AN ADVANCED COURSE IN

FOOD DEHYDRATION AND DRYING

Donald G. Mercer, Ph.D., P.Eng.

DRAFT COPY

Disclaimer

The author assumes no responsibility or liability for any problems of any manner
encountered through the application of the principles discussed herein.
All “Examples” and “Case Studies” are based on generic or hypothetical cases and do
not represent any specific or proprietary processes in current or past use. Such
“Examples” and “Case Studies” are intended for instructional purposes only.

© Donald G. Mercer 2008

Reproduction in whole or in part by any means,
electronic or otherwise, is forbidden except with
the expressed permission of the author.
 AN ADVANCED COURSE IN FOOD DEHYDRATION AND DRYING

OUTLINE

CHAPTER 1: GETTING STARTED

1.1 Learning Objectives

1.2 Previous Course Material

1.3 Review: Mango Drying Case Study

CHAPTER 2: PROCESS CONTROL IN A DRYING OPERATION

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Basics of Process Control

2.2.1 Moisture Targets and Limits
2.2.2 Control Limits

2.3 Moisture Samling

2.3.1 Grab Samples
2.3.2 Continuous Monitoring

2.4 Case Study #1: Moisture Testing

2.4.1 Background
2.4.2 Assorted Problems and Shortcomings
2.4.2.1 Sample Size
2.4.2.2 Sample Uniformity
2.4.2.3 Sampling Interval and Timing
2.4.2.4 Process Response Time

2.5 Process Control Mechanisms

2.5.1 Feed-Back Control
2.5.2 Feed-Forward Control
2.5.3 Combined Feed-Forward and Feed-Back Control
2.5.4 General Comment

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Interm ediate Course in Food Dehydration and Drying Outline: Page i.

CHAPTER 3: PSYCHROMETRICS

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Definitions and Associated Terminology

3.3 Psychrometric Charts

3.4 Sample Problems and Calculations

3.4.1 Sample Problem #1
3.4.2 Sample Problem #2
3.4.3 Sample Problem #3

3.5 Practice Problems (with answers)

3.6 Case Study #2: Application of Psychrometry to Drying

3.6.1 Problem Statement
3.6.2 Solution

3.7 Case Study #3: Drying Feasibility Study

3.7.1 Background
3.7.2 Feasibility Study

3.8 General Comments

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Interm ediate Course in Food Dehydration and Drying Outline: Page ii.
CHAPTER 4: Troubleshooting

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Drying Problems

4.2.1 Uneven Drying
4.2.2 Case Hardening
4.2.3 Product Colour Changes
4.2.4 “Sweating” in Storage Bins
4.2.5 Finished Product Shrinkage
4.2.6 Moisture Uptake After Drying
4.2.7 Poor Dryer Performance
4.2.8 Heat Losses from Dryer
4.2.9 Uneven Bed Depth
4.2.10 Holes in Bed of Material
4.2.11 Variability Throughout the Day
4.2.12 Seasonal Variations
4.2.13 Lifting of the Bed
4.2.14 Product-Specific Problems

4.3 General Comments

CHAPTER 5: SUMMARY COMMENTS

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Things to Keep in Mind

CHAPTER 6: SOURCES OF INFORMATION

6.1 Introduction

6.2 General References

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Interm ediate Course in Food Dehydration and Drying Outline: Page iii.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
During the preparation of the “Advanced
Course in Food Dehydration and Drying”
course manual, I have once again had
the privilege of working with a multi-
national team of dedicated professionals
who are members of the International
Union of Food Science and Technology
(IUFoST), the International Academy of
Food Science and Technology (IAFoST),
and the South African Association of
Food Science and Technology
(SAAFoST).
The support, encouragement, and
enthusiasm of these individuals has been
phenomenal and I would like to publicly
acknowledge their efforts.
Dr. Daryl Lund (USA) is the Chair of the
Distance Education Task Force (amongst
many other Food Science related duties).
It is under his watchful eye and insightful
guidance that the concept of this Distance
Education Initiative is becoming a reality.
this course.
The South African Association of Food
Science and Technology (SAAFoST)
collectively has been a dedicated
supporter of this effort. Mr. Owen
Frisby, Executive Director of SAAFoST,
has worked tirelessly to promote the
Distance Education Initiative. Owen’s
encouragement has been extremely
important to me personally while
preparing the Dehydration and Drying
Module material, and I know many of the
Distance Education Task Force members
share this appreciation of Owen’s efforts.
I feel very fortunate to have spent time
with Owen during my trip to Africa in 2006
and I value the correspondence I have
had with him since that time.
Finally, I would like to acknowledge the
support of my wife, Jane, without whose
patience and understanding I would not
have been able to do this work.

Mrs. Judith Meech (Canada) is the

Secretary General and Treasurer of Donald G. Mercer
IUFoST. She has been a tremendous
resource in establishing contacts and March 2008.
working on the administrative aspects.

Dr. Walter Spiess (Germany) is a Past

President of IUFoST and was the driving
force in establishing the Distance
Education Initiative for Sub-Saharan
Africa during his term as President. He
has continued to be a strong supporter
and advocate of our activities.

