8/16/2011

EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKES
as observed in past earthquakes
& EARTHQUAKE - ORIGIN
LESSONS LEARNT

Yogendra Singh, Ph.D.

Department of Earthquake Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee

1
 8/16/2011

EFFECT ON GROUND

Uplifted sea floor at Cape Cleare, Montague Island, Prince William Sound, in the
area of greatest recorded tectonic uplift on land (33 feet). The very gently
slopping flat rocky surface with the white coating which lies between the cliffs and
the water is about a quarter of a mile wide. It is a wave cut surface that was below
sea level before the earthquake. The white coating consists of the remains of Uplifted dock on Hinchinbrook Island, Prince William Sound. Land in this area rose
calcareous marine organisms that were killed by desiccation when the wave cut about 8 feet during the earthquake, and the dock can now be used only at extremely
surface was lifted above the high tide during the earthquake. high tides.

The stumps in the foreground are part of an ancient forest on Latouche island,
Prince William Sound, that was submerged below sea level and buried in
prehistoric times. Tectonic uplift of 9 feet during the earthquake raised these
stumps above sea level once again, demonstrating that the area is tectonically
restless. Bhuj 2001

2
 8/16/2011

Close-up of Government Hill elementary school, which was A series of earthquake triggered landslides in glacial deposits disrupted almost a mile of
destroyed by the Government Hill landslide. Anchorage, Alaska. The Alaska Railroad main line at Potter Hill, near Anchorage. Alaska 1964_03_28

A subsidence trough (or graben) formed at the head of the "L" Street landslide in
Anchorage during the earthquake. The slide block, which is virtually unbroken ground to
the left of the graben, moved to the left. The subsidence trough sank 7 to 10 feet in
response to 11 feet of horizontal movement of the slide block. The volume of the trough
is theoretically equal to the volume of the void created at the head of the slide by
movement of the slide block. A number of houses seen in this photograph were undercut
or tilted by subsidence of the graben. Note also the collapsed Four Seasons apartment House displaced by compressional ridge formed at toe of L Street landslide Anchorage
building and the undamaged three story reinforced concrete frame building beside it, district. Cook Inlet region, Alaska. 1964.
which are on the stable block beyond the graben. Alaska 1964_03_28

Collapse of Fourth Avenue near C Street, Anchorage, due to earthquake caused

landslide. Before the earthquake, the sidewalk at left, which is in the graben, was at
street level on the right. The graben subsides 11 feet in response to 14 feet of horizonta
movement. Anchorage district, Cook Inlet region, Alaska. 1964. Andaman Earthquake of December 2004

3
 8/16/2011

Building tilted by ground failure caused by liquefaction,

Kobe earthquake
Liquefaction Kanto 1923

Buildings tilted by ground failure caused by liquefaction,

Nigata, Japan earthquake

Bhuj 2001

Bhuj 2001 Bhuj 2001

4
 8/16/2011

SITE SELECTION

8/16/2011
Bhuj 2001

SITE SELECTION FOUNDATIONS IN LIQUEFIABLE SOILS

8/16/2011 8/16/2011

FOUNDATIONS IN LIQUEFIABLE SOILS

DAMAGE TO BUILDINGS

8/16/2011

5
 8/16/2011

PLAN OF BUILDING PLAN OF BUILDING

Asymmetry should be
avoided.
Asymmetric buildings
undergo torsion.
Extreme corners are
subjected to very large
earthquake
h k forces
f

8/16/2011 8/16/2011

GENERAL SHAPE OF
GENERAL SHAPE OF BUILDINGS
BUILDINGS

Sudden change in lateral stiffness should be avoided

8/16/2011 8/16/2011

PROJECTIONS AND OVERHANGS PROJECTIONS AND OVERHANGS

8/16/2011 8/16/2011

6
 8/16/2011

PROJECTIONS AND OVERHANGS

Large overhangs,
projections and
floating columns
attract large
earthquake forces
and therefore
likely to damage/
collapse

