DLD - Lec 2

University of Engineering and Department of Computer
Technology, Taxila Science, UET Taxila
Digital Logic & Design

Dr. Farrukh Zeeshan Khan
September 27, 2017 Department of Computer Science, UET Taxila 1

Outline
• Basic Definitions of Algebra
• Axiomatic Definitions of Boolean Algebra
• Basic Theorems and Properties of Boolean Algebra
• Boolean Function
• Canonical and Standard Forms
• Other logic Operations
• Digital Logic Gates

Basic Definitions of
Algebra

Basic Definitions
• The most common postulates used to formulate various algebraic
structures are:
1. Closure: N={1,2,3,4…}, for any a,b  N we obtain a unique c  N by
the operation a+b=c. Ex:2−3= −1 and 2,3  N, while (−1)  N.
2. Associative law: A binary operator * on a set S is said to be associative
whenever
(x * y) * z = x * (y * z) for all x, y, z,  S
3. Commutative law:
x * y = y * x for all x, y  S

Basic Definitions (cont.)
4. Identity element: e is identity element which belongs to S.
e * x = x * e = x for every x  S
Ex: x + 0 = 0 + x = x for any x  I={…,−2, −1, 0, 1, 2,…}
x*1=1*x=x
5. Inverse: In the set of integers, I, with e = 0
x * y = e ; a + (−a) = 0
−a and y are inverse elements
6. Distributive law: If * and . are two binary operators on a set S, * is said
to be distributive over . Whenever
x * (y . z) =(x * y) . (x * z)
Basic Definitions (cont.)
• The operators and postulates have the following meanings:
– The binary operator + defines addition.
– The additive identity is 0.
– The additive inverse defines subtraction.
– The binary operator . defines multiplication.
– The multiplicative identity is 1.
– The multiplicative inverse of a = 1/a defines division, i.e.,
a . (1/a) = 1
– The only distributive law applicable is that of . over +:
a . (b + c) = (a . b) + (a . c)

Axiomatic Definition
of Boolean Algebra

Axiomatic Definition of Boolean Algebra
• Boolean Algebra defined by a set of elements B and two binary operators + and ‧ has
the following postulates:
• Postulate 1: (Closure)
(a) The structure is closed with respect to the operator +.
(b) The structure is closed with respect to the operator ‧.
• Postulate 2: (identity element)
(a) The element 0 is an identity element with respect to +.
0+x = x+0 = x
(b) The element 1 is an identity element with respect to ‧.
1‧x = x‧1= x

(c0nt.)
• Postulate 3: (Commutative)
(a) The structure is communicative with respect to +.
x+y = y+x
(b) The structure is communicative with respect to ‧.
x‧y = y‧x
• Postulate 4: (distributive)
(a) The operator ‧is distributive over +
x‧(y+z)=(x‧y)+(x‧z)
(b) The operator + is distributive over‧
x+(y‧z)=(x+y)‧(x+z)

(c0nt.)
• Postulate 5: (Complement elements)
For every element x  B, there exists an element x'  B (complement of x) such
that
(a) x+x'=1
and
(b) x‧x'=0.
• Postulate 6:
There exist at least two elements x, y  B such that x ≠ y.

Comparing Boolean algebra with arithmetic
and ordinary algebra
1. Huntington postulates don’t include the associative law, however, this holds for
Boolean algebra.
2. The distributive law of + over . is valid for Boolean algebra, but not for ordinary
algebra.
3. Boolean algebra doesn’t have additive and multiplicative inverses; therefore, no
subtraction or division operations.
4. Postulate 5 defines an operator called complement that is not available in ordinary
algebra.
5. Ordinary algebra deals with the real numbers. Boolean algebra deals with the as
yet undefined set of elements, B, in two-valued Boolean algebra, the B have two
elements, 0 and 1.

