Lesson 5:

Training

5.1 Overview
There is both a direct and an indirect link between training and business strategy and goals.
Training can help employees develop skills needed to perform their jobs, which directly affects
the business. Giving employees opportunities to learn and develop creates a positive work
environment, which supports the business strategy by attracting talented employees as well as
motivating and retaining current employees.
Why do many other companies believe that an investment in training can help them gain a
competitive advantage? Training can

 Increase employees‘ knowledge of foreign competitors and cultures,

which is critical for success in foreign markets.
 Help ensure that employees have the basic skills to work with new
technology, such as robots and computer-assisted manufacturing processes.
 Help employees understand how to work effectively in teams to contribute
to product and service quality.
 Ensure that the company‘s culture emphasizes innovation, creativity, and
learning.
 Ensure employment security by providing new ways for employees to
contribute to the company when their jobs change, their interests change, or their
skills become obsolete.
 Prepare employees to accept and work more effectively with each other,
particularly with minorities and women.
In this lesson, we emphasize the conditions through which training practices can help
companies gain competitive advantage and how managers can contribute to effective training
and other learning initiatives
5.2 Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 Explain the role of the manager in identifying training needs and supporting training on
the job.
 Determine the steps in conducting needs assessment
 Evaluate employees‘ readiness for training
 Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of presentation, hands-on, and group training
methods
 Explain the potential advantages of e-learning for training.
 Design a training session to maximize learning

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5.3 Course Materials
TOPIC 1: Designing Effective Formal Training Activities

A key characteristic of training activities that contribute to competitiveness is that they

are designed according to the instructional design process. Training design process refers to
a systematic approach for developing training programs. Instructional System Design (ISD) and
the ADDIE model (analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation) are two
specific types of training design processes you may know.

Stage 1 is to assess needs to determine if training is needed. Stage 2 involves ensuring

employees have the readiness for training, and they have the motivation and basic skills to
master training content. Stage 3 addresses whether the training session (or the learning
environment) has the factors necessary for learning to occur. Stage 4 is to ensure that trainees
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apply the content of training to their jobs. This requires support from managers and peers for the
use of training content on the job as well as getting the employee to understand how to take
personal responsibility for skill improvement. Stage 5 involves choosing a training method.
The training design process should be systematic yet flexible enough to adapt to business
needs. Different steps may be completed simultaneously. Also feedback from each stage in the
training progress can be useful for the other stages.
NEEDS ASSESSMENT
The first step in the instructional design process, needs assessment, refers to the process used
to determine if training is necessary. Figure 7.3 shows the causes and outcomes resulting from
needs assessment. As we see, many different ―pressure points‖ suggest that training is
necessary. These pressure points include performance problems, new technology, internal or
external customer requests for training, job redesign, new legislation, changes in customer
preferences, new products, or employees‘ lack of basic skills as well as support for the
company‘s business strategy (e.g., growth, global business expansion).

Needs assessment typically involves organizational analysis, person analysis, and task
analysis.14 Organizational analysis considers the context in which training will occur. That is,
Organizational Analysis involves determining the business appropriateness of training, given
the company‘s business strategy, its resources available for training, and support by managers
and peers for training activities.
Person analysis helps identify who needs training. Person Analysis involves (1) determining
whether performance deficiencies result from a lack of knowledge, skill, or ability (a training
issue) or from a motivational or work-design problem; (2) identifying who needs training; and (3)
determining employees‘ readiness for training.
Task Analysis includes identifying the important tasks and knowledge, skills, and behaviors
that need to be emphasized in training for employees to complete their tasks.

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ORGANIZATIONAL ANALYSIS
Three factors need to be considered before choosing training as the solution to any pressure
point: (1) the support of managers and peers for training activities, (2) the company‘s strategy,
and (3) the training resources available.
Support of Managers and Peers
Various studies have found that peer and manager support for training is critical. The key
factors to success are a positive attitude among peers and managers about participation in
training activities; managers‘ and peers‘ willingness to tell trainees how they can more
effectively use knowledge, skills, or behaviors learned in training on the job; and the availability
of opportunities for the trainees to use training content in their jobs. If peers‘ and managers‘
attitudes and behaviors are not supportive, employees are not likely to apply training content to
their jobs.
Company Strategy
Table 7.1 shows possible strategic initiatives and their implications for training practices. It is
important to identify the prevailing business strategy and goals to ensure that the company
allocates enough of its budget to training, that employees receive training on relevant topics,
and that employees get the right amount of training.

