Early Vedic

-BY ABHINANDAN KAUL

The Aryan problem-

The issue of the origin of the Aryans and their relationship with the Harrapan cultures have not
always been treated as purely academic ones. They’ve had political implications, and have been
used for diverse political agendas, both in colonial and post colonial times. And inspite of
vigorous and often volatile debate spanning over 2 centuries, there still aren’t any definite
answers.

Polity-

Socio- Political Units-

The family books contain several terms for socio- political units, many of which were based on
kinship, like Vish meaning people in general or clan, Gana meaning lineage. During the Rig-
Vedic era, the basic unit of power lied within the patriachial family (Kula). The head of the
family was a “Kulapa”. A group of such families were called “Grama”, (Earlier understood as
village but now a mobile group of people who may or may not be related through kinship) which
was controlled by a village headman called “Gramini”. The groups of villages belonged to a
clan and many clans made a community called “Jana”

The Rig Veda mentions about 30 tribes and clans. Five tribes- the Yadu, Turvasha, Puru, Anu
and Druhyu- are collectively known as “five peoples” (Pancha- jana). The Purus and Bharatas
were 2 dominant tribes. Initially they were allies, but at some part they had fallen apart.

Concept Of King-

The word “Rajan” (or Raja) occurs many times in the family books of the Rig Veda. Since, a
full fledged monarchial state hadn’t yet emerged, this word is best translated as “Cheiftain” or
“Noble” rather than as “King”. It isn’t always clear from the hymns whether the “Rajan” was the
chief of a tribe, clan, clan segment or several clans. But his main task was to protect his people
and lead them to victory in war. The reference to the chieftain as “Gopa” or “Gopati” (Lord of
Cattle) indicates that protecting and increasing the cattle herd was his other major role. The
Royal priest accompanied the Rajan to battle, recited prayers and supervised the performance of
rituals. The importance of Royal priests such as Vashishtha and Vishvamitra are reflected in
many Vedic hymns. Talking about tribute, the word “Bali” refers to the tribute periodically
offered by the clansmen to the Rajan. Tribute was also extracted from clans defeated in battle.
However, a regular taxation system hadn’t emerged yet.

Assemblies-

The Rig Veda mentions assemblies such as the “Sabha” and the “Samiti”. The difference
between their functions isn’t entirely clear. The Sabha seems to have been a smaller, more elite
gathering which performed judicial functions. It was basically a kin- based assembly and women
called “Sabhavati” also attended this assembly, however this practice was stopped in the later
vedic age. The Samiti appears to have been a large assembly presided over by the Rajan and he
was elected and re- elected to the assembly. Such assemblies played an important role in the
redistribution of resources.Later, the Sabha became an aristocratic body and the Samiti ceased to
exist. Another form of assembly was the
“Vidhata”, which has been understood as a tribal assembly with diverse functions. However, it
actually seems to refer to a local congregation of people to perform socio- religious rituals and
ceremonies for well- being of the settlement.

The Vidhata is also frequently associated with women and women actively participated in
delirations with men.

Economy-

Cattle was clearly prized the most. RS. Sharma, has drawn attention to the many derivations of
the word “Gau” (Cow) in the Rig Veda. Words for war with infix gau- such as Gavishti, Goshu,
Gavya- suggest that many battles were in effect cattle raids. Further indications of the
importance of cattle are reflected in measures of time like “Gauhali” (Dusk), Samgava
(Morning), the tribal chief known as “Janasya Gopa”, etc. Some scholars have concluded that
while cattle rearing was one of overwhelming importance, agriculture was either a subsidiary
activity or one that was practiced by non- Indo Aryans. However, the frequency of usage in
religious texts and contexts may not be an accurate indicator of the relative importance of these
activities as apart from word frequencies it is necessary to examine the nature and content of
these references. RN. Nandi has mentioned many references to agricultural activity in the Rig
Veda and argues that by no means was it marginal. The words, “Vap” (To sow), “Krish” (To
cultivate) occur, along with references to various agricultural implements, like plough which
must’ve been made out of wood(Phala, langala). Further, there are also hymns that refer to the
leveling of fields for cultivation, desire for fertile fields as well as references to seed processing,
food prepared from cereals and large jars probably used for storing grain.
Hymns refer to barbers, warriors, priests, cattle- rearers, hunter, etc. The crafts mentioned are
chariot- making, carpentry, metal working, sewing, weaving, making mats out of grass, making
bows, etc. However, there are hardly any references to metallurgical activities, but the word
“Ayas” occurs in many contexts, like Indira’s thunderbolt made of ayas, the chariot of Varuna
made of ayas, and home of Indira and Soma made of ayas. Hence, some scholars have
interpreted the references to Ayas, metal objects, and mettulurgical activity in Rig Veda
indicative of iron artefacts and iron- working, but there isn’t any definite evidence that this was
so. “Ayas” could’ve meant copper, copper- bronze or a generic term for metals.