Dr. Ralph Blanchfield, MBE (United

Kingdom) is the President of IAFoST. He
has provided continuing support for this
Initiative, and reviewed the draft copy of
 ADVANCED COURSE IN FOOD DEHYDRATION AND DRYING

CHAPTER 1: GETTING STARTED

1.1 Learning Objectives After completing the “Advanced Course in

This “Advanced Course in Food
Dehydration and Drying” is intended to be
a follow-up to the “Introductory” and
“Intermediate” Food Dehydration and
Drying Courses. It is offered as the final
course in this three-part module.
A number of topics will be covered to
complement those already studied in the
previous two drying courses. Now that
the basics of drying have hopefully been
mastered, a more “hands-on” approach
will be taken. Case studies based on
personal practical experiences have been
included to illustrate the application of
psychrometrics to drying.
Throughout this course, we will look at
“troubleshooting” problems in drying
operations and examine ways to
overcome these problems. Please keep
in mind that food drying is not a subject
that can be learned solely from course
manuals. Much of the learning comes
from experience in an actual food
processing environment. Nothing can
take the place of this experience, and no
instruction manual, no matter how
thoroughly it attempts to treat the topic,
can ever hope to cover every single
situation that may present itself to a
drying process operator.
Food Dehydration and Drying”, you
should:
C understand the basic principles of
process control as applied to drying
operations.
C be able to identify problems
associated with improper drying of
food products.
C be able to suggest potential causes of
improperly dried products.
C be able to recommend possible
measures to correct drying problems.
C be able to assess the validity of
product testing for taking corrective
action in a food drying process.
C be able to avoid (or minimize) many of
the problems encountered by dryer
operators who are unfamiliar with food
drying.
C understand the principles associated
with psychrometrics and be able to
perform basic associated calculations.

The chapter entitled “Summary

Comments” also provides an overview of
drying from a general perspective.

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Advanced Course in Food Dehydration and Drying Chapter 1: Page 1.

1.2 Previous Course Material
A quick look at the topics covered in the
“Introductory” and “Intermediate” drying
courses is included here to refresh your
memories and establish what subject
matter should have been studied prior to
beginning this course.
Introductory Course
C Reasons for drying foods
C Factors influencing drying
C Effects of drying on products
C The “unit operation” approach
C Process flow diagrams
C Organization in problem solving
C Dimensional analysis
C Wet and dry basis moistures
C Basic calculations
Intermediate Course
C Thermal properties of water
C Thermal properties of foods
C Sensible and latent heats
C Heat transfer mechanisms
C Calculating the heat to dry a product
C Stages of drying
C Critical moisture content
C Drying curves
C Scale-up of dryers
C Types of dryers
C Dryer design features
C Water removal capacity of a dryer
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Advanced Course in Food Dehydration and Drying
1.3 Review: Mango Drying Case
Study
Perhaps one of the best ways to review
the concepts from the previous two
courses is through the use of a drying
case study.
Scenario
A mango grower has taken the
“Intermediate Course in Food
Dehydration and Drying” and knows the
importance of understanding the
behaviour of food products as they
undergo drying.
In order to prepare a commercial dried
mango product for sale, the grower did a
series of drying trials using a small
laboratory-scale tray dryer. During the
drying test run, the weight of the mangoes
was followed over time. The initial
moisture of the mangoes was determined
prior to the test run using a laboratory
moisture meter.
Test Results
Table 1-1 shows the weight of the mango
sample for the full 18 hours of the drying
trial. During the first four hours of the
test, the weight loss is fairly rapid. For
this reason, weights are shown for every
15 minutes for times up to four hours, and
for every thirty minutes for the remainder
of the test.
The initial moisture content of the
mangoes was 78.72%, expressed on a
wet basis. The starting weight of the
mangoes was 243 grams.
Chapter 1: Page 2.
 TABLE 1-1: Your Tasks
Weight of Mangoes During the
Drying Test Run Answer the following questions:

1. How long does the constant rate

Time Weight Time Weight
(hours) (grams) (hours) (grams) drying period last ?

0 243 8.5 77 2. What is the rate of moisture loss

during the constant rate drying
0.25 237 9.0 74
period?
0.5 230 9.5 71
3. What is the critical moisture content
0.75 223 10.0 68 of the mangoes ?
1.0 216 10.5 66
4. How long did it take the mangoes to
1.25 209 11.0 64 reach a final target moisture of 12%
1.5 202 11.5 63 (wet basis) under the given drying
conditions ?
1.75 196 12.0 61
5. Why was the drying test run for 18
2.0 188 12.5 60
hours when a shorter time period
2.25 181 13.0 59 would seem to have been adequate ?
2.5 174 13.5 58
6. Comment on any irregularities you
2.75 167 14.0 57 may see in the data.
3.0 160 14.5 56
3.25 153 15.0 55 Calculations

3.5 147 15.5 55 While the information in Table 1-1 does

3.75 142 16.0 55
show how quickly moisture is lost from
the 243 grams of fresh mangoes, it
4.0 136 16.5 54 doesn’t really tell us very much about the
overall drying process.
4.5 126 17.0 54
5.0 117 17.5 54 What we need to do is find out how fast
water is being lost on a constant basis of
5.5 110 18.0 53 material. For this purpose, it is best to
6.0 102 base our calculations on a unit mass of
dry material. In the case of the data
6.5 96 presented in Table 1-1, a basis of one
7.0 90 gram of dry solids would be appropriate.

