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k CONTENT k INTRODUCTION
DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY
k Introduction
D John Dalton (1808) proposed matter to be composed
k Sub Atomic Particles
of small indivisible particles called atoms, which
k Atomic Models are assumed to be structureless particles.
k Isotopes, Isobars, Isotones, Isodiaphers, D This concept of structureless particles could not
Isoelectronic species explain how atoms are different for different
k Electro Magnetic theory & Plank’s Quantum Theory elements and why atoms of differnet elements
combine with one another.
k Photo Electric Effect
D However by the end of 19th century it was
k Atomic spectrum - Hydrogen spectrum discovered that atoms consist of subatomic particles
k Bohr’s Atomic Model such as electrons, protons and neutrons.
D The word atom is derived from greek word
k Dual Nature of Matter and Light, Deberoglie’s
ATOMIO which means indivisible or uncutable.
Theory
D The term atom was proposed by John Dalton.
k Heisenberg Uncertainity Principle
D Matter is made up of molecules and molecules are
k Quantum Mechanical Model of Atom made up of atoms.
k Quantum Numbers
k Shapes of Orbitals & Calculation of Nodes
k Electronic Configuration

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D Atoms are fundamental building blocks of matter.
D The matter is made of small indivisible particles
called atoms, which can take part in chemical
reactions.
D The atoms of the same element are identical in size,
mass and in other properties in all respects.
D Atoms of different elements differ from each other
in their properties and masses.
Properties of Cathode Rays :
D Atoms of different elements can combine in simple
D The cathode rays move from cathode to anode.
ratios to form compounds.
D These rays are invisible but their behaviour can be
D Atoms can be neither created nor destroyed.
observed with the help of fluorescent or
Merits of Dalton’s theory : phosphorescent materials, which glow when hit by
D Dalton’s theory is able to explain law of them.
conservation of mass, law of constant composition D These rays travel in straight lines in the absence of

and law of multiple proportions. electric and magnetic field.

D In the presence of electric field they are deflected towards
Drawbacks of Dalton’s theory: anode and in magnetic field towards south pole.
D It failed to explain the internal structure of atoms D Cathode rays contain negatively charged particles
D It could not explain how atoms of different elements called electrons.
differ from one another and combine with one D The nature of cathode rays is found to be

another. independent of nature of the cathode material and

nature of the gas in the tube.
D It failed to explain the experiments like when glass
D Hence electrons are considered as constituent
or ebonite rubbed with silk or fur generate
particles of all atoms.
electricity.
Charge to mass ratio of Electron (e/m) :
SUB ATOMIC PARTICLES D The charge to mass ratio is known as specific charge
D Atom consists of smaller particles like electron, J.J.Thomson measured e/m ratio of the electron
proton, neutron, neutrino, anti neutrino, positron based on following points.
antiproton, pions and measons etc... D Greater the magnitude of the charge on the particle
greater is the deflection when electric and magnetic
D Electron, Proton and Neutron are considered as
field is applied.
fundamental particles of atom.
D Lighter the mass of the particle greater will be the
Electron-discovery deflection.
D Electron was discovered by J.J.Thomson. D The deflection of electrons from its original path
increases when voltage increases.
D The name eletctron was proposed by Stoney.
D From the above points J.J.Thomson was able to
D The discharge tube is a sealed tube,made of glass determine the value of charge to mass ratio.
containing two thin metal plates called electrodes. Ž
  Œ   ˜›  Œ 
D During the discharge tube experiment “Crookes” –
observed that rays were found to pass from
negatively charged plate (cathode) to positively
charged plate (anode).
D The electrical discharge through the gases could be
observed only at very low pressures (0.01mm of
Hg) and at very high voltages(10000 V).
D The rays emitted from cathode are called cathode
rays.
D Cathode rays are stream of electrons.

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D As the velocity of the electron increases, the specific D In this, oil droplets which are in the mist form were
charge of the electron decreases due to the increase allowed to enter through a tiny hole in the upper
of relative mass of the electron. plate of electrical condenser.
D The mass of a moving electron may be calculated D The downward motion of these droplets was
by applying the formula viewed through the telescope, equipped with a
–
micrometer eye piece.
– D In chamber, the forces acting on oil drop are
 gravitational, electrostatic due to electrical field and
 
 a viscous drag force when the oil drop is moving.
Where m0 = rest mass of electron D By measuring the rate of fall of these droplets,
v = velocity of the electron Millikan was able to measure the mass of oil
C = velocity of light droplets.
D If v = C, mass of the moving electron becomes D The air inside the chamber was ionized by passing
a beam of X-rays through it.
infinity.
D The electrical charge on these oil droplets was
D The value of e/m of cathode rays is independent of
acquired by collisions with gaseous ions.
the nature of the metal forming the cathode and
D The fall of these charged oil droplets can be
the gas used in the discharge tube.
retarded, accelerated or made stationary depending
D This shows that electrons are universal constituents
upon the charge on the droplets and the polarity
of all matter
and strength of the voltage applied to the plate.
- Note : e/m value of ions w.r.t. H-atom D By carefully measuring the effects of electrical field
–Š—’žŽ ˜ Œ‘ Š› Ž ›Ž•Š’ŸŽ Œ‘ Š› Ž strength on the motion of oil droplets.

–Šœœ —ž–‹Ž› ›Ž•Š’ŸŽ –Šœœ —˜ D Millikan concluded that the magnitude of electrical
charge ‘q’ on the droplets is always an integral
EXAMPLE - 1 multiple of the electrical charge ‘e’ that is q = ne,
Find the e/m value of a -particle (He +2) w.r.t. where n = 1,2,3......
H-atom?
EXAMPLE - 2

Sol. e/m valueof
Ž   An oil drop has 8.0 ´ 10–19C charge. How many
electrons does this oil drop has?
Charge of Electron : Sol.Charge on the oil drop =  

D The charge of electron is the smallest known 
Charge on the electron=  
electrical charge. It is taken as unit negative charge.
we know that q = ne,
D Millikan determined the charge of the electron by
an oil drop experiment. š  
—  
D Charge on the oildrops was always an integral Ž  

multiple of   .
EXAMPLE - 3

Ž    In an oil drop experiment, the charges on oil drops
–Ž     ”
Ž –Ž  Œ”  were found as 1.5 × 10 –15, 3×10 –15 , 4.5×10 –15 ,
Millikan’s Oil Drop experiment : 6.0×10–15.Calculate the magnitude of the charge
Charged plate (+) on the electron.
Oil droplets
Sol.The magnitude of charge should be smallest &
other charges should be integral multiples of that
Small hole smallest charge(q=ne). So in the problem,the
Atomizer
smallest charge 1.5×10–15 and is also an integral
X-ray from multiple of all other charges.
the source
Telescope Case 1 :     Ž Case 2 :     Ž
Case 3 :     Ž Case 4 :     Ž
so charge on the electrons is same in all cases and
Charged plate (-)
Oil droplet it will be  
under observation

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Discovery of Protons :

........................................................................................................................................
Ž
Ž   —
D Protons are discovered by Gold Stein. Ž›¢••’ž– ™Š›’Œ•Ž Š›‹˜— Žž›˜—
D He used perforated cathode in the discharge tube
Properties of fundamental particles
and repeated J.J.Thomson experiment and observed
the formation of anode rays. 1) 1 amu =  
  
”
D These rays also termed as positive or Canal rays. 2) order of mass me<mp<mn
D These are simply the positively charged gaseous ions. 3) order specific charge
D The name proton is suggested by Rutherford
 Ž   Ž   Ž 
Properties of anode rays :      
 –  —  – ™  – Ž•ŽŒ›˜—
D Anode rays travel in straight line, and these are
material particles. 4) Mp= 1837 Me
D Anode rays are positively charged, and get
deflected by external magnetic field and effect the ATOMIC MODELS
photographic plate. J.J.THOMSON ATOMIC MODEL
D e/m value of these rays is smaller than that of e/m D J.J.Thomson proposed that an atom is in spherical
value of electrons. shape with radius approximately 10–10m in which
D e/m value of anode rays depends upon nature of the the positive charge is uniformly distributed .
gas. D The electrons are embeded into it in such a manner
D Some of the positively charged particles carry a as to give more stable electrostatic arrangment
multiple of the fundamental unti of electrical D According to J.J.Thomson atom is like water melon.
charge. D The positive charge is distributed like fibrous
D The smallest and lightest positive ion was obtained material and electrons are embeded like seeds.
from hydrogen is called proton. D An important feature of this model is that the mass
D e/m value of anode rays is maximum when the gas of the atom is assumed to be uniformly distributed
present in the tube is hydrogen. over the atom.
(   ”  or    ) D It can not explain electrical neutrality of the atom.
D This model also called plum pudding, raisin
D The protons carry unit positive charge with unit
mass. pudding model of atom.
D Rutherford obtained protons by bombarding
nitrogen atomic nucleus with   ™Š›’Œ•Ž .

 
Ž 
 
™›˜˜—

Neutron
D Neutrons are discovered by James Chadwick.
D When Berilium or Boron nuclides bombarded by
-particles, neutrons are formed. D Although this model was able to explain the overall
D They have no charge but posses mass almost equal neutrality of the atom, but was not consistent with
to proton. the esults of later experiments.

