
in the preliminary calculation of the clutch.
In order to calculate the pole area and proportion the iron
circuit, it is necessary to know the magnetization charac-
teristics of the material to be used. Fig. 21 shows the mag-
netization curves of various magnetic materials. An in-
vestigation of the magnetization curves reveals that the
magnetizing force requirement for various flux densities
is not a straight line relationship. As the flux density in-
creases, efficiency of the magnetizing force decreases un-
til a saturation condition is reached where additional mag-
netizing force results in no increase in flux density.
The flux density for the poles should be chosen fairly high
up on the knee of the magnetization curve of the material
to be used since the pull varies with the square of the flux
density and the length of the poles is kept short. For exam-
ple, the pole flux density for cast dynamo steel can be ap-
proximately 105,000 Maxwells/in. The flux density for the
remainder of the iron circuit should be chosen somewhere
on the steep portion of the magnetization curve of the par-
ticular material. By choosing the flux densities of the iron
circuit in the above manner, maximum clamping force is
achieved by a coil with the least magnetizing force capa-
city.
 Downloaded from SAE International by Univ of California Berkeley, Thursday, July 26, 2018
420
Having established the area of the inner and outer poles
and the flux density at the poles, the area immediately b e -
hind the pole faces should be increased in cross-sectional
area so that the flux density of this portion of the iron cir-
cuit falls on the steep portion of the magnetization curves
as mentioned above. The remainder of the iron circuit is
proportioned in the above manner so as to provide adequate
space for the coil while maintaining good design proportions
for strength and mounting purposes.
If the clutch is to be of the stationary field type, two run-
ning air gaps are required. In order to minimize or limit
the ampere-turn requirement for the coil, it is necessary to
reduce the flux density across the air gaps and to hold the
length of the air gaps to a minimum. Typical air gap flux
densities will usually fall in the range of 30,000-60,000Max-
wells/ i n . 2 . The air gaps should usually be taken in radial
direction to prevent axial attraction of the stator to the rotor.
Having determined the sizes of all the components in the
iron circuit, the ampere-turn requirement for the iron cir-
cuit can be calculated. Each segment of the iron circuit
of constant cross-sectional area should be listed in tabular
form showing the flux density and length of each segment.
The magnetizing force in ampere-turns per inch for each
of the flux densities is taken from the magnetization curves
as shown in Fig. 21. The magnetizing force in ampere-turns
per inch is then multiplied by the length of each segment,
in inches, to determine the total magnetizing force required
for each segment. The summation of the magnetizing forces
for each of the segments in the iron circuit will give the to-
tal magnetizing force required for the iron circuit.
The magnetizing force required for the air gaps is c a l -
culated by the formula:
where:
NI = Magnetizing force, ampere-turns
B = Flux density, Maxwells/in. 2
L = Length, in.
In calculating the air gaps, imperfect contact between
the armature and rotor at the pole faces should be consid-
ered. An air gap allowance of approximately 0.002 in. for
each pole is generally used to compensate for imperfect con-
tact at the poles. Other air gaps to be considered are the
air gaps between the stator and rotor in stationary field d e -
signs and any other built-in air gaps. In designs that do not
have running air gaps, it is usually good practice to provide
a built-in air gap of 0.005-0.010 to aid in collapsing the
magnetic field upon de-energizing the coil. By applying
the flux density and the length of each air gap to Eq. 1 1 ,
the magnetizing force in ampere-turns can b e calculated
A summation of the magnetizing forces required for each
air gap will give the total magnetizing force required for
the air gaps.
The total magnetizing force requirements for the coil is
the sum of the magnetizing force for the iron circuit, the
air gaps, and a suitable allowance for coil heating. In elec-
G. R. HARTING
tric clutches and brakes, heating takes place due to friction
and also from the current passing through the windings. The
resistance of the copper wire windings increases with heat,
causing the current to decrease. This reduces the ampere-
turns in proportion to the increase in windingresistance. The
summation of the magnetizing forces for the iron circuit and
the air gaps is usually multiplied by a factor of 1.2 to offset
the heating effect since wire tables are usually tabulated
for resistance at 20 C.
Before starting with the actual coil calculation, a few
basic facts should be understood. The above calculation
leads to an exact magnetizing force requirement; however,
it is not practical to design a coil to an exact value, as is
evident from the following discussion.
The ampere-turn value of the coil depends upon three
factors — applied voltage, mean turn length, and wire r e -
sistance per unit length. The ampere-turn value of a coil
cannot be changed without changing one of these factors.
When designing a coil for a given clutch, the voltage is
usually specified and the mean turn length is established by
the available space in the design. This leaves only the unit
wire resistance to vary in order to obtain the desired a m -
pere-turn value. Using copper wire and assuming room tem-
perature, the only way to change unit resistance is to change
the wire size. Since wire is available commercially in only
certain wire gages, it can be seen that the ampere-turn val-
ues of coils for a given clutch are only possible in i n c r e -
ments proportional to the wire gages available.
In designing the coil, some size considerations should also
be made. In the stationary field type there must be a suf-
ficient running clearance between the rotating part and the
coil assembly. In the case of molded and potted coils a
minimum of 1/16 in. of resin is required around the coil
winding. If a potted coil is to be used, the case thickness
must be considered and a minimum of 1/16 in. of resin must
cover the coil on the open side. Allowance must also be
m a d e for lead wire junctions which will require approxi-
mately 3 / 1 6 in. If a wrapped coil is to be used, an allow-
ance must be made for the wrapping thickness. After apply-
ing the above allowances, the maximum coil size can be
established. It may not be necessary to utilize all of the
available space depending upon the maximum allowable
wattage and the surface area of the coil required for heat
dissipation. The dissipation is calculated but the wattage
rating must b e chosen based on customer request or some
reasonable figure.