8/16/2011
Pounding

Pounding Pounding

SEPARATION OF DISSIMILAR BUILDINGS DETAILS AT SEPARATION

(AT WALLS)

8/16/2011 8/16/2011

7
 8/16/2011

DETAILS AT SEPARATION DETAILS AT SEPARATION

(AT FLOORS) (AT ROOF)

8/16/2011 8/16/2011

BRACING ACTION OF STAIRCASE SEPARATED STAIRCASE

8/16/2011

SEPARATED STAIRCASE ENCLOSED STAIRCASE

8/16/2011 8/16/2011

8
 8/16/2011

ENCLOSED STAIRCASE BUILDINGS ON HILL SLOPES

8/16/2011 8/16/2011

Parapet Collapse Loma Prieta earthquake Parapet Collapse,

Klamath Falls,
Oregon Earthquake

Parapet Collapse,
Klamath Falls,
Oregon Earthquake

Falling Debris

9
 8/16/2011

ATTACHMENTS AND HEAVY MASS AT THE TOP BUILDINGS

OVERHANGS

8/16/2011 8/16/2011

HEAVY MASS AT THE TOP BUILDINGS

Water Tanks at Roof 8/16/2011

Buj Earthquake 2001

HEAVY MASS AT THE TOP BUILDINGS

Large water tanks
should be
avoided. Small
water tanks, if
provided, should
be properly
connected with DAMAGE TO
the framing
system. MASONRY BUILDINGS

8/16/2011

10
 8/16/2011

Drežniške ravne, 1998:

vertical cracks in the wall
Montenegro,
1979: cracks and
separation of
walls at the
corners