7.5 85
8.0 81

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Advanced Course in Food Dehydration and Drying Chapter 1: Page 3.

Since the initial moisture content of the
mangoes is 78.82% (wet basis), the
percentage of dry material will be 21.18%
(100% - 78.82%).
Weight of = Initial Sample x % Solids
Dry Solids Weight 100%
= 243 g x 0.2118
= 51.47 g
. 51.5 g
Since no solids are being lost during the
drying process, there will always be 51.5
grams of solids present in the dryer.
Knowing the weight of the mango sample
at any time and subtracting the weight of
solids present will allow us to calculate
the amount of water present at that time.
Weight of = Sample - Weight of
Water Weight Solids
If we know the weight of water and solids
present in the sample at a given time, we
can then calculate the dry basis moisture
at that time.
Dry Basis = Weight of Water
Moisture Weight of Dry Solids
Table 1-2 shows the calculated values for
the dry basis moistures at each time. In
addition, the raw data from Table 1-1 has
been included. These values were
calculated using a spreadsheet program
and were transcribed into Table 1-2.
Therefore, they are subject to some
effects of round-off.
The information provided in Table 1-2,
provides the necessary starting point to
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Advanced Course in Food Dehydration and Drying
answer most of the questions listed
above. By plotting the dry basis moisture
content of the mangoes versus time, as
shown in Figure 1-1, we can visualize
how the dry basis moisture content
changes during the drying process.
The constant rate drying period is defined
as that period during the drying process
when water is removed from the material
at a constant, or uniform, rate. This is
represented in Figure 1-1 by the linear
portion of the curve at the start of the
drying process. By drawing a straight line
through the linear portion of the curve in
Figure 1-1, we can see where the curve
begins to deviate from linearity, which
marks the end of the constant rate drying
period and the beginning of the falling
rate drying period. In Figure 1-1, this
appears to be somewhere between 3
hours and 4 hours after the mangoes
were placed in the dryer. For our
purposes, we’ll estimate that the constant
rate drying period lasts for approximately
3.5 hours.
We have been asked to calculate the rate
of water removal during the constant rate
drying period. This can be done in at
least two ways. The first way is based on
the straight line drawn in Figure 1-1 (the
second method will be discussed later).
Chapter 1: Page 4.
 TABLE 1-2: Calculated Values for the Mango Drying Test Run

Time Weight Solids Water Dry Basis Moisture

(hours) (grams) (grams) (grams) (g water / g dry solids)
0 243 51.5 191.5 3.72
0.25 237 51.5 185.5 3.60
0.5 230 51.5 178.5 3.47
0.75 223 51.5 171.5 3.33
1.0 216 51.5 164.5 3.20
1.25 209 51.5 157.5 3.06
1.5 202 51.5 150.5 2.92
1.75 196 51.5 144.5 2.81
2.0 188 51.5 136.5 2.65
2.25 181 51.5 129.5 2.52
2.5 174 51.5 122.5 2.38
2.75 167 51.5 115.5 2.24
3.0 160 51.5 108.5 2.11
3.25 153 51.5 101.5 1.97
3.5 147 51.5 95.5 1.86
3.75 142 51.5 90.5 1.76
4.0 136 51.5 84.5 1.64
4.5 126 51.5 74.5 1.45
5.0 117 51.5 65.5 1.27
5.5 110 51.5 58.5 1.14
6.0 102 51.5 50.5 0.98
6.5 96 51.5 44.5 0.87
7.0 90 51.5 38.5 0.75
7.5 85 51.5 33.5 0.65
8.0 81 51.5 29.5 0.57

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Advanced Course in Food Dehydration and Drying Chapter 1: Page 5.

 TABLE 1-2 (continued): Calculated Values for the Mango Drying Test Run

Time Weight Solids Water Dry Basis Moisture

(hours) (grams) (grams) (grams) (g water / g dry solids)
8.5 77 51.5 25.5 0.50
9.0 74 51.5 22.5 0.44
9.5 71 51.5 19.5 0.38
10.0 68 51.5 16.5 0.32
10.5 66 51.5 14.5 0.28
11.0 64 51.5 12.5 0.24
11.5 63 51.5 11.5 0.22
12.0 61 51.5 9.5 0.19
12.5 60 51.5 8.5 0.17
13.0 59 51.5 7.5 0.15
13.5 58 51.5 6.5 0.13
14.0 57 51.5 5.5 0.11
14.5 56 51.5 4.5 0.09
15.0 55 51.5 3.5 0.07
15.5 55 51.5 3.5 0.07
16.0 55 51.5 3.5 0.07
16.5 54 51.5 2.5 0.05
17.0 54 51.5 2.5 0.05
17.5 54 51.5 2.5 0.05
18.0 53 51.5 1.5 0.03

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Advanced Course in Food Dehydration and Drying Chapter 1: Page 6.

