Handbook of Energy Audit 9789339221331 Compress

Handbook of Energy Audit
Sonal Desai
Professor and Head
Mechanical Department
C K Pithawala College of Engineering and Technology (CKPCET)
Surat, Gujarat
McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited

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Foreword
Handbook on Energy Audit by Dr Sonal Desai is a very useful book for practicing energy auditors,
energy-conservation professionals, and students of power engineering, energy management, and
energy conservation. A subject necessarily to be made mandatory in energy curriculum, this book
will help
3. Industry/Building owners getting their premises audited

4. UG and PG students specializing in Energy Conservation and Management
The subjects of Energy Conservation and Energy Saving are even more critical in these times of
global debate to mitigate Climate Change (CC). New power plants, which are globally operating
on coal as fuel with almost 60% of thermal power plants generating energy after coal consumption,
thereby pose a challenge of ever-increasing carbon emissions and consequential Global Warming.
Hence, steps for energy conservation and energy saving will result in Virtual Power Plants (VPPs).
Making investments in new coal-based thermal power plants costs `60 million per megawatt as
of construction data available in 2014–15. Whereas, deploying energy conservation and energy-
`10-20 million
per megawatt at the most.
Also, the gestation period for a new power plant is between 5-6 years, whereas energy conservation
and energy-saving measures can be deployed in a year’s time, making this virtual power effective,
quick, economical, and devoid of additional carbon emissions and associated maladies that cause
damage to the environment.
I am sure the author has done justice to the topic and presented the subject in the most lucid
manner. Therefore, the book will serve both beginners and practicing professionals who have deep
interest in energy conservation and energy saving.
My Best Wishes for the Success of this Book!
A Gopalakrishnan Iyer
Editor-in-Chief & Publisher, ENERTIA
President, ENERTIA Foundation
President, Renewable Energy Promotion Association (REPA)
President, Alliance for Small & Medium Enterprises of India (ASMEI)
Preface
a reference book for engineers appearing for energy audit examinations, and as a handy tool for
practicing energy auditors. This book contains the right blend of energy-conservation fundamentals
and applications in the practicing energy world.
The author has long felt that current books on this subject are academic-oriented and geared
towards theoretical knowledge rather than practical approach towards energy audits.
Energy is an active and rapidly developing parameter in everyone’s life, and even in the industry.
It is closely related to living standards of people, economic growth of the country, and the outdoor
environment. The need for effective energy management is increasing day-by-day due to continuous
changes in the energy marketplace, and to conserve nature.
This book will guide the user in learning about energy audit processes by helping identify
and prioritize energy-conservation opportunities which are plenty and untapped. The book also
provides sample calculations at various places to estimate energy saving for a suggested change
or retrofit in the system. Equations and use of instruments are brought together and the outcome is
presented as a systematic approach of audit, supported by detailed collection of technical material.
The author hopes this book will be a hands-on help to professionals aiming or practicing energy
audits. At the same time, the author would like to receive any constructive suggestions that readers
may wish to pass on at sonal.desai@ckpcet.ac.in
Let’s all make a better world that optimizes energy potential and conserves nature as well!
Sonal Desai
Publisher’s Note
All our books are developed with a lot of love and sincere hard work. If you would like to make a
suggestion or share your views, write in to us at info.india@mheducation.com, mentioning the title
and author’s name in the subject line.
Contents
Foreword v
Preface vii
1. Global and Indian Energy Scenarios 1–21

1.1 Energy Conservation 1
1.2 Energy Audit 2
1.3 Energy Scenario of India 3
1.3.1 Coal 3
1.3.2 Oil and natural gas 5
1.3.3 Electricity 5
1.3.4 Hydro energy 6
1.3.5 Nuclear energy 7
1.4 Present Nonrenewable Energy Scenario 7
1.4.1 Wind energy 8
1.4.2 Biomass power generation 9
1.4.3 Small hydropower plant 10
1.4.4 Solar power 11
1.4.5 Off-grid renewable power 11
1.4.6 Decentralized system 11
1.5 Present Energy Consumption 13
1.5.1 Gross domestic product (GDP) 13
1.5.2 Energy intensity 13
1.5.3 Current energy production and pricing 13
1.6 Energy Security 15
1.7 Energy Strategy for the Future 16
1.7.1 National electricity policy, 2005 16
1.7.2 Tariff policy, 2006 16
1.7.4 The electricity act, 2003 17

1.8 Clean Development Mechanism 18
1.8.1 Objectives of the clean development mechanism 18
1.8.2 Applications of the clean development mechanism 18
Descriptive Questions 18
Short-answer Questions 19
Multiple-Choice Questions 19
Glossary of Energy Terms 20
x Contents
2. Types of Energy Audits and Energy-Audit Methodology 22–47
2.2 Company/Building Where Energy Audit is Performed 23

2.3 Energy-Audit Methodology 23
Phase I Audit Preparation 24
Step 2: Scope of audit 25

Step 3: Selection of audit team 26
Step 4: Audit plan 26
Step 5: Audit checklist 27
Step 6: Initial walkthrough audit 27
Step 7: Collecting energy bills and data 27
Step 8: Conducting preliminary analysis 27
Phase II Execution 29
Step 1: Data inventory and measurement 29
Step 2: Analyzing energy-use patterns 31
Step 3: Benchmarking and comparative analysis 31
Step 4: Identifying energy-saving potential 32
Phase III Reporting 33

Step 1: Preparing audit report with recommendations 33
Step 2: Preparing the action plan 34
Step 3: Implementing the action plan 35
2.4 Financial Analysis 35
2.4.1 Simple payback 36
2.4.2 Return on investment 37
2.4.3 Net present value and internal rate of return 37
2.4.4 Lifecycle cost method 39
2.5 Sensitivity Analysis 40
2.6 Project-Financing Options 40
2.6.3 Equity and bonds 41