Budva, 1979: out-of-plane

collapse of perimetral walls

Bovec, 1998: temporary

suported buildings

Random rubble masonry

Budva, 1979: typical diagonal cracks in the piers

of a brick-masonry building 8/16/2011

11
 8/16/2011

Buj Earthquake 2001 Buj Earthquake 2001

Roof details THROUGH STONES IN RUBBLE

MASONRY

To avoid splitting of rubble masonry walls, through stones should be provided

in sufficient numbers
8/16/2011 8/16/2011

Roof details Roof details

8/16/2011 8/16/2011

12
 8/16/2011

Roof details

8/16/2011
Buj Earthquake 2001

SLOPING ROOFS SLOPING ROOFS

8/16/2011 8/16/2011

SLOPING ROOFS PITCHED ROOF TRUSS

Pitched roof should have tie members and bracings. It should

also be properly anchored to the walls

8/16/2011 8/16/2011

13
 8/16/2011

Brick masonry

8/16/2011
Buj Earthquake 2001

WALL JUNCTION IN RUBBLE MASONRY

Buj Earthquake 2001

8/16/2011

OPENINGS IN WALLS EARTHQUAKE BANDS AND VERTICAL

REINFORCEMENT

8/16/2011 8/16/2011

14
 8/16/2011

STRENGTHENING EARTHQUAKE BANDS IN TIMBER

AROUND OPENINGS

8/16/2011 8/16/2011

EARTHQUAKE BANDS IN RC

8/16/2011 8/16/2011
Buj Earthquake 2001

DESIRABLE CONFIGURATIONS

DAMAGE TO
RC BUILDINGS

8/16/2011

15
 8/16/2011

DESIRABLE CONFIGURATIONS DESIRABLE CONFIGURATIONS

8/16/2011 8/16/2011

DESIRABLE CONFIGURATIONS

Buj Earthquake 2001

8/16/2011

LACK OF SHEAR REINFORCEMENT

Buj Earthquake 2001

16
 8/16/2011

SHORT COLUMN EFFECT IN

FRAME BUILDINGS

Buj Earthquake 2001

8/16/2011

SHORT COLUMN EFFECT LACK OF CONFINING

Buj Earthquake 2001 Buj Earthquake 2001

17
 8/16/2011

Buj Earthquake 2001 Buj Earthquake 2001

Buj Earthquake 2001 Failure of Shear Wall

Failure of URM Infills Strut action of Infills

18
 8/16/2011

BUILDING WITH SOFT FIRST

STOREY

Strut action of Infills 8/16/2011

BUILDING WITH SOFT FIRST

STOREY

Buj Earthquake 2001

8/16/2011

URM Infills URM Infills

19
 8/16/2011

WEAK BEAM AND STRONG

CAPACITY DESIGN PHILOSOPHY COLUMN DESIGN

8/16/2011 8/16/2011

Andaman 2004 Andaman 2004

Flat Slab Damage to RC Buildings

20
 8/16/2011

IMPROPER SPLICING Corrosion

Pre-cast structures Pre-cast structures

Buckling
Flange local buckling

DAMAGE TO
STEEL BUILDINGS Lateral
torsional
buckling

Courtesy Stephen Mahin

Web local buckling

Courtesy MBDSI

21

Damage to steel MRF during the
1994 Northridge Earthquake
Damage to steel MRF during the
1994 Northridge Earthquake
• Column flange damage
Damage to steel MRF during the
1994 Northridge Earthquake
• Shear tab damage
8/16/2011
Damage to steel MRF during the
1994 Northridge Earthquake
Modes of damage observed through
surveys conducted by SAC – given in the
form of interim guidelines in FEMA 267
• Girder damage
Damage to steel MRF during the
1994 Northridge Earthquake
• Weld damages,defects & discontinuities
Damage to steel MRF during the
1994 Northridge Earthquake
• Panel zone damage
22
 8/16/2011

Improved connection designs post • Reinforced connections

northridge
• Two basic strategies (SAC/FEMA)
1. Reinforced connections
2. Reduced beam section (Dogbone) connections
(a) Cover plates (b) Welded flange plates

AIM- to move plastic hinge away from column

face so as to achieve good ductile behaviour
& avoid stress concentration at beam column
joints

(c)Straight haunch (d)Triangular haunch (e) Rib plates

How CBFs Resist Earthquakes Buckling of CBFs

1. Earthquake excites mass, causing

lateral inertial forces
2. Braces develop axial forces

3. Braces yield and/or buckle

Buckling of bracing members

(Northridge,1994)

Images courtesy Stephen Mahin

Buckling of CBFs Eccentrically Braced Frames

Link

Brace

Photo by Janise Rodgers

Beam

Image courtesy MBDSI

23
 8/16/2011

How EBFs Resist Earthquakes

Problems in Past Earthquakes

1. Earthquake excites mass, causing

lateral inertial forces
2 B
2. Braces d
develop
l axial
i l fforces

3. Ductile shear link forms plastic

shear hinge

Image courtesy MBDSI

Low ductility capacity presumed

Slide courtesy Stephen Mahin

Fracture Fracture

Courtesy Stephen Mahin

Courtesy Stephen Mahin Courtesy Stephen Mahin

Brittle Fracture Ductile Tearing

Fracture Fracture

Fractured link of EBF ( Christchurch, 2011)

24
 8/16/2011

Northridge Connection Fractures Northridge Weld Fracture

 Ranged from small cracks in
Fracture
welds to fracture of column Runoff
flange and web Tab Beam Flange
 Most common type of damage
was fracture of bottom beam
flange to column weld Backingg Bar
 Little or no evidence of plastic
deformation prior to fracture Column Beam flange
Northridge Collection, National Information Service for Earthquake Engineering
Column and web
Beam
Web Column
Column
flange
Fracture Backing bar

Courtesy Stephen Mahin

Fracture

Beam
Northridge Collection, National Information Service for Earthquake Engineering
Slide courtesy Multi-Hazard Building Design Summer Institute