Two-Valued Boolean Algebra
• Definition: A two-valued Boolean algebra is defined on a set of two
elements, B= {0,1}, with rules for the two binary operators + and ‧as
shown in the following operator tables, exactly the same as AND, OR ,
and NOT operations, respectively.
• The rules of operations defined by postulate 2.

(c0nt.)
• Postulate 1: The structure is closed with respect to the two operators is obvious from
the tables since the result of each operation is either 1 or 0 and {1, 0}  B.
• Postulate 2: From the table, we see that
0+0 = 0 0+1 = 1+0=1;
=> Two identity elements
1‧1 = 1 1‧0 = 0‧1= 0
• Postulate 3: The communicative laws are obvious from the symmetry of the binary
operator tables.
September 27, 2017 x . ( y + z )=(x . y) + (x . z) 13

(c0nt.)
• Postulate 4: The distributive law can be shown to hold from the truth table of all
possible values of x, y, and z.
• Postulate 5: Complement
x+x‘ = 1: since 0+0‘ = 0+1 = 1 and 1+1‘ = 1+0 =1
x‧x‘ = 0: since 0‧0‘ = 0‧1 = 0 and 1‧1‘ = 1‧0 = 0
• Postulate 6: Has two distinct elements 1 and 0, with 0 ≠ 1
• Note
– A set of two elements
– + : OR operation; ‧: AND operation
– A complement operator: NOT operation
– Binary logic is a two-valued Boolean algebra

Basic theorems and properties
of Boolean algebra

Basic theorems and properties of Boolean
algebra
• If the binary operators and the identity elements are interchanged, it is
called the duality principle. We simply interchange OR and AND
operators and replace 1’s by 0’s and 0’s by 1’s.
• The theorem 1(b) is the dual of theorem 1(a) and that each step of the
proof in part (b) is the dual of part (a).
• Duality
– The binary operators are interchanged; AND  OR
– The identity elements are interchanged; 1  0

Postulates and Theorems

Basic Theorems
• Basic Theorems: proven by the postulates of table 2-1 as shown above.
• Theorem 1(a): x + x = x
= (x + x) . 1 by postulate 2(b)
= (x + x) . (x + x’) 5(a)
= x + xx’ 4(b)
=x+0 Duality 5(b)
=x 2(a)
• Theorem 1(b): x . x = x
=x.x+0 by postulate 2(a)
= xx + xx’ 5(b)
= x (x + x’) 4(a)
=x.1 5(a)
September 27, 2017
=x Department of Computer Science, UET Taxila
2(b) 18
(c0nt.)
• Theorem 2(a): x + 1 = 1
x + 1 = 1 (x + 1)
= (x + x')(x +1)
= x + x'1
= x + x‘ = 1
• Theorem 2(b): x ‧0 =0
– By duality
• Theorem 3: (x')'= x
– Postulate 5 defines the complement of x, x + x' = 1 and x‧x' = 0
– The complement of x' is x is also (x')'

(c0nt.)
• Theorem 6(a): x + xy = x
= x . 1 + xy by postulate 2(b)
= x (1 + y) 4(a)
= x (y+1) 3(a)
=x.1 2(a)
=x 2(b)
• Theorem 6 (b): x(x+y) = x
– By duality
• The theorems of Boolean algebra can be shown to hold true by means of truth tables.
September 27, 2017 20

Department of Computer Science, UET Taxila
(c0nt.)
• DeMorgan's Theorems:
(x+y)' = x' y'
(x y)' = x' + y‘
• The operator Precedence for evaluating Boolean expression is:

1. Parentheses
2. NOT
3. AND
4. OR
Boolean Functions

Boolean Functions
• Consider the following
Boolean function:
F1 = x + y’z
• A Boolean function can be
represented in a truth
table.
• The binary combinations for
the truth table obtained by
counting from 0 through
2n-1 are [0~7(2n-1)].
Simplification of the algebraic
• There is only one way to represent Boolean function in a truth
table.
• In algebraic form, it can be expressed in a variety of ways.
• By simplifying Boolean algebra, we can reduce the number of
gates in the circuit and the number of inputs to the gate.