The slope of the straight line in Figure 1-1
has units of “grams of water per gram of
dry solids per hour”.
Slope of a straight line = Rise
Run
By selecting two points on the straight line
in Figure 1-1, we can calculate its slope.
At time t = 0, the dry basis moisture is
approximately 3.75 g water per g dry
solids. At time t = 6 hours, the dry basis
moisture is about 0.5 g water per g dry
solids.
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Advanced Course in Food Dehydration and Drying
Slope = Rise
Run
= (3.75 - 0.5) g water/g dry solids
(6.0 - 0.0) hours
= 3.25 / 6.0 g water / g dry solids / hour
= 0.54 g water / g dry solids / hour
Therefore, the mangoes lose water at a
rate of approximately 0.54 grams of water
per gram of dry solids per hour during the
constant rate drying period, which lasts
approximately 3.5 hours.
Chapter 1: Page 7.
The critical moisture of a material is the
wet basis moisture content at which the
constant rate drying period ends and the
falling rate drying period begins. This
signifies that moisture loss has changed
from occurring at the surface of the
material to being controlled by diffusion of
moisture from the inner portions of the
material.
We have estimated that the constant rate
drying period ends approximately 3.5
hours after the start of drying under the
conditions used in this test. From Figure
1-1, this looks like the dry basis moisture
would be about 1.8 grams of water per
gram of dry solids. We now need to
convert this to its equivalent wet basis
moisture.
Wet basis = weight of water x 100%
moisture total wt of material
The total weight of material with 1.8
grams of water per gram of dry solids
would be 2.8 grams (i.e., 1.8 g water +
1.0 g dry solids).
Wet basis = 1.8 g water x 100%
moisture 2.8 g material
= 64.29%
Therefore, the critical moisture content of
the mangoes under these drying
conditions would be about 64% on a wet
basis.
The next question asks how long it would
take the mangoes to reach a final
moisture content of 12% on a wet basis.
Since we have the moisture contents in
Figure 1-1 expressed on a dry basis, this
appears to be a slight problem. However,
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Advanced Course in Food Dehydration and Drying
we can convert the 12% wet basis
moisture to a dry basis value and then
proceed.
Dry basis = weight of water
moisture weight of dry solids
In 100 grams of a 12% moisture material,
we would have 12 grams of water and 88
grams of dry solids. We can then use
these values to determine the equivalent
dry moisture value.
Dry basis = 12 grams of water
moisture 88 grams of dry solids
= 0.136 g water / g dry solids
. 0.14 g water / g dry solids
From Figure 1-1, the dry basis moisture
falls to 0.14 g water per g dry solids at
approximately 14 hours. From Table 1-1,
we can see that the dry basis moisture
reached this level some time between 13
hours and 14 hours.
Even though the mangoes required 13 to
14 hours to reach their final target
moisture of 12% (wet basis), we had to
run the test for longer than this, since we
did not know in advance how long it might
take to achieve this final value. In drying
tests such as this, it is always better to let
the test proceed for too long than to
terminate it too early and miss seeing
what happens during the later stages of
drying. One little trick that I use is to
calculate the weight of material that
should be present at the final target
moisture and run the test until the weight
falls below this point. I can then decide
whether to end the drying test or keep it
going for a longer time.
Chapter 1: Page 8.
Before leaving this case study example,
there are a few additional things that we
can do as review which might be
beneficial.
Spreadsheet programs have provided us
with the ability to do complex calculations
with very little effort. Among the features
they offer is the calculation of the
equations of the “best-fit” straight line
through data in a graph. Knowing that
data from the first 3.5 hours of the mango
drying trial appear to be linear (see Figure
1-1), we can take these data points and
plot them on a separate graph as shown
in Figure 1-2. By taking the equation of
the “trendline” through these data points,
we get the following:
y = -0.5398x + 3.7324
where:
-0.5398 is the slope of the line with
units of “grams of water per gram of
dry solids per hour”
3.7324 is the y-intercept of the line
This means that at time t = 0, the dry
basis moisture content of the mangoes is
approximately 3.73 grams of water per
gram of dry solids (to three significant
digits) and that the rate of water loss over
the time covered by the graph is
approximately 0.540 grams of water per
gram of dry solids per hour. The negative
sign in front of the slope term in the
equation indicates that this is a loss.
You may recall that in a previous
calculation based on the slope of the
straight line drawn through the linear
portion of Figure 1-1, we arrived at a
water removal rate of 0.54 grams of water
per gram of dry solids per hour. These
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Advanced Course in Food Dehydration and Drying
two values are in very close agreement
(actually they are identical).
From Table 1-2, we can see that the
actual initial dry basis moisture for the
mangoes was 3.72 grams of water per
gram of dry solids. Again, this is in very
close agreement to the y-intercept value
calculated in Figure 1-2.
I have also taken the liberty of calculating
the rate of water removal based on the
data presented in Table 1-2. By taking
the differences between the dry basis
moistures at the start and end of each
time interval and dividing these
differences by the length of time (in
hours), we can get the rate of water
removal in grams of water per gram of dry
solids per hour.
For example:
At t = 1.0 hours, the water removal rate is
3.20 g water / g dry solids / hour.
At t = 1.25 hours, the water removal rate
is 3.06 g water / g dry solids / hour.
The rate of water removal for this quarter
hour interval is:
(3.20 - 3.06) g water/g dry solids
(1.25 - 1.0) hours
= 0.56 g water / g dry solids / hour
Values for all the time intervals are plotted
in Figure 1-3. As can be seen, the initial
water removal rate remains relatively
constant for the first 3.5 hours and then
begins to decrease. This corresponds to
the start of the falling rate drying period
and agrees with our findings from Figure
1-1.
Chapter 1: Page 9.
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Advanced Course in Food Dehydration and Drying Chapter 1: Page 10.