Having considered the above factors, the maximum coil
outline dimensions can be established. The length of one
turn at the mean diameter should then be calculated.
The unit resistance for the coil winding can be calculated
by the formula:
where:
Rf = Unit resistance, ohms/ft
E = Electromotive force, v
 Downloaded from SAE International by Univ of California Berkeley, Thursday, July 26, 2018
HEAVY-DUTY CLUTCHES
NI = Magnetizing force, amp-turns
P = Mean turn length of coil, ft
m
The actual wire size to be used should have a unit re-
sistance equal to or less than the calculated value.
Having established the wire size, the maximum number
of turns is established by the space limitations of the coil.
Having calculated the total number of turns of the coil and
the mean turn length, the total length of the coil winding
is established. The total resistance of the coil is then cal-
culated by multiplying the length of the wire by the unit
resistance of the wire. The coil current can be calculated
by the formula:
where:
I = Current, amp
E = Electromotive force, v
R = Resistance, ohms
The actual magnetizing force of the coil in ampere-turns
is the product of the number of turns times the current in
amperes. The coil wattage is calculated by the formula:
where:
P = Power, w
E = Electromotive force, v
I = Current, amp
The coil should have adequate surface area for heat dis-
sipation to prevent excessive heating. Usually the watt den-
421
sity of the coil should not exceed 1.5 w/in. of surface area.
If the above calculations do not yield a coil with a low
enough wattage rating or too high a watt density, the basic
design of the clutch will have to be altered to provide more
space for the coil. If the watt density is low and higher cur-
rent can be tolerated, the coil size may be reduced by re-
ducing the number of turns.
An inertia type test machine provides good results for
testing single plate electro-magnetic clutches. Fig. 22 shows
an inertia test machine and associated equipment for testing
this type of clutch. The machine incorporates an electric
motor as power source, a test clutch for picking up a fly-
wheel inertia load, and a second clutch mounted as a brake
for stopping the flywheel. Strain gages are provided on the
brake reaction shaft for studying engagement characteristics
and measuring the torque capacity of the clutch.
Mechanically Actuated Wet Clutches
(Spring Loaded and Over-Center)
The cover assemblies for mechanically actuated wet
clutches are similar to the cover assemblies for the dry
clutches; but some variations are required to provide proper
oil circulation and adequate release for the wet clutch plates.
Since the coefficient of friction of friction materials oper-
ating in oil is much less than for friction materials operating
dry, it is necessary to provide either more clutch plates, a
higher clamping force, or larger clutch plate diameter in
order to design a clutch having the same torque capacity as
its dry clutch counterpart. In mechanically actuated clutches,
the total clamping force is limited by the clutch lever ratio,
the external linkage ratio, and an operating force which can
manually be exerted by the operator without excessive fa-
tigue. Clutch assemblies with-three or more plates are com-
monly used in order to develop sufficient torque in the min-
imum size.
Depending upon the type of friction material used, the
unit pressure on the friction material is designed to be some-
what higher than the dry type clutch. Although the unit
pressure on dry type friction materials should rarely exceed
50 psi, sintered metal wet clutch type friction material may
be operated at unit pressures as high as 200 psi in mechani-
cally actuated wet clutches. These pressures should be cal-
culated on a net area basis after subtracting the groove area
from the total friction area of the plate. Sintered metal wet
clutch friction material usually requires a net pressure on the
friction material of approximately 100 psi in order to break
down the oil film adequately during engagement. The use
of cork as a wet clutch friction material requires special con-
sideration and the net unit pressure is usually limited to ap-
proximately 75 psi.
The cover assemblies used in wet clutches must provide
adquate oil drainage at the periphery of the back plate so
that oil is not trapped between the pressure plate and back
plate creating a hydraulic oil head due to centrifugal force,
which would prevent the clutch from being released. The
inside diameter of the pressure plate should be contoured in
 Downloaded from SAE International by Univ of California Berkeley, Thursday, July 26, 2018

422
G. R. HARTING

such a manner as to direct the oil flowing from the driven
member hub into the clutch plate back. The pressure plate
need not have as much mass as the pressure plate used in
dry clutch applications since it does not have to absorb as
much heat and its design requirement is limited to providing
uniform pressure to the clutch plate pack.
Because more plates are employed in the wet clutch de-
sign than in the dry clutch design, it is necessary to provide
more pressure plate release in the wet clutch cover assem-
bly. A minimum of 0.010 release should be provided for
each pair of mating friction surfaces. The following em-
pirical relationship may be used to aid in determining the
proper amount of release.
where:
R = Clutch release, in.
D = Outside diameter of friction surface
N = Number of plates in the clutch pack
for clutch plates to be used in the mechanically actuated
clutch is therefore more critical because higher flow rates
are involved. The oil must pass through the plates so as not
to create excessive back pressure and must take a path which
allows it to conduct the heat away from the friction plates
efficiently. Grooving is also necessary to break down the
oil film to increase the coefficient of friction upon engage-
ment. There are four commonly used types of plate groov-
ing which are used either separately or in combination.