Before simplification
of Boolean function
• Consider the following
Boolean function:
F2 = x’y’z + x’yz + xy’
• This function with logic gates
is shown in Fig. 2-2(a)
• The function is equal to 1
when xyz = 001 or 011 or
when xyz = 10x .

After simplification of
Boolean function
• Simplify the following
Boolean function:
F2 = x’y’z + x’yz + xy’
= x’z (y’+ y) + xy’
= x’z + xy’
• In 2-2 (b), would be
preferable because it
requires less wires and
components.
Equivalent
F2 = x’y’z + x’yz + xy’(primitive)
F2=1 when xyz=001 or 011 or
when xy=10x
F2 = x’z + xy’ (simplified)
F=1 when xz=01 or
when xy=10
• Since both expression produce the
same truth table, they are said to be
equivalent.
Algebraic Manipulation
• To minimize Boolean expressions
– literal: a primed or unprimed variable (an input to a gate)
– term: an implementation with a gate
– The minimization of the number of literals and the number
of terms => a circuit with less equipment

Example 2.1
1. x(x’ + y) = xx’ + xy = 0 + xy = xy
2. (x + x’)(x + y) = xx + xy + xx’ + x’y = x + xy + 0 + x’y = x + y(x + x’)
=x+y
3. x’y’z + x’yz + xy’ = x’z(y’ + y) + xy’ = x’z + xy’
4. xy + x’z + yz = xy + x’z + yz(x + x’)
= xy + x’z + xyz + x’yz
= xy(1 + z) + x’z(1 + y)
= xy + x’z.
5. (x + y)(x’ + z)(y + z) = (x + y)(x’ + z), by duality from function 4.
• Function 5 can be derived from the dual of the steps used to derive function
4.
• Functions 4 and 5 are known as the consensus theorem.
Some more examples
a. xy + xy' = x(y + y') = x
b. (x + y)(x + y') = xx + xy’ + xy + yy' = x + x(y + y’) + 0 = x + x = x
c. (A + B)'(A' + B') = (A' . B')(A . B) = (A’ . B')(B . A) = A'(B'BA) = 0
d. xyz' + x'yz + xyz + x'yz' = xy(z + z') + x'y(z + z') = xy + x'y = y(x + x’)
=y
e. (x + y + z')(x' + y' + z) = xx' + xy' + xz + x'y + yy' + yz + x'z' + y'z' +

zz' = xy' + xz + x'y + yz + x'z' + y'z' = x⊕y + (x⊕z)’ + (y⊕z)’
Examples (c0nt.)
a. ABC + A'B + ABC' = AB(C + C’) + A'B = AB + A'B = B
b. x'yz + xz = (x'y + x)z = z(x + x')(x + y) = z(x + y)
c. (x + y)'(x' + y') = x'y'(x' + y') = x’x’y’ + x’y’y’ = x’y’ + x’y’ = x'y'
d. (BC' + A'D)(AB' + CD') = BC'AB' + BC'CD' + A'DAB' + A'DCD' = 0

Examples (c0nt.)
a. A'C' + ABC + AC' = C' + ABC = (C + C')(C' + AB) = AB + C'
b. (x'y' + z)' + z + xy + wz = (x'y')'z' + z + xy + wz =[ (x + y)z' + z] +

xy + wz = = (z + z')(z + x + y) + xy + wz = z + wz + x + xy + y =
z(1 + w) + x(1 + y) + y = x + y + z
c. ABCD + A'BD + ABC'D = ABD + A'BD = BD

Your turn :p
• Simplify the following Boolean expressions to a minimum number of literals:
a. xyz + x'y + xyz‘
b. (x + y' + z')(x' + z')
c. xy + x(wz + wz')
d. A'B(D' + C'D) + B(A + A'CD)
e. (A' + C)(A' + C')(A + B + C'D)