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Training Resources
It is necessary to identify whether the company has the budget, time, and expertise for training.
Table 7.2 provides examples of questions to ask vendors and consultants to help evaluate
whether they can meet the company‘s training needs.
PERSON ANALYSIS
Person analysis helps the manager identify whether training is appropriate and which
employees need training. In certain situations, such as the introduction of a new technology or
service, all employees may need training. However, when managers, customers, or employees
identify a problem (usually as a result of a performance deficiency), it is often unclear whether
training is the solution.
A major pressure point for training is poor or substandard performance—that is, a gap between
employees‘ current performance and their expected performance. Poor performance is
indicated by customer complaints, low performance ratings, or on-the-job accidents or unsafe
behavior.
From a manager‘s perspective, to determine if training is needed, for any performance problem
you need to analyze characteristics of the performer, input, output, consequences, and
feedback. How might this be done? You should ask several questions to determine if training is
the likely solution to a performance problem.

TASK ANALYSIS
A task analysis, which we defined earlier in the chapter, identifies the conditions in which
tasks are performed. The conditions include identifying equipment and the environment the
employee works in, time constraints (deadlines), safety considerations, or performance
standards,
A job is a specific position requiring the completion of specific tasks. A task is a
statement of an employee‘s work activity in a specific job.

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ENSURING EMPLOYEES’ READINESS FOR TRAINING
The second step in the training design process is to evaluate whether employees are ready for
training. Readiness for Training refers to employee characteristics that provide employees
with the desire, energy, and focus necessary to learn from training. The desire of the trainee to
learn the content of a training program is referred as motivation to learn.
Motivation to learn influences mastery of all types of training content, including knowledge,
behavior, and skills. Managers need to ensure that employees‘ motivation to learn is as high as
possible.
CREATING A LEARNING ENVIRONMENT
Learning permanently changes behavior. For employees to acquire knowledge and skills in the
training program and apply this information in their jobs, the training program must include
specific learning principles. Educational and industrial psychologists and instructional design
specialists have identified several conditions under which employees learn best.
ENSURING TRANSFER OF TRAINING

Transfer of training refers to on-the-job use of knowledge, skills, and behaviors learned in
training. If no learning occurs in the training program, transfer is unlikely.

Manager Support
Manager support refers to the degree to which trainees‘ managers (1) emphasize the
importance of attending training programs and (2) stress the application of training content to
the job.

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An action plan is a written document that includes the steps that the trainee and manager will
take to ensure that training transfers to the job. The action plan includes (1) a goal identifying
what training content will be used and how it will be used (project, problem); (2) strategies for
reaching the goal, including resources needed; (3) strategies for getting feedback (such as
meetings with the manager); and (4) expected outcome (what will be different?). The action plan
includes a schedule of specific dates and times when the manager and trainee agree to meet to
discuss the progress being made in using learned capabilities on the job.
Peer Support
Transfer of training can also be enhanced by creating a support network among the trainees. A
support network is a group of two or more trainees who agree to meet and discuss their
progress in using learned capabilities on the job.
This could involve face-to-face meetings or communications via e-mail, Twitter, or other social
networking tools. Trainees can share successful experiences in using training content on the
job; they can also discuss how they obtained resources needed to use training content or how
they coped with a work environment that interfered with use of training content.
Opportunity to Use Learned Capabilities
Opportunity to use learned capabilities (opportunity to perform) refers to the extent to which the
trainee is provided with or actively seeks experience with newly learned knowledge, skill, and
behaviors from the training program. Opportunity to perform is influenced by both the work
environment and trainee motivation.
Technological Support: Performance Support and Knowledge Management Systems
Performance support systems are computer applications that can provide, as requested, skills
training, information access, and expert advice. Performance support may be used to enhance
transfer of training by giving trainees an electronic information source that they can refer to as
needed as they attempt to apply learned capabilities on the job.
Knowledge management systems often include Communities of Practice. Communities of
practice are groups of employees who work together, learn from each other, and develop a
common understanding of how to get work accomplished.
Self-Management Skills
Training programs should prepare employees to self-manage their use of new skills and
behaviors on the job. Specifically, within the training program, trainees should set goals for
using skills or behaviors on the job, identify conditions under which they might fail to use them,
identify the positive and negative consequences of using them, and monitor their use of them.
Also, trainees need to understand that it is natural to encounter difficulty in trying to use skills on
the job; relapses into old behavior and skill patterns do not indicate that trainees should give up.
Finally, because peers and supervisors on the job may be unable to reward trainees using new
behaviors or to provide feedback automatically, trainees need to create their own reward system
and ask peers and managers for feedback.
Similarly, if employees do learn, transfer of training will not occur if the work environment does
not support or actively discourages applying what was learned.