Subatomic Discoveres Mass Relative Charge Relative e/m

particle Mass Charge
Electron Thomson 0.000546 amu 1/1837 –1.602×10–19C –1 1.76×1011C/kg
9.18×10–31 kg –4.8 ×10–10esu
Proton Gold Stein 1.00728 amu 1 1.602×10–19C 1 9.58 × 107C/kg
1.673 × 10–27 kg 4.8 × 10–10 esu
Neutron Chandwick 1.008665 amu 1 0 0 0
1.675 × 10–27 kg

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D Thomson was awarded Nobel Prize for physics in 1906, which the nucleus plays the role of sun and the
for his theoretical and experimental investigations on electrons that of revolving planets.
the conduction of electricity by gases. iii) Electrons and the nucleus are held together by
Rutherfords Model of Atom : electrostatic forces of attraction.
D Rutherford proposed atomic model based on -ray Drawback of Rutherford’s model :
D It is against to law of electrodynamics.
scattering experiment.
D It was failed to explain stability of atom.
D A beam of -particles are passed through a thin gold
D According to classical electromagnetic theory, the
foil which is enclosed with flouroscent ZnS screen
revolving electron should loss energy continuosly
capable of producing scintillations.
and travel in a spiral path. Finally it must fall into
Observations - conclussions : the nucleus. But it does not happen.
D Most of the  - particles passes through the foil D The atomic spectrum should be continuous band
without any deflection which indicates that most spectrum due to continuous loss of energybut it is
of the atom is empty. a line spectrum.
D A small fraction of -particles were deflected from D It can’t explain the electronic structure of atom and
its original path which indicates that the positive energies of electrons.
charge is at the centre of the atom and due to i) According to Maxwell’s electro-magnetictheory,
repulsive forces deflections takes places. an accelerated charge emits electromagnetic
radiation and thus loses energy. Since electron is
charged and is moving in circular orbit (constant
acceleration), it must lose energy and spiral into
the nucleus. Calculations show that the time
required for collapse is 0.01 µ sec (10-8 sec).
ii) It could not explain line spectra of hydrogen.
According to this model the spectra should be
continuous and not discrete.
EXAMPLE - 4
Charge to mass ratio of cathode rays depends
upon
D A very few  -particles bounced back which 1) Nature of the gas in discharge tube
indicates that the whole mass is concentrated at the 2) Pressure of gas in discharge tube
centre of atom. This heaviest part is named as 3) Nature of the material used as
“nucleus” 4) Velocity of electrons cathode
–
Sol. As velocity increases –  , mass
  
increases for electron thus charge mass ratio
decreases.

EXAMPLE - 5
The value of charge on the oil droplets
experimentally observed were –1.6 × 10 –19 ,
D On the basis of above observations and conclusions, –2.4 × 10–19 and –4×10–18C. The value of electronic
Rutherfor d proposed the nuclear model of atom (after charge, indicated by these results is
the discovery of protons). According to this model : 1) –1.6 × 10–19 2) –2.4 × 10–19
3) – 4×10 –19 4) 0.8×10–19
i) The positive charge and most of the mass of the
atom was densely concentrated in extremely Sol. The highest common factor is 0.8 × 10–19
small region. This very small portion of the atom  This is the minimum charge in given conditions
was called nucleus by Rutherford. of experimentation and hence charge of electron
ii) The nucleus is surrounded by electrons that EXAMPLE - 6
move around the nucleus with a very high speed
in circular paths called orbits. Thus, Rutherford’s Which of the following statement is not correct
model of atom resembles the solar system in regarding cathode rays?

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1) Cathode rays originate form the cathode D Lastly an important point to mention regarding
2) Charge and mass of the particles constituting isotopes is that chemical properties of atoms are
cathode rays depends upon the nature of the gas controlled by the number of electrons, which are
3) Charge and mass of the particles particles determined by the number of protons in the nucleus.
present does not depend upon the material of D Number of neutrons present in the nucleus have
the cathode very little effect on the chemical properties of an
4) The ratio charge/mass of the particles is much element. Therefore, all the isotopes of a given
greater than that ofanode rays. element show same chemical behaviour.
Sol. 2 ATOMIC WEIGHT :
ATOMIC NUMBER : D one-twelth mass of an atom of  is called as
D The number of electrons or protons present in an atomic mass unit(a.m.u). it is also known as
atom of an element is called its atomic number(Z). Dalton(Da). 1 amu = 1.66 × 10–24 grams
D Moseley gives the relation between atomic number
EXAMPLE - 7
(Z) and frequency(v) of the characteristic X-rays of
the element by the equation What will be the difference in mass number if the
number of neutrons halved and the number of
Ÿ  Š   ‹  electrons doubled in 12
6 C

D Where ‘a’ and ‘b’ are constants and depends on Sol.Mass no is the sum of protons and neutrons
nature of the elements. If   —’’Š•  ’—Š•
D A neutral atom contains equal number of electrons protons : 6 - 6
and protons. Neutrons : 6 - 3
mass no : 12 - 9
For Cation :
Hence the decrease in mass no is 25%
D Number of protons = z
EXAMPLE - 8
D Number of electrons a = z-no.of electrons lost
Calculate the no.of protons,neutron and electrons
For Anion : in 1737Cl
D Number of protons = z Sol.No.of protons = Atomic number(z) = 17
D Number of electrons = z + no.of electrons gained mass number (A) = 37
No.of neutrons = A – Z = 37 – 17 = 20
ATOMIC MASS NUMBER (A) :
No.of electrons = 17
D It is equal to sum of numbers of protons and no. of
neutrons in an atom. EXAMPLE - 9
A=p+n Calculate the no.of protons, neutron and electron
in 147 N3– ion
D The size of the various nuclie (r) can be calculated
Sol.No.of protons=atomic number(z)=7
from radius (r) = (1.3 × 10–13)A1/3
No.of neutrons =(A-z)=14-7=7
D Where A is the mass no. and r is radius of nucleus No.of electrons in anion = z + magnitude of charge
in cm. =7+3=10
D If nucleus is assumed to spherical, the density of
nucleus (d) may be expressed as EXAMPLE - 10
The no.of electrons, protons and neutron in a species
Šœœ ˜ —žŒ•Žžœ Šœœ —˜ are equal to 10,11,12 respectively. Assign proper
  
˜•ž–Ž ˜ —žŒ•Žž Ÿ˜Š›˜ —˜ › symbol to the species.
Sol. No.of protons=11, hence atomic no. = 11
D The diameter of nucleus are of the order of 10–12 to
so the element is Na.
10–13 cm.
It has one eletron less than the no.of electrons, hence
D The diameter of atom are of the order of10–8 cm. it has a unit +ve charge.
D Diameter (size) of the atom is 105 times the diameter No.of neutrons =12
of the nucleus. Mass number = no.of protons + no.of neutrons
= 11 + 12 = 23
D The volume of the atom is about 1015 times the
volume of the nucleus.
therefore the symbol of that species = 11 23
Na 

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ISOTOPES EXAMPLE - 11
The mass number of three isotopes of an element
D The nuclides of same element having same atomic
are 10,12,14 units. Their percentage abundance is
number but different mass numbers are called
80,15 and 5units respectively. What is the atomic
isotopes. weight of the element?
D Isotopes show similar chemical properties but Sol.Percentage abundances of Isotopes = 80,15,5
different physical and radioactive properties. ratio of percentage abundances of Isotopes = 16:3:1
D Fractional atomic masses of elements is due to the The total ratio = 16+3+1=20
presence of Isotopes.
Ÿ   
 ›Š’˜ ˜ Š‹ž—Š—ŒŽ  ˜–’Œ  Ž’‘

D Isotopes do not have same value of e/m, because mass ˜Š• ›Š’˜

varies     
 
Ex : Proteium Deuterium Tritium
1 2 3 The Avg.Awt=10.5.
1 H 1 H 1 H
e=1 e=1 e=1 EXAMPLE - 12
p=1 p=1 p=1
Naturally occuring boron consists of two isotopes
n=0 n=1 n=2
whose atomic weights are 10.01 and 11.01 the
e/m 1/1 1/2 1/3 atomic weight of natural boron is 10.81. Calculate
Avg.atomic mass the percentage of each Isotope in natural boron?
Atomic Weight : Sol. Let the percentage of isotope with atomic weight
10.01 = x
D The atomic weight of an element is the average of Let the percentage of isotope with atomic weight
mass of all the isotopes of that element. 11.01=(100-x)
D An element have three isotopes y1, y2 and y3 and their
– ¡ – ¡
isotopic weight are w1, w2, w3 and their percentage/ Ÿ   
¡ ¡
possibility/ probability/ratio of occurance in nature
are x1, x2, x3 respectively, then the average atomic ¡  ¡

weight of element is
  ¡   ¡   ¡ x=20%
D Average atomic weight =  The percentage of isotope with A.wt 10.01=20%
¡ ¡ ¡
The percentage of isotope with A.wt 11.01=80.0%
eg : Cl35 Cl37
D Probability ratio 75% 25% ISOBARS
   The nuclides of different elements having same mass
  (or) D
 number but different atomic numbers are called
isobars.

 Š‹ž—Š—ŒŽ ˜ ’œ˜˜™Ž  Š˜–’Œ  Ž’‘
D Isobars show similar physical properties but different
˜Š• ›Š’˜ chemical properties.
eg : 1) Isotopes of hydrogen : eg : 1) :  ,  2) : › Š
Protium ( 1 H 1 ), Deuterium ( 1 H 2) or  3) : Ž Š
Tritium (1 H 3) or 1 T 3. Protium (99.985%), Isotones
Deuterium (0.015%) D The nuclides of the different elements with different
atomic number and mass number but having same
2) Isotopes of chlorine : • and •
number of neutrons(A-Z) are called isotones.
3) Isotopes of uranium :  Š—  D Isotones show different physical and chemical
properties.
-Note : “ Mass number” of an atom is always a
30 31 32
whole number, but atomic weight may be decimal eg : 1) 14 Si , 15 P, 16 S 2)  

3) Š 

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Isodiaphers : Wave Nature of Electromagnetic Radiation
D The nuclides having same isotopic number(A-2Z) are i) The oscillating electric and magnetic fields
called isodiaphers. They posses same difference of produced by oscillating charged particles are
neutrons and protons (n-p). perpendicular to each other and both are
perpendicular to the direction of propagation of
eg :  Š
the wave.
Isosters :
D The molecules with same atomicity and same
number of electrons are called isosters.
eg : CO2, N2O C 6H 6 & B 3N 3H 6
(Atomicity = total no.of atoms in molecule)
Iso-electronic species :
D The molecules or ions with same number of electrons
ii) Unlike sound waves or water waves,
are called iso electronic species
electromagnetic waves do not require medium and
eg 1 :    Ž Š    • 
can move in vacuum.
eg 2 :     •  ›  Š  Œ  iii) It is now well established that there are many types
eg 3 : H2O & NH3 of electromagnetic radiations, which differ from
eg 4 : BF3 & SO2 one nother in wavelength (or frequency). These
constitute what is called electromagnetic
EXAMPLE - 13
Spectrum characteristic properties of wave:
Calculate the number of electrons, protons and
Wave Length (l):
neutrons in (i) Phosphorus (P) atom (ii) phosphate
D The distance between two similar points in a wave
ion. (PO43–)
Mass numbers : P = 31, O = 16 is known as wave length.
Atomic numbers : P = 15, O = 8 D The units of wave length are m, cm, A0, nm, , m

Sol. i) Phosphorus atom (P) or pm.