One of the most common type groove patterns is the spi-
ral groove which is generated by rotating the plate while
passing a tool from the inside to the outside of the plate at
a rate timed with the rotational speed so as to produce a
groove with a specified pitch. The groove is also produced
in multiple start or multiple lead patterns.
The radial groove, as its name implies, is a groove made
in a radial direction. When used separately, the grooves are
cut across the entire face width of the friction material.
However, this type groove is most commonly used with the
spiral groove. When the radial groove is used with the spiral

The above relationship applies only to flat, noncushion

type plates. The relationship is not absolute and should be
used as a guide only because of plate flatness and tolerance
variation.
Sticking problems are encountered with some friction
materials, particularly cork, which are caused by adhesion
and the generation of a partial vacuum between the clutch
plates. When using these friction materials, it is usually
necessary to provide some plate separation means to break
the plates apart when the clutch is released. The most com-
mon method employed to separate the plates is slotting the
clutch plates in such a manner as to generate a segmented
form. Alternate segments are then bent in opposite direc-
tions so that a spring action is created when the plate is
clamped flat. In addition to providing clutch plate release,
the above design provides a cushioning effect when the
clutch is being engaged.
Various types of friction materials are used with the me-
chanically operated wet clutch including sintered bronze,
cork, paper, and asbestos compounds. The sintered bronze
friction material is most commonly used in heavy duty ap-
plications, while cork is used in many spring loaded appli-
cations of less severe duty because of its higher coefficient
of friction. When designing the clutch, a dynamic coeffi-
cient of friction of 0.08 may be used for sintered metal ma-
terial and 0.1 may be used for cork material. These values
may be modified after sufficient test results for the particu-
lar application and friction materials are available; but they
offer a good basis for the preliminary design.
Since the rate of clutch engagement of the mechanically
actuated clutch is controlled by the operator, the amount
of heat generated at the clutch friction surfaces may vary
over wide ranges for the same application. For this reason,
it is generally necessary to provide greater oil flow through
the clutch plates for this type clutch than for clutches which
have a controlled engagement rate. Grooving pattern design
 Downloaded from SAE International by Univ of California Berkeley, Thursday, July 26, 2018
HEAVY-DUTY CLUTCHES
groove, the grooves are sometimes passed only partially
across the face of the friction material, with grooves starting
alternately from the outside and inside of the friction ma-
terial. This causes the oil to take a longer path across the
friction material allowing for greater heat conduction.
The wagon track type of groove is produced by passing
two or more parallel cutters across the plate with the center
of the series of cutters passing through the center of the
plate. Many wagon track groove designs are produced by
passing the cutters across the plate two or three times, with
the plate being indexed either 90 or 120 deg between cuts.
Another type of grooving, known as differential grooving,
is generaiad by passing a tool in a circular path with a center
offset from the center of the clutch plate. In generating
this groove pattern the clutch plate is indexed each time
the cutter passes through the friction material band. Centers
of all cuts then fall on a base circle which is concentric with
the clutch plate. The completed pattern consists of a series
of right and left hand curved grooves extending from the in-
side to the outside of the friction material which intersect
each other creating a diamond or waffle pattern. The dif-
ferential grooving pattern is generally used separately with
no other type of grooving.
423
Fig. 23 shows examples of each of the four basic grooving
patterns. Plate A has spiral grooving; plate B has radial
grooving; plate C has wagon track grooving; and plate D
has differential grooving.
Friction material testing indicates that the grooving pat-
tern affects the coefficient of friction of a given friction
material. Tests generally indicate that radial and wagon
track type grooves tend to reduce the coefficient of friction.
After the oil film has Deen broken down, the spiral groove
pattern usually exhibits the highest coefficient of friction;
however, it generally must be used in conjunction with some
other type grooving pattern in order to obtain the proper oil
flow characteristics. The differential groove pattern is a
good all purpose pattern permitting good oil flows while
maintaining a fairly high coefficient of friction.
The mechanically actuated wet clutch requires high flow
rates in order to prevent the clutch plates from being over-
heated during manual clutch engagement. Oil is usually
pumped into the clutch pack by way of a drilled passage in
the transmission shaft and openings in the driven hub pro-
vided with a reservoir ring which distributes the oil at the
inside diameter of the clutch plate pack. The oil flow re-
quirement for the clutch varies considerably, depending upon
the application and the efficiency of the grooving pattern,
but generally falls within a range of 1 gpm for each 10-20
hp rating of the engine.
Fig. 24 shows an example of a mechanically actuated
over-center wet clutch equipped with sintered metal friction
material. Fig. 25 shows a small over-center multiple disc
wet clutch which is designed for power take-off and aux-
iliary drive applications. Fig. 26 is a photograph of a me-
chanically actuated spring loaded clutch equipped with cork
friction material.
The basic test equipment used in testing the dry spring
loaded and over-center cover assemblies is also used to
evaluate the wet spring loaded and over-center cover as-
semblies. The overall performance of the complete wet
clutch is tested with an engine and absorption dynamometer
installation. The clutch is installed in a suitable mounting
box with the input connected to the engine and the output
to the absorption dynamometer as shown in Fig. 27. Addi-
tional equipment to supply, measure, control, cool, and fil-
ter the proper flow of oil to the clutch is provided. A strain
gage torque meter, oscillograph equipment, and magnetic
speed pickup equipment are used to measure clutch torque
and study engaging characteristics.
Hydraulic Multiple Disc Clutch
The hydraulic multiple disc clutch is the modern clutch
of today and is finding its way into a wide variety of heavy
duty applications. With proper valving it can be controlled
either manually or automatically through auxiliary controls.