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SELECTING TRAINING METHODS

A number of different methods can help employees acquire new knowledge, skills, and
behaviors. Figure 7.5 provides an overview of the use of training methods across all size
companies. The instructor-led classroom still remains the most frequently used training method.
However, it is important to note that the use of online learning, mobile learning, social learning,
and use of blended learning, i.e., a combination of approaches, for training continues to
increase. Expectations are that this trend with continue.

Presentation Methods
Presentation methods refer to methods in which trainees are passive recipients of information.
Presentation methods include traditional classroom instruction, distance learning, and
audiovisual training. They can include the use of personal computers, smartphones, and tablet
computers such as iPads.
Instructor-Led Classroom Instruction. Classroom instruction typically involves having the
trainer lecture a group. In many cases the lecture is supplemented with question and-answer
periods, discussion, or case studies. Traditional classroom instruction is one of the least
expensive, least time consuming ways to present information on a specific topic to many
trainees.
Distance learning is used by geographically dispersed companies to provide information about
new products, policies, or procedures as well as skills training and expert lectures to field
locations. Distance learning features two-way communications between people. First, it can
include teleconferencing. Teleconferencing refers to synchronous exchange of audio, video,
and/or text between two or more individuals or groups at two or more locations.
Second, distance learning can include a virtual classroom. A third type of distance learning also
includes individualized, personal-computer– based training. Employees participate in training

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anywhere they have access to a personal computer. This can also include Webcasting, which
involves face-to-face instruction provided online through live broadcasts.
The major disadvantage of distance learning is the potential for lack of interaction between the
trainer and the audience. To help ensure distance learning is effective, a high degree of
interaction between trainees and the trainer is necessary. That‘s why establishing a
communications link between employees and the trainer is important. Also, on-site instructors or
facilitators should be available to answer questions and moderate question-and-answer
sessions.
Audiovisual Training. Audiovisual training includes overheads, slides, and video. It has been
used for improving communications skills, interviewing skills, and customer service skills and for
illustrating how procedures (such as welding) should be followed. Video is, however, rarely used
alone. Learners may not be required to attend a class. They can work independently, using
materials in workbooks, DVDs, or on the Internet.
Hands-On Methods

Hands-on methods are training methods that require the trainee to be actively involved in
learning. Hands-on methods include on-the-job training, simulations, business games and case
studies, behavior modeling, interactive video, and web-based training.
ON-THE-JOB TRAINING (OJT)

Peers or managers training new or inexperienced employees who learn the job by observation,
understanding, and imitation.
Apprenticeship is a work-study training method with both on-the-job training and classroom
training. Apprenticeships can be sponsored by individual companies or by groups of companies
cooperating with a union. The majority of apprenticeship programs are in the skilled trades, such
as plumbing, carpentry, electrical work, and bricklaying
One disadvantage of apprenticeship programs is that there is no guarantee that jobs will be
available when the program is completed. Another disadvantage is that employers may not hire
apprentices because they believe apprentices are narrowly trained in one occupation or with
one company, and program graduates may have only company specific skills and may be
unable to acquire new skills or adapt their skills to changes in the workplace.
An Internship is on-the-job learning sponsored by an educational institution or is part of an
academic program. Students are placed in paid positions where they can gain experiences
related to their area of study.
Simulations. A simulation is a training method that represents a real-life situation, with
trainees‘ decisions resulting in outcomes that mirror what would happen if the trainee were on
the job. Simulations, which allow trainees to see the impact of their decisions in an artificial, risk-
free environment, are used to teach production and process skills as well as management and
interpersonal skills. Simulations are used for training pilots, cable installers, and call center
employees.
Avatars refer to computer depictions of humans that are being used as imaginary coaches, co-
workers, and customers in simulations. Typically, trainees see the avatar who appears
throughout the training course.