Number of electrons = Number of protons   
Œ–  
–
= Atomic number = 15  
—–  Œ–  –  –  
Number of neutrons=Massnumber- Atomic number
= 31 - 15 = 16 ™–  
Œ–  
–
ii) Phosphate ion PO4 = P + 4O + 3e–
3–
Frequency (n):
Number of electrons = 15 + 4  8 + 3 = 50
Number of protons = 15 + 4  8 = 47 D The number of waves that pass through a given
point in one second is called frequency.
Number of neutrons = 16 + 4  8 = 48
EXAMPLE - 14 D Units : The SI units are sec–1, cycles per second (cps)
or Hertz (Hz). 1cps = 1 Hz = sec–1
Atomic number of an element is equal to the number
of D Frequency( v ) and wavelength () are related as
1) Electrons 2) Protons 
Ÿ
3) Neutrons 4) Electrons and protons 
Sol. 2 Where C = Velocity of light
= 3 x 108 m/sec or 3 x 1010 cm/sec
EXAMPLE - 15
The isotopes of an element differ in Wave Number Ÿ :
1) The number of neutrons in the nucleus
D The number of wave lengths per unit length (or )
2) The charge on the nucleus
3) The numberof extra-nuclear electrons D The reciprocal wave length is called wave number.
4) Both the nuclear charge and the number of
Units: cm–1 or m–1; Wave number Ÿ 
extranuclear electrons. 
Sol. 1 D The relation between Ÿ Š— Ÿ is Ÿ  Ÿ

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Amplitude (a) : EXAMPLE - 18
D The height of the crest or depth of the trough of a Calculate (a) Wavenumber and (b) frequency of
wave is called amplitude. Units: m, cm, pm yellow radiation having wavelength 5800A0.
D Amplitude is a measure of the intensity or Sol. a) Calculation of wavenumber 
brightness of a beam of light.      Œ– =   –
Velocity (C):  
D The distance travelled by a wave in one second is   
–
called its velocity. Units: m/sec or cm/sec.   –   Œ– 
D All types of electromagnetic radiations have the b) Calculation of the frequency ( )
same velocity which is equal to the velocity of light Œ  –œ 
    œ
(3 × 108 ms–1)    –
Time Period (T) : Particle Nature of Electromagnetic Radiation :
D Time taken by a wave to pass through one point D Some of the experimental phenomenon such as
diffraction* and interference** can be explained
 second. by the wave nature of the electromagnetic

EXAMPLE - 16 radiation.
D However, following are some of the observations
The vividh bharati station of All india Radio,
which could not be explained with the help of
delhi,broadcasts on a frequency of 1,368 kHz (kilo
even the electromagentic theory of 19th century
hertz). Calculate the wavelength of the electro-
physics (known as classical physics):
magnetic radiation emitted by transmitter. Which
i) the nature of emission of radiation from hot
part of the electromagnetic spectrum does it
bodies (black-body radiation)
belong to?
ii) ejection of electrons from metal surface when
Œ
Sol.   where c = velocity of E.M.R in vaccum radiation strikes it (photoelectric effect)

iii) variation of heat capacity of solids as a function
=  – œŽŒ 
of temperature
  ›ŽšžŽ—Œ¢  ”
£ iv) line spectra of atoms with special reference to
hydrogen.
 –œ 
=  œŽŒ  = = 219.3m Corpuscular theory :
 œ
D According to Newton, light and other form of
This is a characteristic radiowave wavelength.
radiant energies are propagated in the form of
EXAMPLE - 17 corpuscules(simple invisible particle).
The wavelength range of the visible spectrum D After the wave theory of light, the corpuscular

extends from violet(400 nm) to red (750 nm). theory lost significance
Express these wavelengths in frequencies (Hz). Black body radiation :
(1nm=10–9m) D The ideal body which emits and absorbs radiations
Sol.Frequency of violet light of all frequencies, is called a black body.
D The radiation of black body is called black body
Œ  –œ radiation.
   
£
  
– D A hollow sphere coated inside with platinum black,
frequncy of red light which has a small hole in its wall can act as a near
black body.
Œ  –œ
  = 
£ eg : 1. The reddish glow from the heating element
  
–
in an electric stove
The range of visible spectrum is from 2. white light emitted by the hot filament in
 ˜ 
£ in terms of frequency light bulb
D A graph is obtained by plotting the intensity of

radiation against wave length as shown in fig.

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D Energy is emitted or absorbed in simple integral
multiples of quantum, but not fractional values
  —‘Ÿ Where n = 1, 2, 3, 4, ........
Einstein’s approach :
D According to Einstein the radiant energy is
absorbed or emitted in the form of small particle is
A Study of the curve reveals that called photon.The radiation is propagated in the
D At a given temperature the intensity of radiation form of photons.
emitted increases, reaches a maximum value and D The energy of a photon is directly proportional to
then decreases. frequency of the radiation.
D As the temperature increases the maximum ‘Œ
D The energy of a photon is E = hv (or)  
intensity shifts towards the shortest wave lengths. 

PLANCK’S QUANTUM THEORY 


D The phenomenon of the black body radiation is Where E = energy in eV
given by Max planck.    ŠŸŽ•Ž—‘ ’— 
D The absorption or emission of radiation is mainly
D The energy of 1mole of photons is E = Nhv
due to the vibrations of charged particles.
Where N = Avogadro’s number = 6.023 × 1023
D The radiation is associated with definite amount of
D Plank’s quantum theory was extended by Einstein
energy.
for all types of electromagnetic radiations.
D The radiant energy is always in discontinuous
wave form. It is absorbed or emitted discontinuosly Compton Effect :
in the form small packets of energy called quantum. D The increase in wave length or decrease in energy
D The energy of a quantum of radiation is directly of the X - rays after scattering from an object is called
proportional to the frequency of the radiation. the compton effect.
E  ; E = hv EXAMPLE - 19
‘Œ Calculate energy of one mole of photons of
  ‘Œ  radiation whose frequency is 5 × 1014 Hz

Where E = Energy of radiation Sol.Energy (E) of one photons E = hv
h = Planck’s constant h = 6.626  10–34 Js
=  
Ž›  œŽŒ v = 5  1014s–1 (given)
= E = ( 6.626  10–34 Js )  (5  1014s–1)
 
˜ž•Ž  œŽŒ (SI unit)
= 3.313  10–19 J
=  
  œŽŒ –˜•Ž

Wavelength (nanometers)

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Energy of one mole of photons EXAMPLE - 22
= (3.313  10–19 J)  (6.022  1023mol–1) Calculate the energy of photons of radiation
= 199.51kJmol–1 whose wavelength is 5000A0?
Sol.      
–  
–
EXAMPLE - 20

A 100watt bulb emits monochromatic light of Œ  – œŽŒ ‘   œ
wavelength 400nm. Calculate the no.of ‘Œ  
 
photons emitted per second by the bulb?     

  

Sol.Power of the bulb =100watt =100 Js–1

Energy of one photon EXAMPLE - 23
 
‘Œ  œ   –œ What is the number of photons of light with a
  ‘     

  
– wave length 4000pm that provide 1J energy?
Number of photons emitted
Sol.  ŠŸŽ•Ž—‘   ™–   
–

œ 
 
  œ ‘  
œ Œ   –œ 
 
‘Œ
EXAMPLE - 21 Energy of one photon,  

When electromagnetic radiation of wavelength  
œ   –œ 
300nm falls on the surface of sodium,electrons  =  

  
are emitted with a kinetic energy of 1.68 × 105Jmol–
1. What is the minimum energy needed to remove Number of photons providing 1 joule of energy
an electron from sodium? What is the maximum
  
wavelength that will cause a photoelectron to be  

emitted? EXAMPLE - 24
Sol. The energy(E) of a 300nm photon is given by

Calculate the energy of one mole of quanta of
‘Œ  œ   –œ 
‘   radiation whose frequency is 5 × 1010sec–1
  
– Sol. Energy of 1 mol quantum = Nhv
The energy of one mole of photons 
     
 
    –˜•


  –˜•  –˜•
The minimum energy needed to remove one mole
EXAMPLE - 25
of electrons from sodium.
  –˜• 
Compare the energies of two radiations one with
l = 600nm and other with 300nm.
  –˜•   
The minimum energy for one electron Sol.     

 –˜•  The relation between two energies is   


 Ž•ŽŒ›˜—œ –˜• 
PHOTO ELECTRIC EFFECT

  
D The phenomenon of ejection of electrons from the
This corresponds to the wavelength surface of metal when light of suitable frequency
‘Œ strikes is called as photo electric effect.
 
 D The electrons ejected are called photo electrons.
 
 œ   –œ D The minimum frequency required to eject the
 
  electrons is called threshold frequency
517nm this wavelength corresponds to green D The photo electric effect is readily exhibited by
colour in visible spectrum. alkali metals like K , Rb and Cs.