EARTHQUAKE SAFETY OF OBJECTS

DAMAGE TO
BUILDING CONTENTS AND
SERVICES

EARTHQUAKE SAFETY OF OBJECTS

Northridge
Earthquake
1994

25
 8/16/2011

DAMAGE TO
HISTORICAL BUILDINGS
Buj Earthquake 2001

Buj Earthquake 2001

Buj Earthquake 2001

Buj Earthquake 2001

Water Tanks at Roof

Buj Earthquake 2001

26
 8/16/2011

DAMAGE TO
INDUSTRIAL STRUCTURES
AND EQUIPMENT

Industrial Structures
Buj Earthquake 2001

Buj Earthquake 2001

Buj Earthquake 2001

Buj Earthquake 2001 Buj Earthquake 2001

27
 8/16/2011

DAMAGE TO LIFELINES

Car Nicobar

Kobe

Earthquake-wrecked water main near Crystal Springs Reservoir in

San Mateo County. San Francisco 1906

Broken water mains on Valencia between Bhuj Earthquake 2001

18th and 19th streets. San Francisco 1906

28
 8/16/2011

Damage tto
D
Bridges

Bhuj Earthquake 2001

Bhuj Earthquake 2001 Bhuj Earthquake 2001

Bhuj Earthquake 2001 Bhuj Earthquake 2001

29
 8/16/2011

Bh j E
Bhuj Earthquake
th k
2001

Bhuj Earthquake 2001

 Due to flexure-shear failure of columns

Flexure-shear failure at pier midheight of Route 43/2 overpass

Bhuj Earthquake 2001 during 1995 Kobe earthquake

 Due to flexure-shear failure of columns

Flexure-shear failure above column base of columns of the

Hanshin Expressway during 1995 Kobe earthquake Bhuj Earthquake 2001

30
 8/16/2011

Bhuj Earthquake 2001 Bhuj Earthquake 2001

Bhuj Earthquake 2001 Bhuj Earthquake 2001

TSUNAMI

Bhuj Earthquake 2001

31
 8/16/2011

A picture of the 2004 tsunami in Thailand. Taken and made Public Domain by
12 sec before tsunami David Rydevik (email: skylark292 at gmail dot com ), Stockholm, Sweden.
According to David Rydevik (via email) the picture was taken at Ao Nang, Thailand.

A detail illustrating the violence of

the surge waves that struck
Whittier: man holds mounted tire
where wave has driven a piece of
wood through the tire. Alaska
1964_03_28

The waterfront at Seward a few months after the earthquake, looking north. Note the
"scalloped" shoreline left by the underwater landslides that severed tracks in the
railroad yard which dangle over the landslide scarp and the windrow-like heaps of
railroad cars and other debris thrown up by the tsunami waves. Alaska.

Trees up to 24 inches in diameter and between 88 and 101 feet above sea level were Maximum recession of tsunami waters at Kata Noi Beach, Phuket, Thailand, before the
broken and splintered by the surge wave generated by an underwater landslide in Port 3rd, and strongest, tsunami wave (sea visible in the right corner). (26 December 2004)
Valdez, Prince William Sound. Alaska 1964_03-28 Receding tsunami waters at Kata Noi Beach.

32
 8/16/2011

Car-Nikobar

Car-Nikobar

FIRES DUE TO
EARTHQUAKES

Car-Nikobar

THE 1923 TOKYO EARTHQUAKE

Close-up view of refugees fleeing along Grove Street.

The large clusters of refugees along the street suggest
they are involved in rescuing trapped persons.

33
 8/16/2011

Crowds gather at Market and Laguna streets to

flee the Great Fire. Building at lower center
right still survives as do along Laguna. Almost
all others pictured here burned.

Great Tokyo Fire Kanto 1923

Appraisers' Building looking along Sansome from Jackson to Washington

Street. This building was also known as the U.S. Custom House, and was
saved by the U.S. Army from the Great Fire. Surviving buildings in the
neighborhood were looted by the U.S.Army.
San Francisco 1906 San Francisco 1906

34