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A way to enhance simulations is through Virtual Reality. Virtual Reality is a computer-based
technology that provides trainees with a three-dimensional learning experience. Using
specialized equipment or viewing the virtual model on the computer screen, trainees move
through the simulated environment and interact with its components. Technology is used to
stimulate multiple senses of the trainee.
Business Games and Case Studies. Situations that trainees study and discuss (case studies)
and business games in which trainees must gather information, analyze it, and make decisions
are used primarily for management skill development.
Behavior Modeling. Research suggests that behavior modeling is one of the most effective
techniques for teaching interpersonal skills. Each training session, which typically lasts four
hours, focuses on one interpersonal skill, such as coaching or communicating ideas.
E-Learning. E-Learning, computer-based training (CBT), online learning, and web-based
training refer to instruction and delivery of training by computer through the Internet or the web.
Online learning, e-learning, and web-based training all include delivery of instruction using the
Internet or web. The training program can be accessed using a password through the public
Internet or the company‘s private intranet.
Effective e-learning is grounded on a thorough needs assessment and complete learning
objectives. Repurposing refers to directly translating an instructor-led, face-to-face training
program online.
Massive open online courses (MOOCs) are a new type of e-learning. Massive Open Online
Courses (MOOCs) is online learning designed to enroll large numbers of learners who have
access to the Internet, and composed of interactive coursework including video lectures,
discussion groups, wikis, and assessment quizzes.
Social Media. Social media refer to online and mobile technology used to create interactive
communications allowing the creation and exchange of user-generated content.
Blended Learning. Because of the limitations of e-learning related to technology, because of
trainee preference for face-to-face contact with instructors and other learners. Blended
learning refers to combining technology methods, such as e-learning or social media, with face-
to-face instruction, for delivery of learning content and instruction.
Learning Management System. Learning Management System (LMS) refers to a
Technology platform that automates the administration, development, and delivery of a
company‘s training program.
Group- or Team-Building Methods
Group- or Team Building Methods Training are techniques that help trainees share ideas
and experiences, build group identity, understand the dynamics of interpersonal relationships,
and get to know their own strengths and weaknesses and those of their co-workers.
Experiential Programs. Experiential programs are training programs in which trainees gain
knowledge and theory, participate in behavioral simulations, analyze the activity, and connect
the theory and activity with on-the-job situations.
Adventure learning, a type of experiential program, develops teamwork and leadership skills
using structured outdoor activities. Adventure learning appears to be best suited for developing
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skills related to group effectiveness, such as self-awareness, problem solving, conflict
management, and risk taking.
Team Training. Team training coordinates the performance of individuals who work together
to achieve a common goal. Such training is an important issue when information must be
shared and individuals affect the overall performance of the group. Team training strategies
include cross-training and coordination training.
Cross-Training, team members understand and practice each other‘s skills.
Coordination Training, trains the team in how to share information and decisions.
Team leader training refers to training the team manager or facilitator. This may involve
training the manager how to resolve conflict within the team or help the team coordinate
activities or other team skills.
Action Learning. In Action Learning teams or work groups get an actual business problem,
work on solving it and commit to an action plan, and are accountable for carrying out the plan.
Typically, action learning involves between 6 and 30 employees; it may also include customers
and vendors.
Action learning is often part of quality improvement processes such as Six Sigma training and
Kaizen. Kaizen, the Japanese word for improvement, Practices participated in by employees
from all levels of the company that focus on continuous improvement of business processes.

TOPIC 2: Advice for Choosing a Training Method

Given the large number of training methods available to you, this task may seem difficult. One
way to choose a training method is to compare methods.
The first step in choosing a method is to identify the type of learning outcome that you want
training to influence. These outcomes include verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive
strategies, attitudes, motor skills, or some combination. Training methods may influence one or
several learning outcomes.
Second, comparing the presentation methods to the hands-on methods illustrates that
most hands-on methods provide a better learning environment and transfer of training than do
the presentation methods.
A final but important consideration is the training budget. If you have a limited budget for
developing new training methods, use structured on-the-job training—a relatively inexpensive
yet effective hands-on method. If you have a larger budget, you might want to consider hands-
on methods that facilitate transfer of training, such as simulators.
EVALUATING TRAINING PROGRAMS

Training evaluation can provide useful information including the program‘s strengths and
weaknesses, identifying which learners benefited most and least from participating, determining
the program‘s financial benefits and costs, and allowing the comparison of the benefits and
costs of different programs.

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Examining the outcomes of a program helps in evaluating its effectiveness. These outcomes
should be related to the program objectives, which help trainees understand the purpose of the
program.
Training Outcomes can be categorized as cognitive outcomes, skill-based outcomes, affective
outcomes, results, and return on investment.

