BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLE

Nutrient:
A chemical species actively taken up by
organisms & used to maintain its bodily
function.
Essential elements/bioelements:
C H O N P K Ca Mg S

Supply of bioelements are finite or

inexhaustible.
Speciation:
Have both biotic (within organisms) &
abiotic phase (geochemical/physical)
environment.
Continuation of cycles depends upon
sustained energy supply, provided by
 the sun
 internal energy of the earth
Important features: Biogeochemical cycles
are interlinked.
1. Oxygen in crust: present as silicate &
aluminosilicate minerals- based on
SiO4 tetrahedral unit, as water, O
containing non-silicate minerals- O2-
PO42- CO32- SO42-
2. Oxygen in the ocean; as H2O which
dissolved in small but significant
amount O2 silicate SiO44- sulfate,
NO3- & carbonate

SIGNIFICANCE OF PHASE 3. 3. Oxygen in atmosphere; complex

speciation involves O2 (20.95% by
Not the same for all cycles. vol of dry air), CO2 (0.03% vol dry
air), H2O (0.5-4% by vol of moist
NSCO
air), O3, oxides of S (SO2, SO3
– Transformation in biotic phase of great
collectively as SOx) sulfate (SO4),
significance.
oxides of N (NO, NO2 collectively
P Na K Mg NOx) & N2O & NO3-
– essentially geochemical (little change)
Oxygen in these reservoirs moves through 3
OXYGEN CYCLE separate cycles

 Biggest reservoir (lithosphere) 1. Rock cycle

 Biggest reservoir of free oxygen
2. Water cycle
(atmosphere)
3. Atmospheric oxygen cycle

Water Cycle
 1. as solvent & transport medium-
nutrients

2. Maintenance of world climate- by

trapping & redistributing solar E

3. Aerobic photosynthesis (CO2 

CHO)

Circulation of water through the

environment - water cycle/hydrological
cycle

Major reservoirs- oceans, atmosphere, ice,

land based (river, lake, ground water) Sulphur Cycle

Water transfer between reservoirs: Carbon Cycle

1. Translocation- surface runoff & wind Joins w other element to form compounds
necessary for life (sugars, starches, fats,
2. Changes in phase- evaporation proteins)
(transpiration & evapotranspiration) ,
Major constituent of living tissues.
condensation
Half of the total dry mass of living things.
The cycle is driven by solar E
- which absorption powers the key processes Regulating the Earth’s climate by controlling the
of evaporation & translocation by wind concentration of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere.
The bulk of evaporation- ocean
precipitation in ocean & land Allows carbon to be recycled and reused
throughout the biosphere and all of the
More water enter land via precipitation than organisms.
leave via evaporation
Carbon Pools
Earth’s Ocean Atmospher Terrestrial
Excess water run-off to ocean by rivers &
Crust e ecosystem
ground water seepage Carbon Mostly in In the form In the form of
stored in the form of CO2 , plants,
Human activity has little impact on sedimentary of methane and animals, soils
rocks and dissolve various other and
hydrological cycle hydrocarbo inorganic compounds. microorganism
ns carbon .
Fresh water extraction (for ground & river) (petroleum, stored at Most are
natural gas, great organic
have severe local consequences coal) depths carbon.
Carbon Flux Nitrogen Cycle