Solution
a. xyz + x'y + xyz' = xy(z + z') + x'y = xy + x'y = y
b. (x + y' + z')(x' + z') =xx' + xz' + x'y' + y'z' + x'z' + z'z' = z' + y'(x' + z')
c. xy + x(wz + wz') = x(y +wz + wz') = x(w + y)
d. A'B(D' + C'D) + B(A + A'CD) = B(A'D' + A'C'D + A + A'CD) = B(A'D' + A +
A'D(C + C') = B(A + A'(D' + D)) = B(A + A') = B
e. (A' + C)(A' + C')(A + B + C'D) = (A' + CC')(A + B + C'D) = A'(A + B + C'D) =
AA' + A'B + A'C'D = A'(B + C'D)

Complement of the function
• Complement Procedures:
– An interchange of 0's for 1's and 1's for 0's in the value of F
– By DeMorgan's theorem
– Take the dual of the function and complement each literal
• Generalizations
(A+B+C+ ... +F)' = A'B'C' ... F'
(ABC ... F)' = A'+ B'+C'+ ... +F'

Complement of the function (examples)
• Ex 2-2: Find the complement of the function
(a) F1=x’yz’+ x’y’z

F1’= (x’yz’+ x’y’z)’ by applying DeMorgan’s theorem.
=(x’yz’)’. (x’y’z)’
=(x + y’+ z)(x + y + z’)
(b) F2 = x(y’z’ + yz)
F2’ = [x(y’z’ + yz)]’ by applying DeMorgan’s theorem.
= x’ + (y’z’ + yz)’
= x’ + (y’z’)’. (yz)’
= x’ + (y + z)(y’ + z’)
= x’ + yz’ + y’z
Examples (c0nt.)
• Ex2-3: Find the complement of the function
(a) F1=x’yz’+ x’y’z by taking their dual and complementing each literal.
The dual of F1 is (x’+y+z’)(x’+y’+z)
Complement each literal: (x+y’+z)(x+y+z’)=F1’
(b) F2= x(yz + yz) by taking their dual and complementing each literal.
The dual of F2 is x + (y + z)(y + z).
Complement each literal: x + (y + z)(y + z) = F2’

Canonical and Standard forms

Canonical and Standard forms
• Minterms
– A minterm (also called a standard product): an AND term consists of all
literals in their normal form or in their complement form
– For example, two binary variables x and y,
– xy, xy', x'y, x'y'
– N variables has 2n minterms
• Maxterms
– A maxterm (also called a standard sum): an OR term
– For example, two binary variables x and y,
– x+y, x+y', x‘+y, x‘+y'
– N variables has 2n maxterms
• A sum of minterms or product of maxterms are said to be in canonical
form.
Minterms & Maxterms
• Each Maxterm is the complement of its corresponding Minterm, and vice versa.

Canonical Forms
• A Boolean function can be expressed by a truth table/sum of minterms
• f1 = x'y'z + xy'z' + xyz = m1 + m4 +m7 =S(1, 4, 7)
• f2 = x'yz+ xy'z + xyz'+xyz = m3 + m5 +m6 + m7 =S(3, 5, 6,7)