Which training outcomes measure is best? The answer depends on the training objectives.
Evaluation Designs
As shown in Table 7.8, a number of different evaluation designs can be applied to training
programs. In general, designs that use pre-training and post-training measures of outcomes and
include a comparison group reduce the risk that factors other than training itself are responsible
for the

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evaluation results. This builds confidence to use the results to make decisions.
Many companies are interested in determining the financial benefits of learning, including
training courses and programs and development activities. One way to do this is by determining
Return on Investment (ROI). Return on Investment (ROI) refers to the estimated dollar return
from each dollar invested in learning.
Determining the Financial Benefits of Learning

To make an ROI analysis follow these steps:

1. Identify outcomes (e.g., quality, accidents).
2. Place a value on the outcomes.
3. Determine the change in performance after eliminating other potential influences on
training results.
4. Obtain an annual amount of benefits (operational results) from training by comparing
results after training to results before training (in dollars).
5. Determine the training costs (direct costs + indirect costs + development
costs + overhead costs + compensation for trainees).
6. Calculate the total savings by subtracting the training costs from benefits (operational
results).
7. Calculate the ROI by dividing benefits (operational results) by costs. The ROI gives
an estimate of the dollar return expected from each dollar invested in training.
TOPIC 3: Special Training Issues
To meet the competitive challenges of sustainability, globalization, and technology, companies
must successfully deal with several special training issues. The special training issues include
preparing employees to work in different cultures abroad, managing workforce diversity, and
socializing and orienting new employees.
CROSS-CULTURAL PREPARATION
Companies today are challenged to expand globally. Because of the increase in global
operations, employees often work outside their country of origin or work with employees from
other countries.
An Expatriate works in a country other than his or her country of origin. The most frequently
selected locations for expatriate assignments include the United States, China, Africa, and
India.
Cross-Cultural Preparation is the process of educating employees (and their families) who are
given an assignment in a foreign country
Steps in Cross-Cultural Preparation

To succeed overseas, expatriates (employees on foreign assignments) need to be:

1. Competent in their areas of expertise.
2. Able to communicate verbally and nonverbally in the host country.
3. Flexible, tolerant of ambiguity, and sensitive to cultural differences.
4. Motivated to succeed, able to enjoy the challenge of working in other countries, and
willing to learn about the host country‘s culture, language, and customs.
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 5. Supported by their families.
Predeparture Phase

Before departure, employees need to receive language training and an orientation to the new
country‘s culture and customs. It is critical that the family be included in orientation programs.
Expatriates and their families need information about housing, schools, recreation, shopping,
and health care facilities in the areas where they will live.
Cross-cultural training methods include presentational techniques, such as lectures that
expatriates and their families attend on the customs and culture of the host country, immersion
experiences, or actual experiences in the home country in culturally diverse communities.
On-Site Phase

On-site training involves continued orientation to the host country and its customs and cultures
through formal programs or through a mentoring relationship. Expatriates should be encouraged
to develop social relationships both inside and outside of the workplace.
Repatriation Phase

Repatriation prepares expatriates for return to the parent company and country from the foreign
assignment. Expatriates and their families are likely to experience high levels of stress and
anxiety when they return because of the changes that have occurred since their departure.
MANAGING WORKFORCE DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION
Diversity can be considered any dimension that differentiates a person from another.

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Inclusion refers to creating an environment in which employees share a sense of belonging,
mutual respect, and commitment from others. Inclusion allows companies to capitalize not only
on the diversity of their employees but also on their customers, suppliers, and community
partners.
Diversity Training refers to learning efforts that are designed to change employee attitudes
about diversity and or/develop skills needed to work with a diverse workforce.
Managing Diversity And Inclusion involves creating an environment that allows all employees
to contribute to organizational goals and experience personal growth. This environment includes
access to jobs as well as fair and positive treatment of all employees.

TOPIC 4: Onboarding and Socialization

Onboarding, or socialization, refers to the process of helping new hires adjust to social
and performance aspects of their new jobs. This is important to help employees adjust to their
jobs by establishing relationships to increase satisfaction, clarifying goals and expectations to
improve performance, and providing feedback, coaching, and follow-up activities to reduce
turnover.

Effective onboarding does include understanding mundane tasks such as completing tax forms
and knowing how to complete time sheets or travel reimbursement forms. Table 7.10 shows the
characteristics of effective onboarding programs. Effective onboarding programs actively involve
the new employee.

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