In the final question, we are asked to differences in the second decimal place
comment on any irregularities in the data. for these water removal rate values are
almost insignificant.
There are only a few such irregularities
that you may notice and these are seen in
Figure 1-3. If you look at the calculated
water removal rates for the first 3.5 hours
in Figure 1-3, you will see that there are
two values which lie well away from the
straight line. One of these is below and
the other is above the value of 0.55
grams of water per gram of dry solids per
hour. The reason for this type of thing
happening is due to the reporting of the
weights of the mangoes. The balance
used in these trials was only capable of
measuring to the nearest gram. This
means that adjacent pairs of numbers
may have one value as slightly high and
the other value as slightly low due to the
rounding off of the weights on the
balance. When the calculated values
based on these data are plotted, the
round-off effects are quite noticeable.
This effect is also evident from the saw-
tooth nature of the curve in other places
in the graph.

You may also notice that the value I

calculated for the water removal rate (i.e.,
0.56 grams of water per gram of dry
solids per hour) is slightly different than
the 0.55 g water / g dry solids / hour
shown in Figure 1-3, or the 0.54 grams of
water per gram of dry solids per hour
calculated from Figure 1-1. Again, this is
due to the fact that the computer
spreadsheet carries extra decimal places
in its memory, even though the printed
values are formatted to give an
appropriate number of significant digits.
Essentially there is little we can do about
this and we should be prepared to live
with this small problem.

It should also be recognized that

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Advanced Course in Food Dehydration and Drying Chapter 1: Page 11.

 ADVANCED COURSE IN FOOD DEHYDRATION AND DRYING
CHAPTER 2: PROCESS CONTROL IN A DRYING OPERATION
2.1 Introduction:
No matter what is being processed, it is
always necessary to have a method of
monitoring various product attributes at
each major step in the process.
Finished product moisture is generally the
key item that we need to measure in a
drying process. As we shall soon see, it
would also be helpful to know the
moisture of the product entering the dryer.
In addition, a number of other product
properties should be measured to
determine whether or not the final dried
product is meeting all finished product
standards. It is critical to know that the
product will perform properly for the
consumer when it is consumed.
For these reasons, it is necessary to test
the product at regular intervals. In this
chapter, we will focus on moisture testing
and control. It is also the responsibility of
the processor to know how variations in
moisture can affect other properties of the
finished product. This has been
examined briefly in the previous drying
courses, but as was pointed out, moisture
can affect various products in many
different ways, and we cannot discuss all
of these variations here.
We will begin our examination of “process
control” by looking at some basic
approaches to process control in general.
From here we will go on to examine some
fundamental control strategies that may
be employed in tracking product moisture
leaving a dryer.
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Advanced Course in Food Dehydration and Drying
2.2 Basics of Process Control
It is not our purpose to make you all
experts in process control methods.
However, an understanding of the
fundamental approaches is definitely
useful.
2.2.1 Moisture Targets and Limits
For example purposes, let’s consider a
product being dried on a continuous
through-circulation dryer. Through testing
of product at different moisture levels, an
acceptable range of moistures can be
established which we are prepared to
accept from the drying process. For this
example, we will assume that any product
moistures from 10.0% to 14.0% will give
a product that is satisfactory to our needs.
Based on these values, we are then
prepared to say that the minimum
allowable moisture of the product would
be 10.0% and the maximum allowable
moisture would be 14.0%. Generally, a
target moisture would be established in
the middle of this acceptable range. For
this example, the target finished product
moisture would be 12% (on a wet basis).
In some cases, the target moisture may
be determined first and then an
acceptable range may be established
above and below the target value.
Although the target moisture is usually at
the mid-point of the moisture range, this
does not have to be the case. There may
be instances where the lower moisture
Chapter 2: Page 1.
limit is not as critical as the upper
moisture limit. With a product such as
this, you may see a target moisture of
12.0%, with a lower moisture limit of 7.0%
for example, and an upper moisture limit
of 14.0%. In spite of this range, the best
or optimum moisture for the product may
be 12.0%, which is not at the middle of
the range. For our discussions here, we
will use a moisture range with the target
moisture at its mid-point.
We have now established that our
product target moisture is 12.0%. The
upper limit on the moisture is 14.0% and
the lower limit is 10.0%. We could then
write our moisture specification as being
12.0% ± 2.0% to indicate the target and
acceptable moisture range.
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Advanced Course in Food Dehydration and Drying
In order to follow the moisture content of
the product over time, we could draw a
graph with moisture on the vertical axis
and time on the horizontal axis (see
Figure 2-1). To make the target moisture
stand out on the graph, we could draw a
heavy line across the graph at 12.0%
moisture. To make the upper and lower
moisture limits more obvious, we could
also draw horizontal lines at 10.0% and
14.0% moisture, as done in Figure 2-1.
Finished product moisture values could
be measured over time to follow the
variations in moisture. If the moisture
started moving away from the target
moisture (i.e., getting too high or too low),
the trend could then be detected. Figure
2-1 shows how the moisture is varying,
but is staying within the acceptable
moisture limits as previously determined.
Chapter 2: Page 2.
2.2.2 Control Limits
As seen in Figure 2-1, the moisture is
certainly within the acceptable limits.
However, there may be times when it
appears that it is climbing towards the
upper limit. If the operator does not take
any action to address the rising moisture
content of the product, it may increase to
a level above the acceptable upper limit.
The big question now is, “When should
the operator react to the moisture
change?”
Another question might be, “How much of
an adjustment should the operator make
to the dryer when he or she decides to
take action?”
In a well-designed process, nothing
should be left to chance, and procedures
should be specified for the process
operators to follow. If the operator does
not take action to reduce the rising
moisture of the product, it will soon be
above the acceptable upper limit and the
product will not be able to be sold. If no
action is taken until the moisture actually
reaches the upper limit, it will still continue
to rise until the effects of the adjustments
to the drying conditions have had a
chance to take affect on the product.
Remember, when changes are made to a
dryer, the results are not instantaneous.
It takes some time for the material in the
dryer to show signs of response.
Therefore, action should be taken before
the moisture reaches the upper limit (or
the lower limit).
For this reason, in control strategy, an
upper control limit and a lower control
limit are established to indicate when
action should be taken to address
moisture changes in the dryer. These are
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often abbreviated to UCL, for upper
control limit, and LCL, for lower control
limit.
The UCL is set at some moisture value
between the target moisture value and
the maximum acceptable moisture limit of
the product. The LCL is set at a moisture
value between the target moisture and
the lower acceptable moisture limit of the
product. One way of establishing these
control limits is to simply set them at
points half-way between the target
moisture value and the acceptable
product moisture limits.
Since we have a range acceptable
moistures of 2% above and below the
target moisture, we could set our control
limits as being 1% above and below the
product’s target moisture. This would
mean that the moisture could vary
between 11.0% and 13.0% moisture
without any action being taken. However,
as soon as the moisture went outside this
range, some remedial action would be
taken in an attempt to bring the moisture
back towards the target moisture. While
this action is being taken, the moisture
content would probably drift beyond the
control limit, but because the control limits
are well inside the acceptable moisture
limits of the product, the product moisture
would still be okay. In this way, the
moisture would not go beyond the
acceptable limits and waste would be
kept to an absolute minimum.
Figure 2-2 shows the upper and lower
control limits as dashed lines together
with the information that was included in
Figure 2-1.
In drying systems equipped with
automated moisture analyzers, it is
possible to have the dryer controls linked
Chapter 2: Page 3.
to a computer system which interprets
signals from the moisture detectors and
takes action automatically. In cases
where no such systems are in place, it is
still possible to follow the trends in
moisture and make adjustments to the
dryer manually.