It is widely used in heavy duty power shift transmissions in-
cluding earth moving, construction equipment, farm tractors,
and motor trucks. The clutch is also used to control many
auxiliary drives. As the state of the art advances, this clutch
 Downloaded from SAE International by Univ of California Berkeley, Thursday, July 26, 2018
424
will probably displace many of the present mechanically
actuated clutches. The hydraulic clutch may be readily
produced in either a double or single clutch package. Fig.
28A shows a modern double hydraulic clutch incorporating
hydraulic balance, internal oil transfer, and internal pres-
sure modulation. Fig. 28B shows a cutaway cross-section
of this clutch with the nomenclature of its components.
Although the basic design relationships used for other
types of clutches apply to the hydraulic clutch, there are
some new factors which must be considered since the clamp-
ing force is obtained by hydraulic pressure. One of the new
factors which must be considered is hydraulic unbalance due
to centrifugal force. When the hydraulic clutch is rotated,
the oil in the clutch cylinders not only generates a force in
the radial direction, but also a force in the axial direction
due to centrifugal force. Steps must be taken in the design
to balance hydraulically, relieve, or counteract the axial
force created by the centrifugal effect of the oil in the cyl-
inders.
The centrifugal head can readily be balanced in the
double hydraulic clutch since the two hydraulic cylinders
or force cavities are usually interconnected and divided by
a separator plate causing the two force pistons to be in cen-
trifugal balance. If centrifugal hydraulic balance is to be
achieved in the single hydraulic clutch, it is necessary to
provide an auxiliary balancing cylinder attached to and op-
posite the force cylinder.
In some clutches it is practical to relieve the centrifugal
head by using a special pressure relief valve at the periphery
of the cylinder. These valves are designed to open at some
predetermined pressure after the clutch apply oil pressure
has been dropped. The oil in the cylinder is emptied suf-
ficiently to reduce the centrifugal head to the regulated
pressure of the relief valve. The remaining force resulting
from the centrifugal head is counteracted by the return
springs. This system has the disadvantage of requiring the
replacement of the ejected oil upon re-engagement.
G. R. HARTING
In some applications, where speeds are not excessive and
clutch diameters are not large, it is desirable to counter-
act the full centrifugal head by the return springs. In order
to design this type clutch, it is necessary to be able to cal-
culate the centrifugal head for various clutch sizes and op-
erating speeds.
The formulas used to calculate the centrifugal head at
various radii and the total axial centrifugal force in hy-
draulic clutches are derived and reduced from the force re-
lationships existing in an open top cylindrical vessel con-
taining liquid which is rotating about a vertical axis. Fig.
29 shows a sketch of this case in which the liquid is free to
rise in the vessel until relative equilibrium is reached. The
free surface of the liquid forms a paraboloid about the axis
of rotation.
Referring to Fig. 29, there are three forces acting on the
fluid element at point A. One force is the weight (W); an-
other is the inertia force (W/gw 2 x) acting radially away
from the axis of rotation; and the third is the resultant force
(P) due to the pressure of the surrounding fluid. Since the
system is in equilibrium, force (P) is acting normal to the
curved surface. By relating force (P) in terms of the weight
(W) and the inertia force, the following equations result.
 Downloaded from SAE International by Univ of California Berkeley, Thursday, July 26, 2018

HEAVY-DUTY CLUTCHES 425

where:
P = Force normal to curve, lb
W = Weight, lb
w = Angular velocity, radians/sec
Integration of Eq. 16 results in the equation of the curved g = Gravitational acceleration, ft/sec2
free surface. At any point A on the liquid surface having a radius "x"
and height "y" above center "O" of the paraboloid, the
centrifugal head is the product of the specific weight of the
liquid times the height "y".
If the rotating vessel in Fig. 29 were closed and com-
pletely filled with liquid, a centrifugal head would be de-
veloped against the top as determined by the "x" and "y"
coordinates of the curve in the open top case. The force
on the top and bottom of the closed vessel would differ only
by the weight of the liquid. If the vessel were rotated about
a horizontal axis, the force on each end would be equal.
However, the pressure at the top of the horizontal cylinder
differs from the pressure at the bottom of the cylinder by
the static head of the liquid.
The hydraulic clutch is usually rotated about a horizon-
tal axis and is representative of the closed rotating vessel
described above. Since the static head differential is small
compared to the centrifugal head, Eq. 17 may be used for
calculating the centrifugal hydraulic head of hydraulic
clutches without appreciable error. The following equations
have been reduced from Eq. 17 and apply to rotating cyl-
inders, center filled with oil having a specific weight of 7.5
lb/gal.
 Downloaded from SAE International by Univ of California Berkeley, Thursday, July 26, 2018
426
where:
F = Axial force on piston, lb
N = Rotational speed, rpm
R = Radius, in.
Ro = Outside piston radius, in.
Ri = Inside piston radius, in.
P = Pressure, psi
A series of charts utilizing the above formula have been
prepared reducing the above information to graphical form.
The curves shown in Fig. 30 relate the piston radius to the
centrifugal hydraulic pressure for various operating speeds.
The curves shown in Fig. 31 relate the speed, in rpm, to the
centrifugal hydraulic pressure, in psi, for various piston ra-
dii. The curves shown in Fig. 32 relate the speed, in rpm,
to the total centrifugal hydraulic force, in pounds for pistons
of various radii. A series of charts such as those shown in
Figs. 30-32 can be made sufficiently accurate to eliminate
much of the calculation required when designing clutches
without centrifugal hydraulic balance.