Canonical Forms
• The complement of a Boolean function
• Find the terms that produce a 0
f1' = m0+ m2 +m3+ m5 + m6
= x'y'z'+x'yz'+x'yz+xy'z+xyz'
• f1= (f1')‘
= (x+y+z)(x+y'+z)(x+y'+z')(x'+y+z')(x'+y'+z)
= M0M2 M3M5M6
• Any Boolean function can be expressed as
– A sum of minterms
– A product of maxterms
– Both are called “canonical form”
Sum of Minterms
• From a truth table can express a minterm for each combination of the variables that
produces a1 in a Boolean function, and then taking the OR of all those terms.
• Ex.2-4: Express the Boolean function F = A + B’C in a sum of minterms.
A  lost two variables
A = A(B+B’) = AB + AB’  still missing one variable
A = AB(C + C’) + AB’(C + C’)
=ABC + ABC’+ AB’C + AB’C’
B’C  lost one variable
B’C = B’C(A + A’) = AB’C + A’B’C
• Combining all terms
F = A’B’C+ AB’C’+AB’C+ABC’+ABC
= m1+m4+m5+m6+m7
• Convenient expression
F(A, B, C) = Σ(1, 4, 5, 6, 7)
• Table 2-5 is a directly derivation by using truth table. 43
Product of Maxterms
• Ex.2-5: Express the Boolean function F= xy + x’z in a product of maxterm form.
• using distributive law  F = xy + x’z =(xy+x’)(xy+z)
= (x + x’)(y + x’)(x + z)(y + z)
= (x’+ y)(x + z)(y + z)
• Each OR term missing one variable
x’+ y = x’+ y + zz’= (x’+ y + z)(x’+ y + z’)
x + z = x + z + yy’= (x + y + z)(x + y’+ z)
y + z = y + z + xx’= (x + y + z)(x’+ y + z)
• Combining all the terms
F = (x + y + z)(x + y’+ z)(x’+ y + z)(x’+ y + z’)
= M0M2M4M5
• A convenient way to express this function
September 27, 2017 F(x, y, z) = Π(0, 2 , 4, 5) 44
Conversion between canonical forms
• Boolean expression: F = xy + x’z
• sum of minterms is
F(x, y, z) = Σ(1, 3, 6, 7)
• Since have a total of eight minterms or
maxterms in a function of three variable.
• product of maxterms is
F(x, y, z) = Π(0, 2, 4, 5)
• To convert from one canonical form to
another, interchange the symbols Σ and Π
and list those numbers missing from the
original form.
• mj' = Mj
• sum of minterms = product of maxterms
• Σ of 1's
•September
Π of 0's
27, 2017 Department of Computer Science, UET Taxila 45
Standard forms
• Another way to express Boolean functions is in standard form.
1. Sum of products(SOP):
F1 = y’+ xy + x’yz’
2. Product of sums(POS):
F2 = x(y’+ z)(x’+ y + z’
September 27, 2017 Two-level implementation 46

Standard forms
• Multi-level implementation
F3= AB+C(D+E)=AB+CD+CE
• F3 is a non-standard form, neither in SOP nor in POS.
• F3 can change to a standard form by using distributive law and
implement in a SOP type.
September 27, 2017 47

Multi-level implementation
Other Logic Operations

• There are 2 power 2n functions for n binary variables, for two variables,
n=2, and the possible Boolean functions is 16. see tables 2-7 and 2-8.
Operations
• 16 functions of two binary variables


Function categories
• The 16 functions listed in table 2-8 can be subdivided into three
categories:
1. Two functions that produce a constant 0 or 1.
2. Four functions with unary operations: complement and transfer.
3. Ten functions with binary operators that define eight different
operations: AND, OR, NAND, NOR, exclusive-OR, equivalence, inhibition,
and implication.
• complement: inverter
• transfer: buffer (increasing drive strength)
• equivalence: XNOR
Digital
logic gates
• The graphic
symbols and
truth tables of
the gates of
the eight
different
operations
are shown in
Fig.

Digital
logic gates
(c0nt.)

Extension to multiple inputs
• In previous logic gates figures, except for the inverter and
buffer, can be extended to have more than two inputs.
• The AND and OR operations possess two properties:
commutative and associative.
x + y = y + x (commutative)
(x + y) + z = x + (y + z) (associative)

Non-associativity of the NOR operator
• NAND and NOR are commutative but not associative.
=> they are not extendable

Cascade of NAND gates
• Multiple NOR = a complement of OR gate
• Multiple NAND = a complement of AND
• The cascaded NAND operations = sum of products
• The cascaded NOR operations = product of sums

XOR gate property
• The XOR and equivalence gates are both commutative and associative and can be extended to
more than two inputs.
• XOR is an odd function: it is equal to 1 if the inputs variables have an odd number of 1's
• The three inputs XOR is normally implemented by cascading 2-input gates.