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2.3 Moisture Sampling
2.3.1 Grab Samples
In many processing applications, a quality
control technician (QC technician) takes
a small sample of product off the end of
the dryer once every 30 minutes, or
perhaps once every hour. The samples
that are taken are often referred to as
“grab samples” due to the fact that the
QC technician literally “grabs” a sample
from the end of a dryer and takes it to the
lab for moisture analysis. Of this sample,
perhaps only 10 grams is actually placed
in the moisture balance.
In cases where the dryer operator takes
his or her own samples, the time interval
might be as frequent as every 20 or 30
minutes.
The sample is then placed on an
automated moisture balance which dries
the sample using an infrared lamp (as
described in a previous course), and
gives a readout of the wet basis moisture
in approximately ten to fifteen minutes.
The results of the moisture tests are then
communicated to the process operator
who may make adjustments to the dryer
if they are felt to be needed.
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2.3.2 Continuous Monitoring:
While it is physically impossible for a
Quality Control technician to check the
moisture of every single piece of product
leaving a dryer, it is possible to get a
higher level of testing done using an
automated method. To do this, a
continuous monitoring system may be
used such as an infrared monitoring unit.
Basically, the system involves the use of
an infrared emitter/detector unit mounted
on a set of rails across the discharge end
of the dryer. The unit travels back and
forth along these rails and directs a beam
of infrared light down onto the bed of
material just before it leaves the dryer.
By having the infrared light properly
calibrated, the unit can determine the
moisture of the product based on the
differences in the frequencies of the
emitted light sent down to the product bed
and the reflected light bounced back from
the product to the infrared unit.
The infrared unit not only provides
continuous information about the product
moisture, but it does so across the dryer
bed as well as over the course of time as
the material comes out of the dryer. This
is considerably better than just taking a
single sample at one location every hour.
In cases where an infrared unit is in
place, hourly grab samples may also be
taken as a check that the infrared unit is
functioning properly.
The infrared unit can give the dryer
operator continuous feedback as to the
product moisture. Any moisture changes
can be detected as they occur, without
any delay, and not just every hour.
Armed with this information, the operator
can see how the process is functioning
and take appropriate action when the
Chapter 2: Page 5.
need arises.
In some cases, the infrared unit can be
linked to a computer which will adjust
drying conditions without the having the
operator making the adjustments.
Continuous moisture monitoring systems
are expensive to purchase and may
require sophisticated maintenance and
calibration that is not possible for many
drying operations.
2.4 Case Study #1: Moisture Testing
2.4.1 Background
A drying process runs at a rate of 1,360
kg of wet product (70% moisture) per
hour, 24 hours per day, five days per
week. The retention time of product in
the dryer is about 25 minutes.
Every 30 minutes, the Quality Control
(QC) lab technician takes a “grab-sample”
from the dryer discharge and does a
moisture test on it. The test takes 15
minutes to complete and the results are
not communicated to the process
operator for five minutes after that.
The test sample weighs about 250 grams
and the technician uses about 15 grams
on the moisture balance for the actual
moisture test. The remainder of the
sample is kept in a sealed plastic bag for
additional follow-up testing, if necessary.
“Spot checks” are done using the vacuum
oven method once a week on three
samples randomly selected from each
day’s retention samples.
When the process operator receives the
moisture test results from the lab, a
decision is made as to whether or not
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Advanced Course in Food Dehydration and Drying
adjustments to the dryer are required.
For our purposes, we will consider that
the target moisture of the finished dried
product is 10.0% ± 2.0%.
2.4.2 Associated Problems and
Shortcomings
Consider the following points:
2.4.2.1 Sample Size:
The sample size of 250 grams (each half
hour) represents one sample from 680 kg
of wet material entering the dryer during
each half-hour period. The weight of final
product from this amount of wet material
is about 226.5 kg every half hour (or 453
kg every hour, or 7.56 kg per minute).
250 grams is equal to about one-tenth of
one percent of the total dried product
made during each half-hour period.
However, only 15 grams of product is
actually tested. This means, that the
functioning of the process which produces
about 226.5 kg every half-hour is being
based on the results from a test on 15
grams, which is equivalent to about
0.007% of the finished product.
2.4.2.2 Sample Uniformity
There is no indication as to how uniform
or representative the sample really is.
Consider these questions:
Does the sample represent the overall
conditions of the product leaving the
dryer?
Was the sample taken from an overly wet
spot or an excessively dry spot?
Chapter 2: Page 6.
Did the dryer conditions fluctuate during
the time preceding the taking of the
sample?
How can anyone know what this “grab-
sample” truly represents?
What makes this situation even worse is
that the sampling frequency by the QC
lab may not detect the results of this
change for an additional period of time -
unless the process operator can have a
“special” sample taken for testing.