G. R. HARTING
It is extremely important to provide adequate spring pres-
sure to counteract the centrifugal hydraulic force at the
maximum operating speed for which a clutch is designed
to operate. If this factor is not provided for in the clutch,
it cannot be released while it is rotating
The hydraulic multiple disc clutch is probably the most
flexible of all clutches in providing a wide range of torque
capacities from a single design. Within the limits of the
piston sealing rings and the unit pressure allowable on the
friction plates, the clutch torque capacity can be varied by
regulating the pressure of the oil to the force cavities. The
clutch torque capacity can also be varied by changing the
number of plates, although for most applications the prac-
tical limit is about 10 pairs. By varying the clutch plate
grooving pattern and the oil flow through the clutch plate
pack, the hydraulic clutch may be made to operate under
either light or the most severe conditions.
The clutch plates used with the multiple disc hydraulic
clutch utilize the same grooving patterns and friction ma-
terial as those used in mechanically actuated wet clutches.
Since it is possible to generate much higher clamping forces
with the hydraulic clutch, as compared to the mechanically
actuated clutch, plate diameters are usually smaller. The
hydraulic clutch plates are usually thinner and incorporate
shallower grooving than the mechanical wet clutch plates.
This is possible since the engagement rate of the hydraulic
clutch is usually not controllable by the operator thereby
minimizing abnormal heat generation created by slipping
the clutch. The unit pressure loading on the clutch plates
 Downloaded from SAE International by Univ of California Berkeley, Thursday, July 26, 2018
HEAVY-DUTY CLUTCHES
varies over wide ranges; but it usually falls within a range
of 100-400 psi.
A recent innovation in double hydraulic clutch design
is that of an oil transfer system between the two force cham-
bers which permits oil to be transferred from one force
chamber to the opposite force chamber without passing
through the hydraulic pump or external supply system. This
system permits the use of a much smaller hydraulic pump
and allows for much faster clutch engagement. The hy-
draulic clutch shown in Fig. 28 utilizes the oil transfer sys-
tem. This double hydraulic clutch utilizes four force cham-
bers, two for each clutch, with a separator plate separating
the force cavities of the two clutches. Starting with both
clutches released or in the neutral position the following
sequence of operations takes place when one clutch is en-
gaged.
1. Oil at apply pressure enters the accelerator piston cav-
ity A, causing the accelerator piston in that cavity to move
towards the separator plate. The accelerator piston move-
ment causes the disc valve assembly, adjacent to cavity B,
to seat against the separator plate and also opens the disc
valve adjacent to cavity C.
2. The main force piston moves into the engaged po-
sition. While this movement is occurring, oil is being forced
from chamber C through the openings in the separator plate
into chamber B by opening the one way valve adjacent to
chamber B. The oil transfer occurs since the movement of
the force piston creates a higher pressure in chamber C than
in chamber B.
427
3. With the force piston in the engaged position, the
engagement is completed by pressurizing chamber B from
chamber A at a controlled rate through an orifice provided
in the accelerator piston.
Since the clamping force of the hydraulic clutch is ob-
tained by hydraulic pressure with no mechanical linkages
connecting the force piston to the operating lever, some
means must be provided to control the engagement rate.
The clutch engagement rate must be controlled by control-
ling the pressure buildup in the force cavity of the clutch.
Controlling pressure buildup in the force cavity presents
somewhat of a problem in the simple hydraulic clutch which
utilizes a simple hydraulic cylinder and an on-off type
valve, since the pressure drops while the piston is moving
and rises almost instantaneously when the piston contacts
the clutch pack. It is quite evident that some type of pres-
sure modulation is required, either external or internal, to
permit a gradual and controlled increase of pressure in the
force cavity after the force piston contacts the clutch plates.
External pressure modulating devices include accumu-
lators and variable pressure valves. The accumulator is con-
nected in parallel with the clutch force cavity and incor-
porates a movable piston or diaphragm which displaces oil
against some increasing force causing the pressure in the sys-
tem to increase at some predetermined rate after the clutch
force piston has reached the engaged position, depending
upon the size and force buildup rate of the accumulator.
The variable pressure valve operates on the principle of
controlling the flow of oil between the clutch force cavity
 Downloaded from SAE International by Univ of California Berkeley, Thursday, July 26, 2018

428 G. R. HARTING

and sump. In this system pressure is controlled by varying and the force cavity passing through the accelerator piston.
the amount of oil flowing to the sump from a rather large When the clutch is engaged, apply pressure oil enters the
amount to zero flow. There are several types of variable accelerator piston cavity closing the disc valve and moving
pressure valves used to control clutches. The variable pres- the force piston into engaged position. Since the displace-
sure valve is also used in conjunction with other types of ment of the accelerator piston is small, the pressure drop
pressure modulation. in the accelerator cavity is momentary, thereby generating
Possibly the newest means of clutch pressure modulation a portion of the clamping force in an extremely short time.
is the internal system. The hydraulic clutch shown in Fig. The remainder of the clamping force is then generated by
28 incorporates internal pressure modulation in conjunction a controlled pressure buildup in the major force cavity cre-
with the oil transfer system. Pressure modulation is accom- ated by metering the small amount of oil required through
plished by use of an orifice between the accelerator cavity the orifice in the accelerator piston.