The movement of any material from one Used by living organisms to produce
place to another is called a flux. complex organic molecules like amino
acids, protein and nucleic acid.
Carbon flux is the transfer of carbon from
one pool to another. Found in the atmosphere (N2 gas) about 1
million times larger than the total N
Major Carbon Flux
Photosynthesis Land cover change contained in living organisms.
Absorption & Deforestation
combination of CO2 with Agricultural and Other major stores of N include OM in soil
water to from sugar. reforestration and oceans.
Plant respiration Geological process
Release water and CO2 Collectively convert C Important process in N Cycle:
as it uses glucose to into sedimentary rocks
generate energy. within the Earth’s crust.
The bound C would 1. N fixation
eventually be release to 2. Nitrification
the surface through 3. Denitrification
volcano eruption, uplift,
weathering and erosion. 4. N mineralization
Soil respiration Decay of animal and 5. N uptake
When OM in soil plant matters
6. Volatilization
decomposed, CO2 or Fungi and bacteria break
methane is released to down C compounds in 7. Immobilization
the atmosphere. dead animals and plants
to CO2 if O present, CH4 N Fixation
if O absent.
Litterfall Fossil fuel combustion N2 NH4+
Plant shed their leaves, Combustion of OM
root and branches, which oxidizes the C,
transfer carbon to soil. forming CO2.
 Non-biological
Ocean-atmosphere Burning of fossil fuels  Biological (e.g. bacteria)
exchange releases C into the
Inorganic C is absorbed atmosphere at a faster Biological N fixation is estimated to be
and release at the rate than it is removed.
twice as much as total N fixation by non-
interface of the ocean’s
surface and surrounding biological process.
air through the process of
diffusion. By bacteria that has form symbiotic
Dissolved CO2 react with association with plants or other organisms.
water and form H2CO3.
The formation of CO3
allow ocean to store Nitrification
large amount of C.
About 93% of the worlds NH3 or NH4+ NO2- NO3-
CO2 is stored the oceans.
Marine organism also Nitrate is the most plant available form of N,
use carbonate to build
shells.
but is also highly susceptible to leaching
losses. This is because nitrate ion has a
negative charge and therefore is not held by
soil particles (which has negative charge)
and so can be washed down the soil profile,
leading to decreased soil fertility and nitrate
enrichment of downstream surface and
groundwater.
Rapid nitrification occurs when the soil is
moist, well-aerated and warm (19-30 °C).
However, at temperature below 5 °C or
above 50 °C, the nitrification process would
almost stop.
Nitrification requires the presence of
oxygen, so nitrification can happen only in
oxygen-rich environments like circulating or
flowing waters and the very surface layers
of soils and sediments
Denitrification
Microbial facilitated process of nitrate
reduction.
Occurs when N is lost through the
conversion of nitrate to gaseous forms of N,
such as nitric oxide (NO), nitrous oxide
(N2O) and dinitrogen (N2) gas. This occurs
when the soil is saturated and the bacteria
use nitrate as an oxygen source.
Common in poorly drained soils.
N Mineralization
Organic N is converted to plant-available
inorganic forms and nitrate.
Dead organisms will be consumed by
bacteria and fungi, thus leads to
decomposition. The nitrogen contained
within the dead organism is converted to
ammonium and can be used by plants.
The ammonium can also be converted to
nitrate (another form of plant-available form
of nitrogen) through nitrification
Mineralization is a biological process.
Therefore the rates of mineralization vary
with soil temperature, moisture and the
amount of oxygen in the soil (aeration).
Mineralization readily occurs in warm (20-
35 °C), well-aerated and moist soils.
N Uptake
The ammonia produced by nitrogen fixing
bacteria is usually quickly incorporated into
protein and other organic nitrogen
compounds, either by a host plant, the
bacteria itself, or another soil organism.
Volatilization
Loss of N through the conversion of
ammonium to ammonia gas, which is
released to the atmosphere.
Increase at higher soil pH and conditions
that favor evaporation (e.g. hot and windy).
Volatilization losses are higher for manures
and urea fertilizers that are surface applied
and not incorporated (by tillage or by rain)
into the soil.
 Immobilization
Nitrate and ammonium are taken up by soil
organisms and therefore become unavailable
to crops.
5. Phosphorus in soil can end up in
Opposite of mineralization.
Temporarily locks up N. The organic N is
converted by mineralization and nitrification
to plant available nitrate.
4. Within the soil, organic forms of
phosphate can be made available to plants
by bacteria that break down organic matter
to inorganic forms of phosphorus (e.g.
H2PO4- or HPO42-, also known as
orthophosphate). This process is known as
mineralization.
waterways and eventually oceans. Once
there, it can be incorporated into sediments
over time.