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D A part of the energy of photon is used to escape the Values of work Function (W0) for Few Metals:
electron from the attractive forces and the
remaining energy is used in increasing the kinetic Metal Li Na K Mg Cu Ag Fe Pt W
energy of electron. ev 2.4 2.3 2.2 3.7 4.8 4.3 4.7 6.3 4.75
     EXAMPLE - 26
Where W = Work function or Threshold energy The threshold frequency v 0 for a metal is
W = hv0 ‘  ‘Ÿ   7.0 × 1014s–1. Calculate the kinetic energy of an
electron emitted when radiation of frequency
‘Œ ‘Œ
  ‘  ‘    v = 1.0 × 1015s–1 hits the metal.
 
Sol. According to Einstein’s equation
Where v0 = Threshold frequency
D In photo electric effect the number of photo Kinetic energy  –Ž Ÿ  ‘ Ÿ  Ÿ
electrons emitted is proportional to intensity of

incident light.   œ  œ   œ
Intensity   
œ  œ   œ
D It is the power transfered per unit area. Its S.I. units   
œ   œ   

are W/m2. It is used mostly for waves.
D The kinetic energy of photo electrons depends only EXAMPLE - 27
on the frequency of incident light and not on the The minimum energy required to overcome the
intensity of light. attractive forces between an electron and the
D The minimum energy required for emission of surface of Ag metal is 5.52 × 10–19J. What will be
photo electrons is called threshold energy or work the maximum kinetic energy of electron ejected
function. out from Ag which is being exposed to UV-light
D For each metal, there is a characteristic minimum of   
frequency v0 (also known as threshold frequency)
Sol. Energy of the photons absorbed
below which photoelectric effect is not observed.

D At a frequency v > v0 then photoelectric effect is ‘Œ   
 
observed.   

Values of work Function (W0) for Few Metals:  

  Ž›   
Metal Li Na K Mg Cu Ag E(photon) = Work function+K.E
W0/ev 2.42 2.3 2.25 3.7 4.8 4.3   
  

-Note : Stoping potential : It is the minimum   


potential at which the photo electric current
becomes zero. If v 0 is the stopping potential EXAMPLE - 28
eV0=h(v-v0) When light of 470nm falls on the surface of
D

If    —˜ Ž is ejected potassium metal, electrons are emitted with a
velocity of 6.4 × 104ms–1. What is the minimum
energy required to remove one mole electrons from
potassium metal ?

Sol. Kinetic energy of photo electrons  –Ÿ

 
D If             
we know that, Absorbed energy from light =
Threshold energy + kinetic energy of
photoelectrons

‘Œ   
  –Ÿ 
  

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 
D The splitting of white light into seven colours is
      
known as dispersion.
Energy required to eject one mole electrons D The device used to record spectrum is called
= 419.21 × 10–21 × 6.023 × 1023 spectrograph or spectrometer.
= 252.4 × 103 J mol–1 = 252.4 kJ mol–1
Continuous spectrum :
EXAMPLE - 29 D The spectrum of sun light where one colour merges
When a certain metal was irradiated with light into another without any gap is known as
of frequency 3.2 ´ 10 16Hz,the photoelectrons continuous spectrum. eg: light emitted from
emitted had twice the kinetic energy as did incadescent solid
photoelectrons emitted when the same metal was Discontinuous spectrum :
irradiated with light of frequency 2.0 ´ 1016Hz. D The spectrum having distinct and well defined
Calculate v0 for the metal? lines with gap (dark areas) is called discontinuous
Sol. Applyilng photoelectric equation, spectrum
 Spectra is broadly divided into two types
K.E  ‘  ‘ ˜›   a) Absorption spectrum b) Emission spectrum
‘
’ŸŽ—    Absorption Spectrum Emission Spectrum
  1. It is spectrum 1.It is spectrum
       
‘ ‘ produced by produced by
Dividing equation(1) with (2), transmitted lighter emission of
radiation (excitation radiation. (de
   
   of electrons in a excitation of electron
    substance) in a substance
˜›        ˜›      2. It contains dark 2.It contains bright
     
£ lines on the bright lines on the dark
EXAMPLE - 30 back ground back ground
Threshold wavelength of a metal is 230nm. What 3. Eg : Sodium vapour 3.Eg : Sodium vapour
will be the kinetic energy of photoelectrons ejected gives two dark lines gives two bright lines
when the metal is irradiated with wavelength at 5890A° and 5896A° at 5890A° and 5896A°
180nm? (h = 6.626 × 10–34 J sec) in yellow region in yellow region
Sol. Absorbed energy from light =
4. The spectrum is 4.The spectrum is
Threshold energy +kinetic energy of
photoelectrons discontinuous discontinuous
D Emission Spectrum can be further classified into
‘Œ ‘Œ
      ‘Œ  line and band spectrum (atomic and molecular
   
spectrum).
  Line Spectrum Band Spectrum
  
   
   1. The line spectrum 1.The band spectrum
   
has sharp, distinct has many closed lines
well defined lines

      2. It is the character- 2.It is characteristic of
istic of gaseous molecules and is
  
 
   atom and is also also called molecular
atomic spectrum spectrum
  
 3. It is due to transition 3.It is due to vibration
of electrons between and rotational
energy level in an changes of atoms in
SPECTRA AND ATOMIC MODELS atom a molecule
D The image recorded when radiant energy is passed 4. It is given by inert 4.It is given by hot
gases, metal vapours metals and molecules
through a prism or grating is called a spectrum.
and atoms

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Hydrogen emission spectrum D Introducing the eq (2) in equation (1)
D By applying high potential difference in a discharge
     
tube containing hydrogen gas a bright lightis    
   

 —   —
obtained.    
D This light when passed through prism ,an emerged (where n1 and n2 stand for initial orbit and final
beam of light is collected over photo graphic film. orbits. n1 and n2 may be refered as ni and nf)
This is called H-atomic spectrum.
   
D It is a line spectrum and simplest of all atomic   
    
  
 — —  — — 
spectrum    
D It contains a series of group of lines. D The frequency (v) associated with the absorption
D They can be classified into various series. and emission of the photon can be evaluated by
a) Lyman series b) Balmer series using equation
c) Paschen series d) Bracket series
 
 
e) Pfund series Ÿ    
‘ ‘  — — 
D The only series visible to the naked eye is termed
as the visible region of hydrogen spectrum. On substituting RH and h values
D It was discovered by Balmer, so it is called Balmer
 
series.     
£
Different series of spectral lines in hydrogen — — 
emission spectrum
D In terms of wavenumbers 
Name of n 1 n2 Special Equation for
the series region wave number Ÿ 
 
    
   ‘  — — 
Lyman 1 2,3,4,5,6,7. Ultraviolet Ÿ      
— 

On substituting RH, h and C values
 
Balmer 2 3,4,5,6,7. Visible Ÿ    
 —    
     –
Paschen 3 4, 5, 6, 7... Near Ÿ  



 — — 
 — 
infrated D Rydberg constant value is not same for all the
  elements.
Brackett 4 5, 6, 7... Infrared Ÿ    
 —  For hydrogen like species He+, Li2+, Be3+,
  R = 1,09,677 × Z2 cm–1 = RH × Z2
Pfund 5 6, 7 .... Far infrated Ÿ      
— 


-Note : =912 Å


D The first line in Balmer series is called H line and

its wavelength is 6563 A0.
D The second line is called H line and its wavelength
is 4861 A0.
D The spectral lines get closer when the n2 value is
increased.
D If n2 is taken as infinity the wavelength of the
limiting line(last line) in the series is obtained.
Explanation of line spectrum of Hydrogen:   

D The energy gap between the two orbits is given by    

  
  —   —
equation      -----------(1)
D The wavelength or wave numbers of all the lines in
D The energy of its stationary state is given by the all the series can be calculated by using Rydberg’s
  equation.
expression  —  
  ----------(2)
— 

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
  
     
   
£
 — — ‘  
œ
where RH = Rydberg’s constant for
Œ  –œ 
H-atom = 1,09,677 cm–1    —–
 
£
n1 = Lower energy level (ni)
n2 = Higher energy level (nf) EXAMPLE - 32
D Maximum number of spectral lines produced when Calculate the shortest and longest wavelength in
an electron jumps from n2 to n1 state for a simple hydrogen spectrum of Lyman series.
Sol. For Lyman series n1 = 1
— —  
atom  ˜›  — — For shortest wavelength in lyman series(i.e, series
limit), the energy difference in two states showing
D Maximum number of spectrum lines produced
when an electron jumps from n2 to n1 state transition should be maximum,i.e, —  
— — — —   
  

=  
D Number of spectral line in a series = n2 – n1    
Œ–  

D Line of longest wavelength or line of shortest
For longest wavelength in lyman series (i,e.,first
energy in any series of hydrogen spectrum
line) the energy difference in two states showing
  transition should be minimum,i.e., n2 = 2
   
 — —
’›œ

’›œ   
  

D Line of shortest wavelength or line of highest 

energy (series limit) in any series of hydrogen  



spectrum  •Šœ



— since n2 =    
Œ–  
•Šœ

EXAMPLE - 33
—  —
D Excitation potential for —  — What transition of Li+2 spectrum will have same
•ŽŒ›˜—’Œ Œ‘Š›Ž
wavelength as that of second line of Balmer series
— in He+spectrum?
D Ionisation potential for —  
•ŽŒ›˜—’Œ Œ‘Š›Ž
Sol.  
D If an electron is already present in the excited state,
Ž   ’
then the energy required to remove that electron is
called separation energy    
        
Eseparation = E  – Eexcited  — —   — — 
D The number of waves made by a Bohr electron in    
     
› ›    — — 
one complete revolution —=n
›
EXAMPLE - 31      
     ;    
What are the frequency and wavelength of a    — —   — — 
photon emitted during a transition from n=5 state
to the n=2state in the hydrogen atom?    —  — 
— —
Sol. Since ni = 5 and nf = 2, this transition gives rise to a
special line in the visible region of the Balmer series. (3  6) will have same wavelength as that of
  second line of Balmer series in He+ spectrum.
       