Internal pressure modulation is far superior to the exter-
nal system since the modulation is controlled by metering
a very small quantity of oil. The accumulator and variable
pressure valves require that rather large volumes of oil be
pumped to obtain the desired results.
The internal pressure modulation system provides a smooth
engagement in which the heat generation rate can be con-
trolled by controlling the pressure rise and engagement rate.
It also provides the ultimate in shock free operation and op-
erator comfort. The curves shown in Fig. 33 illustrate the
effect of internal pressure modulation as compared to the
unmodulated clutch when both clutches are operated with
an on-off type valve. The engagement of the modulated
clutch is illustrated by the solid curve and the unmodulated
clutch engagement is illustrated by the dotted curve. The
curves show that the modulated clutch begins the engage-
ment much quicker than the unmodulated clutch. This is
attributed to the oil transfer system which is used in con-
junction with the internal pressure modulation. The engage-
ment progresses with a steady smooth increase in torque ca-
pacity until the inertia load is satisfied and lock-up occurs.
The pressure in the clutch then continues to rise until max-
imum clutch torque capacity has been reached. The curve
illustrates the condition where inertia load is satisfied prior
to reaching maximum clutch torque capacity. If the inertia
load is sufficiently high, clutch engagement would follow
up the line to the point of maximum clutch torque capacity.
 Downloaded from SAE International by Univ of California Berkeley, Thursday, July 26, 2018
HEAVY-DUTY CLUTCHES
It would then progress at that level until the inertia load was
satisfied at which time lock-up would occur.
Examination of the dotted curve representing the unmodu-
lated clutch reveals that the time required to get the piston
in the engaged position is considerably longer than that for
the modulated clutch. At the point of piston engagement
the clutch torque rises abruptly from zero to its maximum
torque capacity, resulting in a very harsh clutch engage-
ment and a very high rate of heat generation. After reach-
ing maximum torque capacity, clutch engagement progresses
at constant level until the inertia load is satisfied and lock-
up occurs. Fig. 34 shows a typical heavy duty power shift
transmission utilizing pressure modulated hydraulic clutches.
As in other clutch testing, the strain gage torque meter
and oscillograph equipment are most useful tools in evalu-
ating clutch engagement characteristics and pressure buildup
rates. The equipment used for testing mechanical wet
clutches, as shown in Fig. 27, is also used for mounting the
hydraulic clutch for dynamometer testing. When several
hydraulic clutches are to be used in a power shift transmis-
sion, they are mounted in a transmission along with other
components to be used in the system such as the pressure re-
gulating valves and controls. The complete engine, dyna-
mometer, and transmission test installation is shown in Fig.
35. The pressure buildup rate for internal pressure modula-
tion is developed and tested with a nonrotating bench test
installation using pressure transducers and oscillograph equip-
ment. A nonrotating cycling test is also performed on the
clutches to determine sealing ability of the piston seals, wear
rate of the sealing rings, and general endurance of the com-
ponent parts. A typical bench test installation is shown in
Fig. 36 which includes the necessary hydraulic pumps, pres-
sure regulating valves, flow meters, oil temperature control
system, and cycling device.
Electro-Magnetic Multiple Disc Clutch
The electro-magnetic multiple disc clutch is generally
an oil bath operated clutch utilizing a friction disc pack
similar to that used in the hydraulic clutch. The clutch is
widely used in machine tool transmission applications requir-
ing power shifting in automatic sequence operation. This
type clutch has been tried in automotive applications includ-
ing power shift transmissions; but it has not penetrated the
market to any degree.
The clutch is somewhat limited in torque capacity when
compared to a hydraulic clutch of the same size. This lim-
itation is basic since the practical maximum magnetic force
is limited to 170 psi of pole area; and since most designs re-
quire that the friction plates have greater area than the area
of the magnetic poles, pressure on the friction surface must
be somewhat less than 170 psi. In contrast, the hydraulic
clutch is capable of producing pressures on the friction clutch
plates to a value limited only by the friction material itself.
The cost of the electro-magnetic multiple disc clutch has
also been a deterrent in its adoption by the automotive in-
429
dustry. The higher cost of this clutch can be attributed to
higher costs of raw materials used in the clutch and the fact
that the clutch has never been produced in automotive quan-
tities. Another economic factor is that most automotive wet
clutches require forced oil circulation through the clutch
pack which requires a hydraulic pump. Since the clutch
does not require a pump for its actuating mechanism, it be-
comes an added accessory cost; whereas, the hydraulic
clutch utilizes the same pump for obtaining its actuating
force and cooling oil flow.
Special precaution must be taken with the electro-mag-
netic wet clutch to prevent stray flux from permanently mag-
netizing shafts, bearings, gears, and other components. If
proper magnetic isolation of the magnetic actuator is not
provided, small iron and steel particles carried by the oil
will be deposited upon the bearings and gears in the trans-
mission causing premature failure.
Although the above factors indicate the clutch has certain
limitations, it should be possible to build a satisfactory
transmission for many applications utilizing these clutches.
It is, therefore, possible that this type clutch may someday
penetrate the automotive market.
The basic design procedures used to calculate the mag-
netic circuit and coil for the single plate type electro-mag-
netic clutch may also be used for designing the magnetic
actuator for electro-magnetic multiple disc clutches which
employ various methods of utilizing the magnetic force in
creating a clamping force for the clutch plates.