Trade in Rig Vedic context was probably minimal. Barter was the mode of exchange and cattle
an important unit of value. The word “nishka” seems to have meant a “piece of gold” or “gold
necklace” and there is no indication of the use of coins. There are prayers to Gods to give broad
paths to tavel, and ensure a safe journey. There are mentions of chariots drawn by oxen, mules,
horses, etc. Merchants were sometimes referred to as “Panis” and there are also references to
boats (nau) and the ocean (samudra). But most of these references are in Books 1 and 10 which
are later books and hence historians differ at whether the early composers of Vedas were familiar
with sea travel, let alone trade.

War booty was a major source of wealth (dhana). The references to wealthy people and those
worthy of attending assemblies suggest differences in wealth and rank. The Rajan and the
assemblies would’ve had a say in the redistribution of the booty and the Rajan and his immediate
kinsmen would’ve got a larger share. Moving on, the notion of private property ownership as we
understand it- associated with the right to buy, sell, gift and mortgage- did not exist. The clan as
a whole enjoyed rights over major resources as lands and herds.

The household was the basic unit of labour and there isn’t any mention of wage labour. The Rig
Veda also mentions slavery. A slave, male or female had no rights, power, autonomy or honor,
and were considered as the property of masters and were obliged to perform all kinds of services,
no matter how menial. Enslavement was in the course of war or as a result of debt. Slaves
usually worked in households and their labour weren’t significant in production- related
activities.

Culture-

There are about 300 clearly non- Indo- European words in the Rig Veda. These words show that
the Rig Vedic people were interacting with people speaking in Dravadian and other languages.
Further, there are many tribes with non- Indo- Aryan names in the Rig Veda like Dhuni,
Shambara, etc, as well as many chieftains with non- Indo- Aryan names. All of this is indicative
of cultural interactions.
Anthropological studies have brought out the importance of gift exchanges in the society. Such
exchanges may appear to be voluntary and spontaneous, but are actually strictly obligatory and
governed by conventions that have to be observed. It isn’t the individual, but groups (families,
clans, tribes) who made the exhchanges. Such exchanges are known as “Prestations” and don’t
only involve material goods, but also exchange of courtesies, entertainments, military assistance,
ritual, women, children, dances, etc. The gifts (bali) were received by the Rajan from the
members of the clan and Priests received “Dana” (ritual gifts) and “Dakshina” (sacrifitial fees).

The Rig Veda mentions food and drinks, clothes, leisure time pursuits of people. There are
references to the consumption of milk and milk products (ghee, butter, etc), grains, vegetables
and fruits as well as meat eating. The drink known as “Soma” consisted of the juice of the Soma
plant, mixed with milk, sour milk, and cereal. “Sura” seems to be an intoxicating drink made
from fermented grain.

People wore clothes of cotton, wool and animal skin and wore a variety of ornaments. There are
references to singing and dancing, and to musical instruments like the flute and drums. Chariot
racing and gambling were popular pastimes.

Society-

The word “Varna” occurs in many places and usually means light or colour. However, in some
passages it is associated with Aryas and Dasas. The Rig Veda describes them as a- vrata (people
who don’t obey ordinances or God) and a- kratu (those who don’t perform sacrifices). The
association of certain terms with them in the Rig Veda also indicates they were dark skinned. In
some places, Dasas have also been described as “Anasa”. This may mean either noseless (Flat-
nosed), mouthlesss (whose speech is incomprehensible) or faceless (some metaphor).

The words “Barahamana” and “Kshatriya” occur very frequently, but the term “Varna” is never
associated with them. They seem to have been a group who enjoyed respect, there are no
indications that membership was based on birth. The earliest reference to the division of the
society into four cateogaries occurs in the “Purusha- shukta” hymn of Book 10 of the Rig Veda
Samhita, but this belongs to the Later Vedic Period.