Phosphorus Cycle

Does not include a gas phase; although

small amounts of phosphoric acid (H3PO4)
may make their way into the atmosphere,
contributing—in some cases—to acid rain.

Very little phosphorus circulates in the

atmosphere because at Earth’s normal
temperatures and pressures, phosphorus and
its various compounds are not gases.

The movement of P through the lithosphere,

hydrosphere and biosphere.

Steps in P Cycle

1. Rain and weathering cause rocks to release

phosphate ions and which is then
distributed in soils and water.
2. Plants take up inorganic phosphate from
the soil. The plants may then be consumed
by animals. Once in the plant or animal,
the phosphate is incorporated into organic
molecules such as DNA.
3. When the plant or animal dies, it decays,
and the organic phosphate is returned to
the soil
NITROGEN
Nitrogenous plant compenents: Nucleic acid
(vital for hereditary traits) & Chlorophyll
(photosynthesis)
Needed to utilize carbohydrates efficiently.
Stimulates root growth and development,
increasing nutrient uptake by plants.
How do plant utilize N?
1. Dominant N ions taken up by plants
are NH4+ and N03-.
2. Plants grow best when using one or
the other ions, however for some
species both ions in eual amount are
needed for growth.
3. Different plants are also able to use
other forms of N.
4. Sorghum and rice are efficient in
uptaking soluble protein N.
Volume of N in dry air: 78.09%
N from atmosphere (N2) input back in the
soil for the use of organisms.
N cycles via:
1. N fixation
2. Nitrification
3. Denitrrification
4. Mineralization
5. Immobilization Occur simultaneously in the soil.
Soil conditions affecting nitrification
Nitrifying bacteria are much sensitive to soil
conditions.
Affect Nitrisomonas and Nitrobacter
1. Availability of Oxygen
To make Nitrate and Nitrogen
Dioxide. Well aerated soil is
preferred. O is usually contained in
the solution phase of the soil.
2. Soil moisture
O supply is moderated by soil
moisture. Too much water inhibits
nitrification.
3. Temperature
Opt. Temp: 30-35 degree Celcius
Nitrification is low at temp below 5
In cold condition, may lead to
accumulation od Nitrogen dioxide in
the soil, toxic effect on plants.
4. Soil pH
Opt. pH: 7-8
Nitrification reduced when pH below
6 and above 8.
5. Pesticides and pollutant
High amount can slow down the
nitrification process, by changing the
mineralization-immobilization
process.
High heavy metal content supress N
mineralization.
6. Fluctuations in weather
Sudden increase in soil nitrate
production (irrigation of arid soil,
rain after dry season, aeration by
tillage).
 Rapid decomposition of dead
microbial cells previously killed in
the dry, hot season.
Too much N?
 Increase plant growth (Large but
weak structure)
 Plants topple over
 Plants mature slower, increasing
their vulnerability to pests attacks
and diseases.
 Fruits become less nutritious and low
in sugar.
 Nitrate can persist in soil and leaves
harming harming livestock and
humans.
 Environmental degradation and
downstream water basin.
The downside of N fertilizer
o Increase in N in coastal ecosystem
causes eutrophication.
o Causes massive algae bloom.
o Depletion of O – anoxia and hypoxia
o Massive kill – dead zones.
Nitrate in drinking water
 E.coli reduces nitrate to nitrite(NO2-)
 Nitrite ions are absorbed into blood
 Nitrite oxidized Fe2+ in haemoglobin
to Fe3+
 Combination of Hb + Fe3+
(methaemoglobin) decreases O2
carrying capacity of blood cells.
 Bluish skin & lips (25%)
 Fatal (60-85%)
Natural System
Antropogenic activities have contributed to
the amount and frequency of N introdeuced
into the hemisphere.
More N are being introduced by deposition
– high rainfall and fossil fuels