The frequency of the photon (taking energy in
terms of magnitude) is given by

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EXAMPLE - 34 the energy the electron jumps from higher energy
state to lower energy state.
Calculate the possible number of lines in the
spectrum of hydrogen,when electrons return from D The change in energy is given by the formula
7th shell to 2nd shell.       ‘
Sol. — —      D The centripetal force on the electron is balanced by
      centrifugal force.

EXAMPLE - 35 Expression for radius

Calculate the wave number and wave length of

Ha line in Bracket series of H-emission spectrum
Sol. For H line in Bracket series
n1 = 4, n2 = 5
1 1 1 1
 = R    = 109677  2  2 
n n = 2467.7325cm 1
 1 2  4 5 
D The centripetal force of attraction between the

   Œ– Ž
 nucleus and the electron 
›
BOHR’S ATOMIC MODEL D The centrifugal force of the electron due to
D To explain the origin of lines in hydrogen spectrum  –
revolving around the nucleus 
and to overcome the defects in Rutherfords model, ›
Neils Bohr proposed his model of atom. D Expression for the radius of Bohr’s orbit
Postulates — ‘
›
D The electron in the hydrogen atom revolves around  – Ž
the nucleus with definite velocity in fixed,closed, D By substituting all constants, radius of orbit is
circular paths, called‘orbits’ or ’shells’.
—
D These are designed as 1,2,3,4... or K, L, M, N ..... › 

from the side of the nucleus. [derived from Kepler’s
For H-atom, Z = 1, hence
law]
› —  ; ›  —  
Œ–
D The electron revolves in the orbit whose angular
—‘ ›  — ™–
momentum (  ) is equal to .
 Expression for energy :

—‘ Ž
It is given by the expression –Ÿ›  D Kinetic energy of electron  –  
 ›

where m = mass of electron Ž

D Potential energy of electron 
v = velocity of electron r = radius of orbit ›
D Total energy of electron
h = plank’s constant n =1, 2, 3...
Each orbit is associated with definite amount of Ž Ž  Ž
D E       
energy.So these are also called energy levels or › › ›
energy states. D Expression for the energy of Bohr’s orbit m (By
substituting radius of orbit in the above expression)
D The energy of electron does not change as long as
the electron revolves in the orbit. Hence, these orbits   – Ž

are called ‘stationary orbits’ or ‘stationary states’. — ‘
D The energy of electron changes only when the D As we go to higher orbits, kinetic energy decreases,
electron moves from one orbit to another. potential energy increases and the total energy
D If energy is absorbed the electron jumps from lower increases.
energy state to higher energy state, and if it lose D Energy of orbits in hydrogen atom ( Z = 1 )

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   D As the value of n2 increases, the difference of energy
 Ž›œ /atom becomes smaller.
—
D The frequency of radiation absorbed (or) emitted

  when transitions occurs between two stationary
 ˜ž•Žœ /atom
— states that differ in energy by E, is given by
   
 Ÿ 
  –˜•Ž ‘ ‘
— D This expression is commonly known as Bohr’s
 frequency rule.
 Ž Š˜–  
—     ‘   
 — — 

 ŒŠ• –˜•Ž D where Z = atomic number.
—
 Calculation of the velocity of the electron in the
Ž   
nth orbit.
D The energy of the electron in a hydrogen atom has
a negative sign for all possible orbits, because the D Eliminating r from (i) and (ii) (by substituting the
energy of the electron in the atom is lower than the value of r from (ii) in (i) and rearranging), we get
energy of a free electron at rest. Ž
D Energy of orbits for H-like species D For H-like particles,  — 
—‘
  
 D On substituting the values of the constants , e
   Ž›œ ;  — 
— — and h, we get
D where En = Energy of nth
orbit in hydrogen atom. 
E1= Energy of first orbit in hydrogen atom — Œ– œ 
—
n = 1, 2, 3, 4 .........
D Similarly For Hydrogen like species D For H-atom, putting Z = 1
Ž 
 —   Œ–œ 
—   —‘ —
— D Further, putting n = 1, the velocity of electron
D where En = Energy of nth orbit in other H - like in the first orbit of H-atom will be = 2.188 × 108
species. cms–1 which is nearly 1/137th of the velocity of
Z = Atomic number light.
E1 = Energy of first orbit in hydrogen atom D Also, from equation (i), it may be seen that
D The ratio of PE, KE and T.E = -2 : 1 : -1 Ž
  which shows that  
˜Š•
 Ž ›
 D
–› ›
Calculation of the number of revolutions of the
 Ž › electron in an orbit per sec
‘
 Ž  › D By Bohr postulate, –›  — or   —‘
˜Š•  –›
  Ž ›  D Number of revolutions per sec
Ž•˜Œ’¢ ˜ ‘Ž Ž•ŽŒ›˜— 
 
 Ž ›  
’›Œž–Ž›Ž—ŒŽ ˜ ‘Ž ˜›‹’
—‘
›

 Ž ›  
–›

›
—‘
 – Ž (On substituting the value of ) 
 = 1, 09, 677 × Z2 cm-1  –›
‘ 
–›
D Difference of energy between two Bohr orbits of  Time taken for one revolution
—‘
 
hydrogen atom    ‘Œ   
 — —  —‘   –Ž 
No. of revolutions per sec   
Where n1 = lower orbit, n2 = higher orbit –  — ‘ 
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 – Ž    ›
   
—‘ ‘ —  Time taken for one revolution 

Number of revolutions per second
 – Ž
D where   is the energy of the first  
‘   
shell. Calculation of number of waves in any orbit › ›    

No. of waves in any orbit 

= 2.4 × 1011 revolution/sec
’›Œž–Ž›Ž—ŒŽ ˜ ‘Š ˜›‹’ › ›
  
ŠŸŽ•Ž—‘  ‘ – EXAMPLE - 38
Calculate the energy associated with the first
 ‘  orbit of He+. What is the radius of this orbitt?
'   ‹¢ Ž ›˜•’Ž ›Ž•Š’˜— 
 –   
 
Sol.  —   Š˜–  ˜›
Ž  —  
›–   —‘ —

‘

‘
 –›  
‘ 
—

  
  
Ionisation potential:
D For hydrogen atom, ionization potential The radius of the orbit is given by equation
 —– —
 ›—  since n=1,Z=2
— 
D For H - like species, Ionisation potential —–
›—   —–
 
 . EXAMPLE - 39
—
  The ionisation energy of hydrogen atom is 13.6eV.
D Ionisation potential of an atom or ion    Ž What will be the ionisation energy of He+ and Li+2
— 
ions?
EXAMPLE - 36
Sol.Ionisation energy = -(energy of the 1st orbit)
Calculate the radius of Bohr’s 3rd orbit in Li+2 Energy of the 1st orbit of hydrogen = -13.6eV
ion.
Energy of the 1st orbit of
Ž    
—
Sol. we know that, ›—    (Z for
Ž   
 Ž   Ž

when n=3 and Z = 3, so, Ionisation energy of

Ž      Ž

›         —Ž›¢ ˜ œ ˜›‹’ ˜ ’     Ž
˜—’œŠ’˜— Ž—Ž›¢ ˜ ’      Ž
EXAMPLE - 37
DRAWBACKS OF THE BOHR’S MODEL
Calculate the velocity (in cm/sec) of an electron
placed in the third orbit of the hydrogen atom. D It failed to explain the line spectra of atoms or ions
Also calculate the number of revolutions per having more than one electron.
second that this electron makes around the
D It fails to account the fine spectra details (doublet,
nucleus.
that is two closely spaced lines) of the hydrogen

Sol. Radius of 3rd orbit =   atom.
  
Œ– D It failed to explain Zeeman effect and Stark effect.
‘ —‘ D The splitting of spectral lines of an atom into a
–Ÿ›  — ˜›  
 –› group of fine lines under the influence of magnetic
   field is called Zeeman effect.

   
  D The splitting of spectral lines of an atom into group
of fine lines under the influence of an electric field
  Œ– œŽŒ
is called Stark effect.

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D Bohr model of the hydrogen atom, not only ignores D If n = 4 then —  = 1 ,2, 3, 4
dual behaviour of matter but also contradicts
Heisenberg uncertainity principle. 4 4 4
, , , 4
Sommerfeld Extension of the Bohr’s Model 1 2 3 4
K=
D According to sommerfeld electron revolve around 3 Elliptical path 1 circular path
the nucleus in the Elliptical Orbits.
D If n = 5 then — =1, 2, 3, 4, 5
D Circular orbit is a special case of elliptical orbit
when the length of major axis becomes equal to the 5 5 , 5 5
, , , 5
length of minor axis then the shape of orbit will be 1 2 3 4 5
circular K=
4 Elliptical path 1 circular path

D If n = 1, then Elliptical path = (n – 1) = (1 – 1) =0

Circulars path = 1
D In nth orbit : Number of elliptical path = (n – 1)
Number of circular path = 1
-Note : Electron in the first orbit always revolve
in circular path.

DUAL NATURE OF MATTER AND LIGHT

de-Broglie’s wave theory
D The wave nature of electron was first proposed by
de-Broglie.
D If electrons revolve in elliptical orbit then its D According to de-Broglie theory all moving particles
angular momentum shows two components have wave properties.
1. Radial component D Wave properties are important only for particles of
—› ‘ small mass and high velocity.
›   ‘Ž›Ž — › ›Š’Š• šžŠ—ž– —ž–‹Ž›
 ‘Œ
D From Planck’s quantum theory E = h = ........(1)
 — ›  —    n = Shell number 

2. Azimuthal Components D Einstein’s mass energy relationship is E = mC2 ...(2)

— ‘ from equation (1) & (2),
  — £’–ž‘Š• šžŠ—ž– —ž–‹Ž›
 ‘Œ ‘ ‘
 –Œ ˜›  –Œ ˜›  
[ —  =1,2,3,4,....n] n=shell number   –Œ

So total Angular momentum  —    ›    where ‘c’ is the velocity of light.