Many nationalists have exclaimed that the Vedic period was the Golden Age for women. They
pointed out that the Vedic people worshipped women goddesses, women participated in rituals
along with their husbands, there are references to women sages, etc. However, the experience of
women belonging to different groups in the society varies and its therefore necessary to break
down the category of “women” into more specific sub- categories based on rank, class,
occupation and age. In older writings, majority discussion was about elite women, ignoring the
less privileged women. Although there were female goddesses, the social implications of
worship of female Gods are complex, as it doesn’t automatically mean that real women enjoyed
power of privilege. Further, the proportion of hymns attributed to women in Rig Veda is very
small as is the number of women sages and there is no mention of women priests. This suggests
they had limited access to sacred learning. While women participated in sacrifices, they
performed them on behalf of their husbands and not in their own right, nor do they appear as
givers or receivers of dana or dakshina. The Vedic household was clearly patriarchal and women
had very little control over material resources. The Rig Veda had attached a lot of importance to
marriage, and refers to 3 types of marriage- monogamy, polygyny and polyandry. There was post
puberty marriage and sometimes women chose their husbands. A women could also remarry if
she lost her husband and there are references of unmarried women as well.

Later Vedic

Difference-
Compared to the Rig Vedic litreture, the Later Vedic litreture reveals greater complexity in political
organization, social life, and economic activities.

Economy-
Agriculture increases in importance. Cereals such as barley, wheat, rice are mentioned and there are
references to agricultural operations like sowing, ploughing, reaping and threshing. Land was occupied by
extended families, and the clan excercised rights over the land. The institution of private property hadn’t
yet emerged, the household was the basic unit of labour and slaves weren’t used for productive purposes
to any significant degree. Kings made generous gifts of cows, gold, chariots, etc to priests which are
indicative of the items that were valued as well as concentration of wealth in the hands of the rulers.

The earliest literary references to iron in the subcontinent are found in later vedic litreture. The terms
“Krishna ayas” and “Shayam- ayas” in the Yajur and Atharva Veda clearly refer to this metal. There are
also indications of iron used in agriculture. There reference to the smith in the Atharva Veda suggests
ploughshare was made of iron. In context of implements used in the ashvamedha sacrifice, iron has been
connected to peasantry.
Later Vedic texts also mention various kinds of artisans such as carpenters, chariot makers, bow and
arrow makers, metal workers, leather workers, potters, etc. Vocations mentioned also include physicians,
boatmen, barber, cook, hunter, etc. Wagons drawn by oxen were major mode of transport. Boats are
mentioned but it isn’t clear whether they were used for sea or riverine travel. The extent of trade isn’t
certain and exchange was still via barter.

Culture-
Later Vedic texts only indicate how sacred knowledge was imparted. Great importance was attached to
the relationship between the teacher and pupil and to the oral instructor. The leisure pastimes mentioned
in the later Vedic texts are similar to those in Rig Veda. Chariot racing and dicing were popular, as were
music and dancing.

As for food, people ate “Apupa” a cake mixed with ghee or made out of rice and barley. “Odana” was
made by mixing grain with milk, water, curd or ghee, seasame. “Karambha” was a porridge, made of
grain. Rice was sometimes fried, or cooked with milk and beans. Milk products such as butter, milk and
curd was consumed. Meat was eaten of special occasions honoring guests.

People wore woven cotton clothes. Clothes made of wollen thread are mentioned often. There is mention
of turbans and sandals.

Polity-
Later vedic texts indicate that the nature of political units was changing. While some communities
retained their tribal character, others . While some communities retained their tribal character, others were
making the transition towards statehood. Larger political units were formed through merging of tribes.
For instance, the Purus and Bharatas came together to form the Kurus. The emergence of a monarchial
state would’ve involved multiple processes of conflict, accommodation and alliances.

The supremacy of the Rajan was achieved by sidelining the rival claimants to power, establishing
coercive mechanisms and control over productive resources. Apart from monarchies, there were polities
where political power was in hand of assemblies and not kings. The Rajan like the Rig Vedic counterpart
was a leader in battle, but now he was also the protector of the people, settlements and the custodian of
the social order. Herediatary kingship was emerging and although there are a few references to eection of
king, these are probably a ratification to herediatary sucession.