Even though all of these questions exist, Let’s examine what this process would
very few processors stop to think about look like on an actual timeline as shown in
the fact that they are basing the quality of Table 2.1 below.
their entire dried product on samples of
less than one one-hundredth of one
percent of their finished product. This is
a very risky position to take, to say the
least.

2.4.2.3 Sampling Interval and Timing

As stated above, during the thirty minutes

between samples, about 680 kg of wet
material will be feed into the dryer and
about 226.5 kg of dry product will be
produced. This is equivalent to about
7.56 kg of dried product per minute.

If the QC technician takes 20 minutes to

report the results of a moisture sample,
not only will the actual material tested be
“history” by that time, but an additional
151 kg of dried product would have left
the dryer by the time the operator gets
word of the moisture test results.

2.4.2.4 Process Response Time

If the process operator decides to make a

change to the dryer at the exact moment
he or she receives the moisture test
results, it will be an additional 25 minutes
before the full effects of that change can
be realized. During this 25 minute, about
189 kg of product will have passed
through the dryer and will have
experienced varying degrees of exposure
to the new drying conditions.

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Advanced Course in Food Dehydration and Drying Chapter 2: Page 7.

Table 2-1: Comments Regarding Sampling Timeline for Case Study Drying Process

Time Event Comments

3:00 pm Sam ple taken Sam ple tested represents about 0.007% of product
leaving dryer.

3:20 pm 3:00 pm results reported 151 kg of product have left dryer since sam ple was
(assum e results are okay) taken. Product represented by sam ple has been
out of dryer for 20 m inutes.

3:30 pm Sam ple taken

3:50 pm 3:30 pm results reported 151 kg of product have left dryer since sam ple was
(action is required) taken. Product represented by sam ple has been
out of dryer for 20 m inutes.

3:50 pm Dryer adjustm ents m ade

4:00 pm Sam ple taken This sam ple will have experience 15 m inutes of
original dryer conditions plus 10 m inutes of new
dryer conditions (assum ing changes were m ade to
entire length of dryer)

4:15 pm Product from 3:50 pm This is the first product to leave the dryer after
adjustm ent leaves dryer changes were m ade based on 3:30 pm sam ple.
340 kg of product have left the dryer since the 3:30
pm sam ple.

4:20 pm 4:00 pm results reported This sam ple is potentially m isleading as it has been
subjected to changing dryer conditions, but not
steady-state conditions.

4:20 pm Operator m ay be tem pted to Operator m ust m ake a judgem ent call based on
m ake adjustm ents. direction of response, but not the actual m oisture
value.

4:30 pm Sam ple taken This is the first sam ple that will include all of the
effects of the changes m ade to the dryer at 3:50
pm , which were based on the 3:30 pm sam ple. 454
kg of product have left the dryer since 3:30 pm .

4:50 pm 4:30 pm results reported This is the first true indication the operator will have
as to whether the 3:50 pm changes based on the
3:30 pm sam ple were effective. 605 kgof product
have now left the dryer since 3:30 pm .

5:00 pm Sam ple taken The trend continues.