The cross-sectional sketch, shown in Fig. 37 shows the
basic design principles used in one of these types. Inspec-
tion of the sketch in Fig. 37 shows that this clutch utilizes
a magnetic circuit which passes the magnetic flux through
the clutch plates. For this reason, it is necessary that the
clutch plates be made from a magnetic material such as low
carbon steel. The advantage of this design is that the clutch
automatically compensates for wear and does not require
adjustment. The major disadvantage to the design is that
both the inner and outer plates must be made from very soft
 Downloaded from SAE International by Univ of California Berkeley, Thursday, July 26, 2018
430
iron or steel material making them very susceptible to wear
and erratic friction created by clutch plate galling. The
clutch plates must be made in such a manner as to provide
an inner and outer pole. This is accomplished by slotting
the plates. Some magnetic losses are encountered in the
webs between the poles of the clutch plates thereby limiting
the practical number of plates which can be used. Passage
of magnetic flux through the clutch plate webs causes a di-
minishing clamping force on the clutch plates from the mag-
net body to the armature. Clutch torque capacity is very
susceptible to heat warpage of the clutch plates since this
creates air gaps between the clutch plates and reduces
clamping force of the clutch.
Another system used in obtaining the clutch plate clamp-
ing force is shown in the cross-sectional sketch in Fig. 38.
In this design the flux passes through the magnetic body and
an adjustable air gap into the armature and returns through
an air gap at the opposite pole. An adjustable pressure plate
is mounted to the armature so that the clutch pack is en-
gaged before the armature contacts the magnet body. The
clutch is designed to develop its rated clamping force at
some air gap, usually 0.030-0.040 in. As the clutch plates
wear, the air gap diminishes and the clamping force of the
clutch becomes greater. When the clutch plate wear be-
comes equal to the air gap, the armature contacts the mag-
net body and the clutch clamping force is lost. At this point
the pressure plate on the armature is adjusted to its original
air gap, restoring the clamping force to the clutch plates.
Since the magnetic flux does not pass through the clutch
pack, the clutch can utilize any of the conventional friction
materials used in hydraulic clutches. This is the principal
advantage of this system; and it gives the desired flexibility
as to friction material, grooving patterns, and oil circula-
tion. The principal disadvantages of this system include the
need for adjustment, the change in clamping force with
wear, and the need for a coil with a high magnetizing force
capacity.
The third system is shown in the cross-sectional sketch of
G. R. HARTING
Fig. 39 with the nomenclature of the various components.
This design is actually a single plate electro-magnetic
clutch utilized to actuate a mechanical force multiplier,
which, in turn, generates the clamping force for the clutch
plate pack. This system permits the generation of fairly
high clamping forces giving the clutch more torque capacity
for a given size than the other two systems. This clutch may
also use conventional friction materials and grooving pat-
terns since the flux does not pass through the clutch plates.
Since a ball and ramp mechanical force multiplier is usually
used, a certain amount of angular rotation is required to en-
gage the clutch plates and generate the clamping force. For
extremely low speed applications the time required to actu-
ate the clutch becomes objectionable because of the angular
rotational requirement of the mechanical actuator. The
clutch cannot be satisfactorily disengaged under some over-
running inertia loads since the overrunning inertia load re-
engages the clutch.
Since each of the three electro-magnetic multiple disc
clutch systems have various advantages and disadvantages,
the characteristics of the particular application must be con-
sidered before making a clutch selection.
Selecting Right Clutch for Job
The first step in selecting the right clutch for a given ap-
plication is to study the control requirements from the stand-
point of operator convenience. This study should reveal
what other control functions the operator must perform in
addition to the clutching operation. This investigation
should reveal whether the clutch should be operated by hand,
foot, or automatic means.
The question of economics is always a factor in the selec-
tion of a clutch for a particular application since obviously
a relatively simple machine cannot justify the same clutch
expenditure as a more complex machine. Since the heavy
 Downloaded from SAE International by Univ of California Berkeley, Thursday, July 26, 2018
HEAVY-DUTY CLUTCHES
duty clutch is used in industrial equipment for commercial
use, all clutch refinements must be justified primarily by
increased work output instead of operator comfort and ease
of operation. Operator comfort is usually considered only
as it relates to securing adequate operators and increased
efficiency. Therefore, selection of components for indus-
trial equipment is made on a different basis than the selec-
tion of components for the passenger car market. Most ap-
plications permit the use of more than one type clutch and
the choice is usually a compromise between the original
equipment cost and allowable service cost of the unit through-
out its life, as dictated by customer field demands.
The spring loaded dry clutch, due to its foot control and
competitive price, dominates the motor truck, farm tractor,
and motor grader fields. It is also used in some industrial
lift trucks, crawler tractors, scraper haulers, buses, and mis-
cellaneous road machinery. It is produced in a wide vari-
ety of sizes and designs with varying degrees of complexity.
It can be operated 100% manually or with air or hydraulic
assist. In applications which can justify additional expendi-
ture, this clutch is gradually being replaced by multiple
plate spring loaded wet clutches and power shift transmis-
sions incorporating hydraulic clutches.
The operating type over-center dry clutch is used in those
applications where hand operation is desired with a normal-
ly disengaged and engaged position being maintained with-
out external force. The clutch is made in many sizes and
styles including single and multiple plate designs. It is pre-
dominately used by the crawler tractor industry for the en-
gine master clutch. It is used in some farm tractors as the
engine master clutch and in many farm tractors as the con-
trol clutch to the power take-off driveline. It is used in
power take-offs attached to stationary engines where the
driven machine must be cycled frequently thereby prevent-
ing the use of the standard power take-off type over-center
clutch. There are many other applications for the over-cen-
ter dry clutch in road building, mining, oil field, and mis-
cellaneous industrial equipment. The over-center dry clutch
431
is usually somewhat heavier, more complex, and more cost-
ly than the spring loaded dry clutch.