Internal N cycling in ecosystems are
complex, may not respond the way crop
system would.
This causes N saturation – forest ecosystem
are unable to retain N, causing soil
acidification, losses of Mg & Ca
Reduces tree growth and productivity of
aquatic ecosystems.
SOIL PHOSPHORUS & POTASSIUM
IMPORTANCE OF P:
o Component in ATP, DNA, RNA,
phospholipid.
o Adequate P ensures:
 Photosynthesis
 Fruiting
 Maturation
 Flowering
 N fixation
 Strengthens structural tissues
of plants
P DEFICIENT PLANTS:
o Stunted, thin stemmed, spindly
o Foliage dark, almost bluish green
o Delayed maturity
o Sparse flowering
o Poor seed quality
o Yellowing & senescence of leaves
o Develop purple color (pigmentation)
THE P CYCLE
1. Plants absorb P in the soil solution,
mainly as phosphate ions (HPO42-
and H2PO4-)
2. Soluble organic compounds are
taken up.
3. Chemical species of P dependent on
pH.
4. Acid soil: H2PO4-
Alkaline soil: HPO42-
5. Movement from soil solution to root
surface is slow.
6. Enhanced movement through
mycorrhizal fungi – hyphae
(network)
7. Plant shed leaves, roots dia, leaf
litter, wastes – returns P to soil.
8. Microbes decompose these residues.
9. Organic form P – slowly mineralized
to soluble form that plant and root
absorb.
10. Leaching generally slow, as P is not
loss in gas form.
11. Losses occur through plant removal,
erosion, P dissolved in surface runoff
water, leaching to groundwater.
ENHANCING P AVAILABILITY IN LOW
P SOILS
- Adjust application of fertilizer to suit
soil status
- Use pellets instead of powder (less
likely to undergo fixation reaction)
- Combine ammonium with P. Acidity
produced by oxidization of
ammonium ions and uptake of
excess cations as ammonium keeps
phosphate as a more soluble
compound.
- Cycle OM – use residues/prunnings
from P efficient plants.
- Proper liming to maintain soil pH.
- Inoculate with appropriate fungi
POTASSIUM IN SOIL (K)
Present in soil as cation K+
Does no from gases that could be lost to
atmosphere.
Behaviour influenced by cation exchange
properties and mineral weathering.
Not toxic, does not cause eutrophication, no
offsite environmental problems when it
leaves the soil system.
Act as activator in cell enzymes in plant cell
and animal.
Lower osmotic water potential – reducing
water loss from leaves
Plants adapt better to environmental stresses
Enhances quality of flowers, fruits and
vegetables – improving flavour, color and
strengthening stems.
K deficiency in plants
 Reduced drought tolerance
 Foliar symptoms such as chlorotic
(yellowish) margins on leaves
 K usually mobile in plant,
translocated from older to younger
tissue when supply become
insufficient
 Yellow and die (necrosis)
 Tear in leaf edges
 Small, white necrotic spots
K cycle Light addition – less waste, less luxury
consumption
1. Original source of K are mineral
(mica & potassium feldspar) Return plant residues
2. Plants take up large quantities of K
in the soil solution
3. K in soil: leached from rainfall, plant
residues, animal waste
4. K loss: erosion, runoff water,
leaching into ground water

K problems in soil

1. Large proportion of K is unavailable

to plants.
2. Removal of K by plants is high
3. K is subject to leaching losses

The easily exchangeable condition at any

one time is very small

Plants uptake more K than needed – termed

luxury consumption

Types of K in soil

 Primary mineral structure

(unavailable)
 None exchangeable K in secondary
mineral (slowly available)
 Exchangeable K on soil colloids
(readily available)
 K+ soluble in water (readily
available)

K management

Problem: Rate of transformation, from

unavailable to availabel form

Little plant removal – cycling of K between

plant and soil is adequate

If plant removed – add fertilizer