D If the velocity of micro particle is ‘v’ the de-Broglie’s
—‘ — › ‘ —  ‘
  —  —›  — ‘ ‘
   equation is   
– ™
where n = principal quantum number
Eg : Let n =4 then —  —›  — where  = wave length
4=3+1 4=2+2 h = Planck’s constant   
 œŽŒ
4=1+3 4=0+4
D The length of major axis represent by — ›  —  i.e, n = Velocity of the particle
and length of minor axis represent by —  m = p = Momentum of the particle
The path of electron de-Broglie’s concept and Bohr’s theory
—›  — — Ž—‘ ˜ –Š“˜› Š¡’œ D Two types of waves are possible for an electron
  
— —  Ž—‘ ˜ –’—˜› Š¡’œ moving around the nucleus in the circular path

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A) A standing or stationary or non-energy radiating D The de Broglie wavelength for an electron in a given
wave: orbit =  —#
EXAMPLE - 40
What will be the wavelength of a ball of mass
0.1kg moving with a velocity of 10ms–1
Sol. According to de-Broglie equation

‘  œ
 
–Ÿ ” –œ 
i.e., ›  —

›   –   ”– œ
 ( n= integer or whole number)
— EXAMPLE - 41
‘ › ‘ The mass of an electron is 9.1 × 10–25J, If its K.E.
D we know that,    
–Ÿ — –Ÿ is 3.0 × 10–25J, calculate its wavelength.
—‘
 –Ÿ› 
 Sol. since K.E  –Ÿ
D Hence de-Broglie’s theory and Bohr’s theory are in

agreement with each other.    ”– œ 
Ÿ  
 –œ 
b) Non stationary or energy radiating wave. – 

‘  œ
  
–Ÿ  ” –œ

  – —–
EXAMPLE - 42
Calculate the mass of a photon with wavelength
D In this ›  — hence, such an orbit cannot exist. 3.6 A0
de-Broglie’s applications : Sol.       –
D Number of waves in an orbit = n Velocity of photon= velocity of light
D Number of revolutions of an electron per second 
‘  œ
– 
Ž•˜Œ’¢ ˜ Ž•ŽŒ›˜—   
–  –œ 
in an orbit 
Œ’›Œž–Ž›Ž—ŒŽ 
  ”
D Relation between kinetic energy and wave length
of a moving particle EXAMPLE - 43
‘ Calculate the de- Broglie wavelength of an

  – electron travelling at 1% of the speed of light.
D Let a charged particle like electron be accelerated Sol. de-Broglie wavelength can be calculated as,
with a potential of V, then ‘
 .......(1) where, ‘   
œ
‘ –
  Ž  

Ž– –  ”

D For an electron         – œŽŒ


substituting these values in eq(1), we get
D For proton   
  
 
  
D For  - particle    
   – ™–
Where V= Accelerating potential of the particle

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EXAMPLE - 44 EXAMPLE - 49
Two particles A and B are in motion. If Which of the following has largest de Broglie
the wavelength associated with particle A is wavelength given that all have equal velocity?
5 × 10–8m, calculate the wavelength associated 1) CO2 molecule 2) NH3 molecule
with particle B if its momentum is half of A. 3) Electron 4) Proton
‘   ™ Sol. 3
Sol. we know,      ™      
™  
HEISENBERG’S UNCERTAINITY PRINCIPLE
   
– ™  ™  ™  ™
D Explanation Behind the Heisenberg’s Uncertainty
 
™ Principle
›˜– Žš— ’      
–
 ™ D If we suppose that we try to measure the position
of the electron. To see its position we need small
EXAMPLE - 45 wavelength light.
An electron beam emerges from an accelerator D We know that light consists of photons. So, photons
with kinetic energy 100eV. what is its de-Broglie strike the electron, the reflected photon in the form
wavelength? [m = 9.1 × 10–31 kg, h = 6.6 × 10–34 Js, of light reaches our eye and we are able to see the
1ev = 1.6 × 10–19 J] electron.
Sol. Kinetic energy of electron =100eV D No doubt, in this way we are able to know the
        we know, position of the electron.
‘   D We know that the electron is a point charge and
  
 –   
     – almost dimensionless, therefore to know its
position we must use wavelength smaller than the
EXAMPLE - 46 dimensions of the electron.
The kinetic energy of an electron is 4.55 × 10–25J. D Therefore shorter the wavelength, will give greater
Calculate the wavelength. [h = 6.6 × 10–34 Js ; mass the accuracy.
of electron = 9.1 × 10–31 kg] D But shorter wavelength is associated with high
 frequency and high energy.
Sol.   –Ÿ  

   
  Ÿ   Ÿ   —Ž›¢ 
 ŠŸŽ •Ž—‘

Ÿ –œ
Applying de Broglie equation D Therefore when this high energy photon strikes the

electron, it changes the speed as well as direction
‘  
of the electron i.e., momentum changes.
  
  –
–Ÿ   D Thus, it is clear that momentum cannot be found
EXAMPLE - 47 with certainty in this case, but position is known.
The dual nature of radiations was proposed by
1) Max Planck 2) de-Broglie
3) Einstein 4) Schrodinger
Sol. 3
EXAMPLE - 48
Which of the following statement is not correct?
1) All electromagnetic radiations travel with the
same velocity
2) Matter waves generally have velocity les than
electromagnetic waves
3) Matter waves are emitted bymaterial particles Principle
4) Electromagnetic waves are associated with D It is impossible to determine simultaneously, the
electric and magnetic fields but matter waves are exact position and exact momentum (or velocity)
not. of an electron” It is called Heisenberg’s uncertainity
Sol. 3 principle. (or)

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D It is impossible to determine both the position and EXAMPLE - 51
momentum of the electron simultaneously and A golf ball has a mass of 40g, and a speed of
accurately. 45 m/s. If the speed can be measured within
D It is given by the expression accuracy of 2%, calculate the uncertainty in the
‘ position.
 ¡  ™

 ¡ –Ÿ ‘
 Sol. The uncertainty in the speed is 2%,
‘ i,e.,   –œ 
 ¡ Ÿ 
– using the equation
where x = uncertainity in position 
‘  œ
p = uncertainity in momentum ¡  
–Ÿ    
 –œ
v = uncertainity in velocity

m = mass of the particle   –
h = Planck’s constant This is nearly 1018 times smaller than the diameter
of a typical atomic nucleus. As mentioned earlier
D It states that if one is determined with high
for large particles, the uncertainty principle sets
accuracy, then the other becomes uncertain i.e., If
no meaningful limit to the precision of
position of the electron is determined ( ¡  ), then measurments.
Ÿ   similarly If velocity of the electron is
determined ( Ÿ  ) , then ¡   EXAMPLE - 52
D The product of the uncertainities is inversely An electron has a speed of 40ms–1 accurate upto
proportional to mass of the particle. 99.99%. What is the uncertainty in its location?

¡ Ÿ  Sol. Given, Ÿ    –œ 
–
D The uncertainty principle is mainly applicable for ‘ ‘
microscopic particles. If A and B are two particles we know, ¡ Ÿ  ; ¡ 
– –Ÿ
then 

¡  ¡   
–
¡ Ÿ  –     


¡ Ÿ  –  EXAMPLE - 53
Significance of uncertainity principle Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle rules out the
D It rules out the existence of definite paths and leads exact simultaneous measurement of
to probability which can be given by quantum 1) probability and intensity
mechanical model. 2) energy and velocity
3) charge density and radius
eg: If uncertainty in position is of only  – , then
4) positionand momentum
the uncertainty velocity would be
Sol. 4

– œ 

 –œ  (a large value) EXAMPLE - 54
–
If uncertainty Dx in position is along X-axis, then
EXAMPLE - 50 uncertainty in momentum (Dp) is along
A microscope using suitable photons is employed 1) X-axis 2) Y-axis
to locate an electron in an atom within a distance 3) Z-axis 4) any axis
of 0.1A0. What is the uncertainty involved in the Sol. 1
measurement of its velocity? EXAMPLE - 55
‘ ‘ Ÿ  ‘ The uncertainty found from the uncertainty
Sol. ¡™  ˜› ¡–Ÿ 
  ¡– principle ¡ ™  ‘   is
 
œ 1) the minimum value
Ÿ    2) the maximum value
   –  ”
3) the exact value
  –œ   ”– œ    –œ  4) only an approximate value
Sol. 4

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QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL OF
ATOM & ITS IMPORTANT FEATURES
D The fundamental equation of quantum mechanics
was developed by Schrodinger.
D It explains three dimensional concept of moving
electron.
D This equation is based on de-Broglie’s wave
equation and Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.
D Schrodinger’s wave equation is written as
       –
       