Positive and negative logic
• We assign to the relative amplitudes of
the two signal levels as the high-level and
low-level (Fig.2-9).
1. High-level (H): represent logic-1 as a
positive logic system.
2. Low-level (L): represent logic-0 as
negative logic system.
• It is up to the user to decide on a positive
or negative logic polarity between some
certain potential.

Integrated circuits
• An integrated circuit(IC) is a silicon semiconductor crystal, called chip,
containing the electronic components for constructing digital gates.

Levels of integration
• Small-scale integration(SSI): the number of gates is usually fewer
than 10 and is limited by the number of pins available in the IC.
• Medium-scale integration(MSI): have a complexity of
approximately 10 to 1000 gates in a single package, and usually
perform specific elementary digital operations.
Ex. Adders, multiplexers…(chapter 4), registers,
counters(chapter6)

Levels of integration
• Large-scale integration(LSI): contain thousands of gates in a single
package.
Ex. Memory chips, processors.
• Very large-scale integration(VLSI): contain hundred of thousands of
gates within a single package.
Ex. Large memory arrays and complex microcomputer chips.

Digital logic families
• The circuit technology is referred to as a digital logic family.
• The most popular circuit technology:
• TTL: transister-transister logic: has been used for a long time and is
considered as standard; but is declining in use.
• ECL: emitter-coupled logic: has high-speed operation in system; but is

declining in use.
• MOS: metal-oxide semiconductor: has high component density.

Fan out & fan in
• CMOS: has low power consumption, essential for VLSI design, and
has become the dominant logic family.
• Fan out specifies the number of standard loads that the output of a
typical gate can drive without impairing its normal operation.
• Fan in is the number of inputs available in a gate.

Power dissipation & Propagation delay &
Noise margin
• Power dissipation is the power consumed by the gate that must
be available from the power supply.
• Propagation delay is the average transition delay time for the

signal to propagate from input to output.
• Noise margin is the maximum external noise voltage added to

an input signal that does not cause an undesirable change in the
circuit output.
Computer-Aided design (CAD)
• The design of digital systems with VLSI circuits are very complexity
to develop and verify with using CAD tools.
• We can choose between an application specific integrated circuit

(ASIC), a field-programmable gate array (FPGA), a programmable
logic device (PLD), or a full-custom IC.
• HDL is an important development tool in the design of digital

systems.

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University of Engineering and Department of Computer

Technology, Taxila Science, UET Taxila

Digital Logic & Design

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• The operator Precedence for evaluating Boolean expression is:

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b. (x + y)(x + y') = xx + xy’ + xy + yy' = x + x(y + y’) + 0 = x + x = x

c. (A + B)'(A' + B') = (A' . B')(A . B) = (A’ . B')(B . A) = A'(B'BA) = 0

e. (x + y + z')(x' + y' + z) = xx' + xy' + xz + x'y + yy' + yz + x'z' + y'z' +

b. x'yz + xz = (x'y + x)z = z(x + x')(x + y) = z(x + y)

c. (x + y)'(x' + y') = x'y'(x' + y') = x’x’y’ + x’y’y’ = x’y’ + x’y’ = x'y'

d. (BC' + A'D)(AB' + CD') = BC'AB' + BC'CD' + A'DAB' + A'DCD' = 0

September 27, 2017 Department of Computer Science, UET Taxila 31

b. (x'y' + z)' + z + xy + wz = (x'y')'z' + z + xy + wz =[ (x + y)z' + z] +

c. ABCD + A'BD + ABC'D = ABD + A'BD = BD

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(a) F1=x’yz’+ x’y’z

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September 27, 2017 Two-level implementation 46

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