The over-center dry power take-off type clutch is used
in conjunction with a power take-off assembly attached to
an engine. This clutch is used in the majority of power
take-off applications where it is not required to engage and
disengage the driven load frequently. There are many ap-
plications for this type of clutch where power units are used
to drive auxiliary equipment on machinery in place of tak-
ing power from the engine propelling the machine. Appli-
cations of this type include farm machinery, construction
equipment, and portable motor truck mounted machinery.
Stationary power unit applications include the driving of
compressors, blowers, pumps, crushers, and other equip-
ment used in the mining and oil field industries.
The electro-magnetic single plate dry clutch has found
application as a torque controlling device in such machines
as trenchers, asphalt pavers, and farm machinery. If has
also been used as the operating clutch for concrete mixers
and pumps. The clutch offers two primary features, one be-
ing simple torque control by a rheostat and the other, inex-
pensive remote operation. Since the clutch is more costly
than a mechanical clutch of like capacity, potential appli-
cations are somewhat limited to those requiring the above
features.
The mechanically actuated spring loaded and over-center
wet clutches are used for the same general applications as
dry spring loaded and over-center clutches. The complete
wet clutch system is usually more expensive than a dry
clutch system. However, under severe operating conditions,
a properly designed wet clutch system can be expected to
reduce the time required for adjustment and give much long-
er operating service. Since the wet clutch is more suscep-
tible to the rate of heat generation than to the total heat
generated per engagement, the clutch service factors used
for wet clutch application are somewhat lower than those
used for dry clutch applications. The wet clutch will prob-
ably be used more and more as equipment owners realize
the increased cost of the wet clutch system can be offset by
reduced maintenance cost.
The largest application for the hydraulic multiple disc
clutch is in power shift transmissions in conjunction with hy-
draulic torque converters. Since relatively small hydraulic
clutches can transmit very large torques, several clutches
can be incorporated directly into the transmission, giving
several power shiftable gear ratios. The service factors for
hydraulic clutches used in transmissions utilizing hydraulic
torque converters are quite low and average about 1.2. For
heavy vehicles, the clutch controlling the forward-reverse
power shift may require a somewhat higher service factor.
The design torque of the hydraulic clutch must be calculated
on the basis of the maximum torque to be transmitted
through the clutch. This is controlled by the maximum stall
torque of the hydraulic torque converter and the gear ratio
of the particular clutch shaft.
The hydraulic multiple disc clutch may be applied to a
wide variety of direct drive applications including power
 Downloaded from SAE International by Univ of California Berkeley, Thursday, July 26, 2018

432 G. R. HARTING

take-off drive systems. Recent developments in hydraulic Acknowledgment

clutch design and hydraulic control design are making the
hydraulic clutch feasible for master clutch operation. The author wishes to acknowledge the work of the many
Although the electro-magnetic multiple disc clutch is engineers who have contributed to the advancement of clutch
not widely used by the automotive industry, it would be fea- design through the years. Much of the paper is based on the
sible to use this type clutch in some power shift transmis- collective effort of these individuals.
sions, vehicle underdrives, and power take-off systems. The author also wishes to thank the members of the Rock-
Since service factors are based on averages of satisfactory ford Clutch Div. Engineering Staff for their assistance in the
field performance, it is not practical to give service factor preparation of the paper.
information for electro-magnetic clutches as applied to the
automotive industry. For those electro-magnetic clutches
utilizing conventional friction materials and forced cooling
oil, the service factors used for hydraulic clutches could be
used for preliminary evaluation.
Table 2 lists service factors for wet and dry clutches for
typical automotive applications. It should be noted that the
service factors listed in this table are for clutches used in
direct drive applications without hydraulic torque converters.
These service factors are based on averages of satisfactory
applications for typical vehicles and equipment. The ser-
vice factors are listed as a guide so that a clutch of the prop-
er physical size is provided for in the design of equipment,
since the clutch torque capacity of most clutches can be var-
ied to some degree as dictated by field performance tests.
The information in Table 2 should be used to select the
desired clutch and establish its physical size. It is then de-
sirable to test the clutch in the laboratory under simulated
operating conditions, at which time friction materials may
be evaluated to determine the types most suited for the par-
ticular application. After a design has been thoroughly prov-
ed by laboratory testing, it should be field tested in the ve-
hicle under actual operating conditions since there is no ade-
quate substitute for actual field operation.

Conclusions

This paper converts the basic and theoretical aspects of

clutch design into practical design information useful in de-
signing clutches of various types. It brings out some of the
major porblems which should be avoided in designing a prac-
tical clutch. The paper has avoided some of the theoretical
aspects and some formula derivations in order to stress the
practical tools required for design and application of several
types of clutches.
Since the paper is directed to the student and young en-
gineer, its practical aspects should be valuable since they
are held by industry and not available in text book form.
The scope of the paper is quite broad in that it covers de-
sign, testing, and application. By giving an overall per-
spective of the subject, other papers dealing with specific
aspects of design can be studied and related to one another.
In addition to providing information for the young engin-
eer, the paper provides the vehicle and equipment design
engineer with useful information for evaluating the various
types of clutches available to him. It is for this reason that
some types of clutches not too commonly used by the auto-
motive industry were covered in this paper.