¡ ¢ £ ‘
where  = Wave function(amplitude of the wave)
m = Mass of electron h = Planck’s constant
E = Total energy of the electron
V = Potential energy of electron
x, y, z are co - ordinates.
–
       ;  = Laplician operator
‘
D
   where
is a mathematical operator
called Hamiltonian operator.
‘     
where
is      
 –  ¡ ¢ £ 
D The Schrodinger wave equation gives principal,
azimuthal and magnetic quantum number but not
the spin quantum number
Radial Probability Distribution Curves
D R(r) the radial function, which depends on the
quantum numbers n and l.
D The radial function R has no physical meaning, but
R2 gives the probability of finding the electron at a
given point r from the nucleus.
D R2 or 2 is radial probability density
D The probability of finding electron at a distance r
around the nucleus is 4r2R2. This is called the
radial distribution function.
D The probability of the electron in a small radial
volume dv being at a distance r from the nucleus is
4 r2R 2dr. This is called the radial probability
distribution function (D).
y or ‘R’ Vs ‘r’ graphs :
D Graphs of the radial distribution function for
hydrogen plotted against r are shown in Figures
D These disgrams show that the probability is zero at
the nucleus (as r = 0), and by examining the plots
for 1s, 2s and 3s that the most probable distance
increases markedly as the principal quantum
number increases.
D Furthermore, by comparing the plots for 2s and 2p,
or 3s, 3p and 3d it can be seen that the most probable
radius deccreases slightly as the subsidiary
quantum number increases.
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-Note : The Schrodinger wave equation gives
principal, azimuthal and magnetic quantum
number but not the spin quantum number
Important features of the Quantum Mechanical
Model of Atom:
D It states that the energy of electron in an atom is
y2 or R2 Vs ‘r’ graphs : quantized.
D It explains the probability of finding the electron
around the nucleus in three dimensionally.
D An atomic orbital is the wave function  for an
electron in an atom.
Significance of y : It is a wave function.It
corresponds to energy state which contains all
information about electron.
Significance of y2 : It is a probability function. It
indicates maximum probability of finding an
electron at a certain point in an atom.
D The probability of finding an electron at a
certain distance from the nucleus is called radial
probability.
D The curves obtained by plotting probability
function D = 4r2dr2 and radial distance (r) are
called radial probability distribution curves.
D Number of peaks obtained in a curve = n – l
where n = principal quantum number
l = Azimuthal quantum number
Nodes or Radial nodes or nodal surfaces D The nodal surface of 2s orbital exists at a distance
of 2a0 from the nucleus. Where a0 is the Bohr radius
D It is the region where probability of finding electron
(0.529 Å)
density (2) is zero .
D The curve for 2s orbital has two peaks the curve
D Number of radial nodes = (n – l) – 1 passes through lower maximum at 0.53 A0 and
where n = principal quantum number higher maximum at 2.6A0 radial distance.
l = Azimuthal quantum number Shapes of Atomic Orbitals :
eg: For 1s, 2p,3d,4f no of nodes = 0 D The space around the nucleus, where the
probability of finding electron (2) is maximum is
For 2s, 3p,4d,5f no of nodes = 1
called an orbital.
For 3s, 4p,5d,6f no of nodes = 2 D The maximum probability of finding an electron
in an orbital is 95 %

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S-ORBITAL :
D The shapes of p-orbitals are
D The variation of 2 as function of r for 1s and 2s
orbitals is given as follows

D p-sub shell is three fold degenerate.

D-ORBITAL :
D It may be noted that (from b-graph) for 1s orbital D In a d - sub shell, the five orbitals are represented
the probablity density is maximum at the nucleus as ¡¢  ¢£ £¡    Š—£
and it decreases sharply as move away from it. D These are degenerate orbitals.
D For 2s orbital the probability density first decreases D The shape of a d - orbital (l = 2) is double dumb
sharply to zero (node) and again starts increasing. bell.
D  ¡¢  ¢£ Š—  £¡ orbitals are oriented in between the
D The region where probability density (2) is zero
called nodes (or) nodal surface. axes.     Š—  £ orbitals are oriented along the
axes.
D For ns-orbital, (n – l) nodes are present.
eg: for 2s: 2 – 1 = 1, 3s : 3 – 1 = 2 Orbital dxy dyz dzx ¡ ¢ £
for 4s : 4 – 1 = 3, ns : n –1 m +2 +1 +1 +2 0
D The shape of s orbital (l = 0, m = 0) is spherical.It is D d-sub shell is five fold degenerate.
a non directional orbital. D The shapes of d-orbitals are
D Size of s-orbital increases with increase in ‘ n’, that
is 4s > 3s > 2s > 1s.
D The shapes of s-orbitals are

P-ORBITAL :
D In a p - sub shell, the three orbitals are represented
as px,py and pz. These are degenerate orbitals.
D The shape of a p - orbital (l = 1) is dumbell.
Nodal planes :
D p - orbitals are oriented along the axes. So they are D The plane where the probability of finding the
directional orbitals. electrons is zero (2=0) is called a nodal plane.
Orbital px py pz D Number of nodal planes (or) angular nodes for an

m +1 +1 0 orbital = l.
D With the increase of principle quantum number
size, and energy of ‘p’ orbitals increases 4p > 3p >
2p.

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D The energies are in the order of s < p < d < f.
Orbital No.of Nodal plane
Nodal planes D It indicates the shape of an orbital and angular
momentum of electron.
S 0 Nil
D Total number of sub shells in an energy level = n
Px 0 YZ D Angular momentum of the electron in an orbital
Py 1 ZX ‘
 l l •  ‘ l l  
Pz 1 XY 

dxy 2 YZ, ZX where h = Planck’s constant

l = Azimuthal quantum number
dyz 2 ZX, XY No. of electrons in a sub shell = 2( 2l+1)
dxz 2 XY, YZ
n value l value Sub-shell notation
¡ 2 in between YZ & 1 0 1s
¢

ZX Planes 2 0 2s
1 2p
D d z 2 orbital has no nodal plane ,because it has
0 3s
torous ring. It has two nodal cones above and below
the plane. 3 1 3p
D When the number of nodal planes increases, the 2 3d
energy of the orbital increases. So the energy order 0 4s
of the orbitals is s < p < d < f 4 1 4p
D Number of radial nodes = n – l – 1
2 4d
where n = principal quantum number
l = Azimuthal quantum number 3 4f
Magnetic Quantum number (ml):
QUANTUM NUMBERS
D It was proposed by Lande.
D Four quantum numbers are required for the D The values of m depends on ‘l’.
complete explanation of electrons in an atom.
D The values ranges from = +l ..... 0 ..... – l
1. Principal quantum number
2. Azimuthal quantum number D The total ‘m’ values = 2l + 1
3. Magnetic quantum number D The total number of ‘m’ values indicates the total
4. Spin quantum number number of orbitals in the subshell.
Principal Quantum Numbers (n) : D The number of orbitals in s, p,d,f, g and h sub shells
D It was proposed by NeilsBohr are 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 and 11 respectively.
D The values of n =1, 2, 3, 4 ..... or K,L,M,N ....... D It indicates the orientation of orbitals in space.
respectively
D The number of orbitals in an energy level = n2
D It indicates the size and energy of the orbit.
D With the increase of ‘n’, size and energy of orbital D The number of orbitals in a sub shell = 2l + 1
increases D Maximum number of electrons in a subshell
D The maximum number of electrons in an orbit = 2n2 = 2 (2l + 1) where l = Azimuthal quantum number.
D Total number of orbitals = n2 (n = no.of the orbit) Value of l 0 1 2 3 4 5
D Angular momentum of an electron in an orbit
Sub-shell s p d f g h
= nh/2
No.of orbitals(2l+1) 1 3 5 7 9 11
Azimuthal Quantum Numbers (l) :
D It was proposed by Sommerfeld No.of electrons2(2l+1) 2 6 10 14 18 22

D The values of l depends on ‘n’ . Spin Quantum Number (ms):

D The values are = 0, 1, 2, .....( n -1 ). D It was proposed by Goudsmit and Uhlenbeck.
D The values of l represents various sub shells. When D The values of spin quantum number are
l = 0, 1, 2, 3 ... the orbitals are s, p, d, f ....... sub shells
respectively. independent. The values of œ   Š— 

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D For each value of ‘m’, there can be two ‘s’ values.
2) l gives the shape of an orbtial
D It indicates the direction of the spin of the electron.
3) m gives the energy of the electron in the orbital
D The clock wise   direction spin is represented 4) s gives the direction of spin of the electron in
by  and anticlock wise   direction spin is the s-orbital.
Key: 3
represented by – (1/2)
D Spin anuglar momentum of the electron EXAMPLE - 59
‘
= œ œ  ; where ‘s’ is total spin. What is the total number of orbitals associated

with the principle quantum number n=3?
D Maximum number of electrons in an orbital = 2. Sol. For n=3, the possible values of l are 0, 1 and 2.
D The maximum number of electrons present in s, p, Thus there is one 3s orbital (n=3, l = 1 and
d and f shells are 2, 6, 10 and 14 respectively.
Total spin of an atom = n ×(1/2) –  •
 there are five 3d orbitals (n = 3, l = 2
(n = number of unpaired electrons) and m1 = – 2, –1, 0, + 1, + 2)
D Each orbital can accommodate two electrons with The same value can also be obtained by using the
opposite spin or spin paired; paired electrons cancel relation; number of orbitals = n2 i.e., 32 = 9
the magnetic moment and develop mutual EXAMPLE - 60
magnetic attraction as shown in figure.
Using s, p, d, f notations, describe the orbital with
the following quantum numbers
a) n = 2, l = 1 b) n= 4, l = 0,
c) n = 5, l = 3 d) n = 3, l = 2
Sol. n l orbital
a) 2 1 2p
D Electrons having same spin are called spin parallel
b) 4 0 4s
and those having opposite spin are called spin
paired. c) 5 3 5f
d) 3 2 3d
Energy of Orbitals
D The energy of an electron in a hydrogen atom is
EXAMPLE - 56 determined by the principal quantum number.
The magnetic quantum number for the valence Thus the energy of the orbitals increases as follows:
electron of Caesium is 1s < 2s = 2p < 3s = 3p = 3d < 4s = 4p = 4d = 4f
(1) 3 (2) 0 (3) – 3
D The energy of an electron in a multielectron atom
(4) Any number between +3 to –3
depends not only on its principal quantum number
Key: 2
(shell), but also on its azimuthal quantum number
EXAMPLE - 57 (subshell).
The magnetic quantum number represents D The energy of an electron is given by (n + 1) value.
1) Size of the orbital D The lower the value of (n + 1) for an orbital, the
2) Spin angular momentum lower is its energy. If two orbitals have the same
3) Orbitalangular momentum value of (n + 1), the orbital with lower value of ‘n’
4) Spatial orientation of orbital. will have the lower energy.
Key: 4 D Energies of the orbitals in the same subshell
EXAMPLE - 58 decrease with increase in the atomic number (Zeff).
Which of the following statements concerning the eg : energies of 2s orbital in IA group
four quantum numbers is false?
1) n gives idea of the size of an orbital
 œ 
   ’    Š     
œ œ œ