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2.5 Process Control Mechanisms
2.5.1 Feed-Back Control
In the example discussed above, the
moisture of the product was monitored at
the end of the dryer as the finished
product left the dryer. The moisture
content of the product gave the process
operator an indication of what to do to the
dryer settings if action was required.
If the moisture of the finished product was
too high, the operator could turn up the
temperature of the heated air to provide
more drying capacity. This would
probably best be done at the start of the
dryer in the first zone (if indeed the dryer
did have separate zones). However, if
the material was sensitive to temperature,
the operator could reduce the amount of
wet material fed into the dryer, which
would reduce the amount of water the
dryer would have to remove in a given
period of time. The operator could
possibly even slow down the speed of the
dryer belt to increase the time the wet
material spent inside the dryer. This
would increase the thickness of the bed in
the dryer, which might create other
problems. The operator could even do a
combination of these things, if it was felt
to be warranted.
If the material leaving the dryer was too
dry, the operator would probably just
reduce the temperature of the heated air
going into the dryer to allow the moisture
levels to rise slightly.
When we monitor the moisture of the
product leaving the dryer and make
adjustments in the drying conditions
according to these moistures, we refer to
this as feed-back control. What we are
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Advanced Course in Food Dehydration and Drying
really doing is gathering information from
the end of the process and taking
corrective action by feeding this
information back to the drying process
that gave us these results in the first
place.
If the process was fully automated, a
moisture analyzer or detector would
automatically measure the moisture
content from the end of the process and
send this value to a computer that would
adjust the temperature of the air coming
into the dryer. Figure 2-3 shows a three-
zone dryer with feed-back control from a
moisture analyzer unit. The process
controller, or computer, is set up to open
or close valves on the gas lines to each of
the three drying zones. If more heat is
needed, the gas valves are opened
slightly more to allow more gas to get to
the burners and create a hotter flame to
warm the air more. If less heat is
needed, the valves are closed slightly to
allow less gas to get to the burners and
reduce the temperature of the air.
Chapter 2: Page 9.
2.5.2 Feed-forward Control
Now that we have looked at feed-back
control, we might want to consider the
fact that we are actually controlling the
process using results of things that have
already happened. We use moisture
readings from product that has already
gone through the dryer to adjust the
conditions in the dryer. Although this
method does work, it relies on possible
mistakes that you have made in the
drying process to tell you whether or not
you need to take corrective action. This
is a reactive approach, rather than a pro-
active approach.
From a personal perspective, you may
want to look ahead and anticipate
problems while you can still do things to
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Advanced Course in Food Dehydration and Drying
prevent them. Feed-back control only lets
us correct problems after they have
occurred. For this reason, we should take
a serious look at what is called feed-
forward control.
With feed-forward control in a drying
process, we look at the moisture of the
material going into the dryer rather than
product leaving it. If the feed to the dryer
is increasing in moisture, we know that
changes must be made to anticipate the
extra water going into the dryer. Changes
can be made to the temperature of the air
in the first drying zone as the wet product
begins to travel through the dryer. Once
the wet material has reached the end of
the first drying zone, conditions can be
changed in the second zone. Similarly,
as the wet material reaches the end of
Chapter 2: Page 10.
the second zone, conditions in the third
zone may be adjusted accordingly.
By not making changes to all three zones
in the dryer at the same time, we are not
going to “over process”, or “over-dry”, the
material that was already in the dryer
when the wet product started to enter the
dryer. Keep in mind that it may take thirty
or forty minutes for product to travel
through the complete length of the dryer.
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If feed material with a lower moisture than
normal is encountered, a similar
procedure can be used; except this time
temperatures would be reduced to allow
the product moisture to increase by the
desired amount.
Figure 2-4 shows how feed-forward
control would be used in relation with the
burners on a dryer.
Chapter 2: Page 11.
2.5.3 Combined Feed-forward and
Feed-back Control
Figure 2-5 shows a drying process set up
with both feed-forward and feed-back
control. In this highly instrumented
system, control is based on monitoring
the moisture of the incoming feed
material and the finished product
moisture. Knowing that there is a time
delay between the time the feed material
enters the dryer and the product from that
feed material leaves the dryer, it is
possible to set up a control program to
make adjustments to conditions in the
dryer.
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The moisture of the incoming feed
material would be the more important
control factor. As a result, the feed-
forward mechanism would be given the
most “power” in controlling the process.
and the feed-back control mechanism
would be given much less “power” in
making decisions as to what to do to
adjust conditions in the dryer. It is very
important that these two systems work
together and do not work against each
other. If the two control systems did not
work in harmony with each other, total
chaos could result inside the dryer.
Chapter 2: Page 12.
2.5.4 General Comment

We have used the moistures of feed

material and finished product as key
variables to show how feed-forward and
feed-back control work in a drying
operation. We have chosen air
temperature as the input variable to
control. We controlled the air
temperature by adjusting the flow of gas
as a fuel to the burners in the dryer.

It should be noted that these control

mechanisms are not just used with
dryers, and that moisture is not the only
processing variable that can be monitored
for controlling a process.

Different steps in different processes for

the manufacture of various products will
each have their own important input and
output variables that need to be
monitored and controlled. You, as a
process operator, must decide which are
the critical output variables to monitor and
which are the most important input
variables to control. Once you have
identified these items, you can work with
equipment suppliers to set up whatever is
necessary to accomplish the desired
objectives.

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