The emergence of the Rajan as wielder of political power involved his distancing from his kinsmen. This
was emphasized in ritualized contests such as chariot race, game of dicing, etc. In earlier times, such
contests would’ve decided who was worthy of becoming the king, but now they were ritual enactments in
which the outcome- victory of the Rajan was predecided. Another source of Rajan’s increasing power was
his increasing control over productive resources. “Bali” which was a voluntary offering probably of
agricultural produce gradually became obligatory. However there wasn’t any clearly defined system of
taxation.

Later vedic texts also indicate a close relationship between king and his Purohita (Brahamana priest and
counselor). The King was seen as the feminine, subordinate party in this relatiohsip. The system of
administration seems to have been rudimentary. Kumkum Roy, has underlined the close relation between
emergence of monarchial system, the varna heairchy and structure of households. The grand “Shrauta”
sacrifice performed by the king legitimized his control over productive and reproductive resources of his
realm and similiary domestic sacrifices performed by the Grihapati legitimized his control over the
productive and reproductive resources of his household.

Society-
VARNA SYSTEM-

Later vedic texts indicate the beginning of a class structure in which social groups had different degrees
of access to productive resources. “Varna” was an ideology that justified this social differentiation from
the point of view of the elite. In dividing the society into 4 heredetary cateogaries, this ideology defined
social boundaries, status, roles, duties and purity. The Purusha- sukta hymn in Book 10 of the Rig Veda
Samhita, refers to 4 social groups – Brahamana, Rajanya (Kshatriya), Vaishya, and Shudra originating
from the body parts of a giant named “Purusha”. The Brahamana was at the top and the Shudra at the
bottom.

The duties and functions of the 4 varnas were ordained in the Dharamshashtras of later times. The
Brahamanas were endowed with luster (tejas) and had a high status in the heiarchy as they had to
perform sacrifices, study and teach the Vedas and had priviliges like honor, gifts, freedom from being
harassed or beaten. Kshatriyas were endowed with valour (Virya) and were connected with strength,
fame, ruling and warfare. Vaishya were endowed with procreative powers (Prajati) and associated with
material prosperity, animals, food production. The first 3 varnas were known as “Dvija” or “Twice born”,
those entitled to the performance of the “Upayana” ceremony. The Shudras were endowed with with
stability (Prashishtha), and had to serve the higher varnas and perform menial tasks. They couldn’t
perform vedic sacrifices.

The relationship of the Brahamana and Kshatriya was very complex. On one hand Later Vedic texts
exclaim that they had a close relationship, on the other hand the conflict between God Mitra and Varuna
has been seen as a symbolic conflict between the 2 varnas.

There were groups in the society who were considered even lower than the Shudras. These were the
slaves (dasas and dasis). Although there are no clear indications of practice of untochability, groups like
Chandals were looked down upon by the elites. Some non- Indo- Aryan groups also assimilated into the
hierarchy mostly at the lower stratas. Later Vedic texts mention forest people called “Nishadas”. They
also show emergence of the concept of mlechha, a category of various tribal groups and foreigners seen as
“outsiders”.
 HOUSEHOLD AND WOMEN

In later Vedic litreture, the household was called “Griha” and was headed by “Grihapati”. The Grihapati
had control over the productive resources of the household unit and reproductive potential of his wife
which was legitimized by the performance of sacrifices.

Marriage (vivaha) was important for the continuation of the patrilineage. Relations between husband and
wife and father and son were hierarchically organized. The productive resources of the household were
transferred to the son. Earliest of the texts give lists of 6-8 forms of marriage. The Later Vedic texts refer
to marriage by capture to a women choosing her husband. Polygyny was more prevalent. There was also a
practice of widow marrying her younger brother in law. The marriage ceremonies seem to have been
largely confined to the bride, groom and families.

Women are praised and exalted in some places in later Vedic texts, but at the same time excluded from
the study of the Vedas. Although presence of wives was required at the “Shrauta” sacrifices, they couldn’t
perform such sacrifices independently. Hence, in some crucial aspects, the status of women no matter
what her varna is, was similar to that of a Shudra. Later Vedic texts reflect the idea that menstrual blood is
polluting and dangerous. Women were clearly expected to conform to a docile role. They were expected
to please their husbands, deliver male children and never talk back to their husbands. The birth of
daughters was deplored and since it was only the son who could be the savior of the family. There are
references to women’s work too like milking cow, tending cattle, fetching water, etc. There were also
female weavers, bamboo splitters, dyers, etc. A few women like Gargi and Maitreyi also participated in
philosophical debates.

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