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Aufbau Principle : Hund’s Rule :
D In the ground state of the atoms,the orbitals are D It deals with the filling up of degenerate orbitals
filled in order of their increasing energies. with electrons (degenerate = orbitals of equal
D It means , among the available orbitals, the orbitals energy)
of lowest energy are filled first. D The orbitals having the same values for n and l are
called degenerate orbitals.
D The energy value of an orbital increases as its
Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity :
(n + l) value increases.
D It states that electrons are distributed among the
D If two orbitals have the same value for (n + l), the
orbitals of a subshell in such a way as to give the
orbital having lower ‘n’ value is first filled.
maximum number of unpaired electrons with
D The increasing order of energy’s different orbitals parallel spins.
is as follows.
1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d < 4p < 5s < 4d < 5p < 6s
< 4f < 5d < 6p < 7s< .......
Moellar diagram of order of filling of orbitals :

D The pairing of electrons in the p,d and f orbitals

start with the entry of 4th, 6th and 8th electrons
respectively.
ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION OF ATOMS
D The distribution of electrons into orbitals of an atom
is called Electronic Configuration.
D It is represented as nlx notation or moellar diagram
D The electrons in the inner shells are called core
electrons.
D The electrons that are added to the electronic shell
with highest principal quantum number are called
valence electrons.
Electronic Configurations From Z = 21 to 30
Elements symbol At.No Electronic
D It gives the restrictions in filling of various orbitals configuration
with electrons. Scandium Sc 21 [Ar] 3d1 4s2
D It states that - No two electrons in an atom can have
Titanium Ti 22 [Ar] 3d2 4s2
the same set of all four quantum numbers .
Venedium V 23 [Ar] 3d3 4s2
D The two electrons in a given orbital may have same
Chromium Cr 24 [Ar] 3d5 4s1
values of n, l and m, but different ‘s’ value.
Manganese Mn 25 [Ar] 3d5 4s2
D It says that , an orbital cannot accommodate more
than two electrons. Iron Fe 26 [Ar] 3d6 4s2
Cobalt Co 27 [Ar] 3d7 4s2
eg : For 2s orbital, Nickel Ni 28 [Ar] 3d8 4s2
Copper Cu 29 [Ar] 3d10 4s1
Zinc Zn 30 [Ar] 3d10 4s2
For 1st electron, n = 2, l = 0, m = 0, s = 
D In the above table the electronic configuraiton of
chromimum and copper is exceptional
For 2nd electron, n = 2, l = 0, m = 0, s = 
Exceptional configurations of chromium and copper :
D The maximum number of electrons present in s, p, D The electronic configurations of chromium (Cr) and
d and f shells are 2, 6, 10 and 14 respectively. copper (Cu) are different from expected electronic
configuration.
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Expected Actual D More are the number of electrons with identical
Chromium spin more are the number of ways of exchanging
[Ar] 3d4 4s2 [Ar] 3d5 4s1 with other electrons, more will be the energy
Copper released called exchange energy.
[Ar] 3d9 4s2 [Ar] 3d10 4s1
D Moreover, we know that decrease in energy leads
D These excepted configurations are due to the fact to stability.
that the half-filled and full-filled orbitals are very
Case I:
stable and nature loves stability and so do the
D If the electronic configuration of chromium was
elements.
[Ar] 3d4 4s2, then electrons could be exchanged in
D So, the unexcepted electronic configurations are
acquired to gain stability. only six ways as shown below.
D As in case of chromium, in its actual electronic
configuration, d-orbitals are half-filled.

3+2+1=6 ways
Completely filled orbitals
D Possible exchanges for a d4 configuration
D Causes of stability of completely filled and Half-
filled subshells. The reasons for the stability of D Exchange energy = nC2 = 4C2 = 6
completely filled and half-filled subshells are as
Case II : Actual configuration of chromium is
follows:
1. Symmetrical distribution of electrons :
D It is a known fact that the symmetry leads to
stability. So, the half-filled and fully-filled orbitals
are symmetrical, hence stable.
D Moreover this type of electrnic configuration is even
favoured by energy factor. The electrons in the 3d
subshell have equal energy, but they just differ in
their special distribution.
D This results in less shielding of one another.Due to
small shielding the electrons are puller closer to the
nucleus.
D And as the electrons move closer to the nucleus, D Possible exchanges for a d5 configuration so, in total
their energy decreases (more negative). Further the 4+3+2+1=10 ways of exchange
decrease in energy leads to stability. D Here, we conclude that in actual half-filled
configuration of chromium more are the number
2. Exchange energy :
of exchanges i.e., 10 in contrast to 6 exchanges in
D Electrons with the same spin have a tendency to the expected configuration.
exchange their positions when they are present in D Similarly the exchange energy of d10 electronic
the degenerate orbitals of a subshell. configuration is more than for d9 configuration.
D The energy released during this exchange is called Therefore the d10 electronic configuration of copper
exchange of energy. is stable.

Structure of Atom 84
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Snap Shots
1. Dalton’s Atomic Theory successfully explains 17. An ideal black body is a hallow sphere coated
the law of conservation of mass, law of constant inside with platinum black and having a small
composition and law of multiple proportions. hole.

2. The atomic theory of matter was first proposed 18. The plot of intensity of radiation against wave
by john Datlon,known as Daltons atomic thoery. length indicates that at any temperature the in-
tensity increases with the wave length, reaches
3. According to Modern atomic theory atoms can a maximum and then decreases.
be further devided in to subatomic particles i.e
19. As temperature increases, the peak of the curve
electrons,protons and neutrons. shift towards lower wave lengths.
4. In discharge tube experinece cathode rays are 20. One quantum of energy, E = hv, where v is
produced by passing an electric discharge frequency of the radiation.
through gases at low pressure (0.01 mm) and
high voltage (10,000 voltes). 21. Planck’s constant (h), is given as, 6.6256 × 10–34
Joule. sec or kg.m2 sec–1.
5. The value of charge to mass ratio of electron is
 Œ”  22. Substance absorb or emit light discontinuously
in the form of small packets or bundles.The
6. Mulliken determined the charge of the electron smallest packet of energy is called quantum.
by an oil drop experiment
23. When light is exposed to clean metallic
7. Charge on the oildrops was always an integral surface,electron are ejected from the
multiple of   Œ surface.This effect is called photo electric effect.

–Ž   ” ‘    
8. (e/m) value of anode rays is maximum when 24. The wave length or wave number of varoius
the gas present in the tube is hyderogen lines in the visible region can be expressed by
an equation.
9. Isotopes: Atoms with identical atomic number
but different mass numbers are known as  
   
isotopes. eg: 1H1,1H2,1H3  — — 

10. Isobars: Atom s with same mass number with 25. Maximum number of lines produced when an
different atomic number are known as isobars. electron jumps from nth level to ground level
eg: 6C14,7N14 — —  
 .
11. The number of electrons or protons present in
an atom of an element is called its atomic 26. Expression for the radius of Bohrs orbit
number. — ‘
›
12. Atomic number is equal to the nuclear positive  –Ž
charge of an element. 27. Radius of orbits in H atom like ions
13. Number of neutrons=A-Z. —
› 
14. The wave length of visible light is 3800-7600 A° 
28. If r1 and r2 are the radii of two orbits whose
15. Planck’s theory sucessfully explains black-body
principal quantum numbers are n1 and n2, then
radiation.
› —
16. Black body is perfect absorber and perfect 
› —
emitter of radiant of energy.

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29. Total energy of electron = KE+PE 45. Azimuthal quantum number indicates model
the Principal quantum number determines the
Ž Ž Ž
   energy of the electron in the case of the hydro-
› › ›
gen atom.
30. Energy in case of hydrogen is
46. Azimuthal quantum number ‘l’ can have inte-

E2 =  kJ /mole = ev/atom gral vales from o to (n – 1).
— —
47. Values of l are represented by s, p, d, f and g
‘ ‘
31. de Broglie’s equation is   –Ÿ  ™ corresponding to l = 0, 1, 2, 3 and 4.

32. Number of waves in an orbit = n 48. Magnetic quantum number was proposed by
Lande.
33. The uncertainty principle equation is
49. The magnetic quantum number (m) indicates
‘ the spatial orientation of the orbital.
¡ ™ 

50. “m” can have only integral values ranging from
34.  indicates the amplitude of the wave.
–1, 0 and +1.
35.  2 indicates maximum probability of finding
an electron at a certain point. 51. The total number of values of “m” indicates the
36. The plane where the probability of finding the number of spatial orientations of the orbital.
electron is zero ( 2 = 0)is called a nodal plane. 52. For the p– sub shell l = 1. So ‘m’ has three val-
37. Total number of nodes in any orbital is n – l – 1. ues, –1, 0 and +1.
38. The regine in an orbital where the probability 53. A p-subshell contains three orbits px, py and pz
of finding the electron is zero is called a node or orbitals. These are known as degenarate orbit-
a nodal space or radial node. als.
39. Number of nodal planes in an orbital is equal to
54. For each values of “l” there are (2l + 1) values
its azimuthal quantum number.
for “m”. It indicates that there are (2l + 1) differ-
40. p-orbitals the one nodal plane plane. p–orbital
ent spatial orientation for the orbital.
consists of two lobes on either side of the nodel
plane extending along the axis. 55. The spin quantum number indicates the direc-
41. A p–orbital has one nodel plane. p–orbital tion of spin of the electron.
consits of two lobes on either side of the nodel 56. Spin quantum number can has only two values
plane extending along the axis. +1/2 (clockwise) and –1/2 (anti-clockwise).
42. The dxy, dxz and dyz orbitals contain four lobes at
57. Maximum number of orbits in a given subshell
an angle of 45° to the respective axis.
is (2l + 1).
43. The  ¡  ¢ orbital consists of four lobes along
the x-axis and y-axis. 58. Maximum number of electron in a given
44. The  £ – orbital consists of two lobes along the subshell is (2l + 1).
z-axis and the orbital also extended like a smoke 59. Chromium (Z=24) and copper (Z=29) have
ring in plane perpendicular to the z-axis. anomalous electronic configuration.

Structure of Atom 86