2.7 Energy Monitoring and Targeting 41
2.7.1 Regression analysis 42
2.7.2 Cumulative sum (CUSUM) 42
2.7.3 Targeting 45
Contents xi
3. Survey Instrumentation 48–59

3.1 Electrical Measurement 48
3.1.1 Multimeter 48
3.1.2 Power-factor meter 48
3.1.3 Power analyzer 48
3.2 Thermal Measurement 49
3.2.1 Temperature measurement 49
Air-leakage measurement 50
3.2.2 Pressure measurement 51
3.2.3 Flow measurement 51
3.2.4 Velocity measurement 52
Orsat apparatus 52
Fyrite gas analyzer 53
Portable combustion analyzer 53
3.3 Light Measurement 53
3.4 Speed Measurement 54
3.5 Data Logger and Data-Acquisition System 54
Data acquisition 54
3.6 Thermal Basics 55
4. Energy Audit of Boilers 60–85
4.1.1 Fire-tube boiler 61

4.1.2 Packaged boiler 61
4.1.3 Water-tube boiler 63
4.1.5 Pulverized coal boiler 66

4.1.6 Fluidized-bed boiler (FBC) 67
4.2 Parts of a Boiler 69
4.3.1 Direct method 69

4.3.2 Indirect method 70
4.4.1 How to measure excess air 76

4.4.2 Excess air control 76
xii Contents
4.5 Energy-Saving Methods 77

4.5.1 Keeping the boiler surface clean from soot deposition 77
4.5.2 Waste-heat utilization 78
4.5.4 Effective boiler loading 79

4.5.5 Exhaust-gas recirculation 80
4.5.7 Make-up water and feedwater management 80

Methods to monitor scale formation 81
Water-treatment methods 81
4.5.9 Heat loss in de-aeration 82
Checklist 83
Thumb Rules 83
5. Energy Audit of Furnaces 86–101
5.1 Parts of a Furnace 86
Heating system 86
Refractory 86
Loading unloading system 86
Heat exchanger 86
Instrumentation and control 86
Batch furnace 87
Continuous furnace 87
Flow-through 89
Conveyer belt 89
Rotary kilns 89
Walking beam 89
Vertical shaft 90
5.3 Energy-Saving Measures in Furnaces 90
5.3.1 Heat generation 90
5.3.2 Air preheating 90
5.3.3 Oxygen enrichment 91
5.3.4 Heat transfer 92
5.3.5 Heat loss through outer surface and openings 92
5.3.6 Heat recovery 93
Contents xiii
5.3.7 Use of advanced technology 93
Energy saving in an arc furnace 93

5.3.9 Changing power source from AC to DC 94
5.3.10 Use of continuous casting machine 95
5.3.11 Use of a high-frequency melting furnace 95
Use of pulverized coal instead of coking coal 95

Installation of top-gas-recovery turbine 95
Dry quenching of coke 95
Case Study 99
Objective 99
Technical detail 99
Outcome 100
Checklist 100
6. Energy Audit of a Power Plant 102–121
6.1 Indian Power-Plant Scenario 102
6.2 How is Energy Audit of Power Plants Helpful? 102
6.3 Types of Power Plants 102
6.3.1 Thermal power plant 102
6.3.2 Combined-cycle power plant 107
6.4 Energy Audit of Power Plant 108
6.4.1 Use of supercritical pressure boilers 109
Discussion 109
6.4.2 Improving condenser performance by condenser-tube cleaning 109
Discussion 109
6.4.3 Waste-heat recovery 110
Discussion 110
Waste-heat-driven steam turbine 110
Waste-heat recovery in LNG fuelled HRSG system 111
6.4.4 Improvement in performance of air preheater 112
Discussion 112
xiv Contents
6.4.5 Sootblowing optimization 114
Discussion 114
Discussion 114
6.4.7 Reduction in auxiliary power consumption 115
Discussion 115
Boiler feedwater system 115
Fans and draft systems 116
Coal-handling plant 117
Coal milling/grinding system 117
Cooling-water system 117
Water treatment plant and water pumping 117
Compressed air system 117
6.4.8 Gas-turbine inlet air cooling 118
Discussion 118
7. Energy Audit of Steam-Distribution Systems 122–142
7.1 Why is Steam Used as a Heating Fluid? 122
7.2 Steam Basics 123
7.3 How to Estimate Requirement of Steam? 124
7.4 Steam-Distribution System 125
7.5 Pressure 126
7.6 Piping 127
7.7 Losses in Steam-Distribution Systems 128
7.7.1 Quantify and estimate of steam leak 128
7.7.2 Insulation on steam-distribution lines and condensate return lines 129
7.7.3 Flash steam 131
7.7.4 Condensate recovery 132
7.7.5 Pipe size 133
7.8 Energy-Conservation Methods 134
7.8.1 Use of two different-capacity steam generators for two different
pressure requirements 134
7.8.2 Install turbine between high-pressure steam generator and end use in new set-up
or replace pressure-reducing valve with turbine in existing set-up 134
Contents xv
7.8.3 Use steam-turbine drive instead of electric motor 134

7.8.4 Cover open vessels containing hot water 134
7.8.6 Use steam at lowest possible pressure 135

7.8.7 Use low-pressure waste steam to run vapour-absorption refrigeration
system 135
7.8.8 Enhance heat transfer 135
7.8.9 Proper selection of steam trap 135
7.8.10 Use of vapour recompression 136
7.8.11 Use of dry steam 136
Checklist 139
Housekeeping Checklist 139
140
Thumb Rules 140
Numerical Problems 141
8. Compressed Air System 143–158
8.2 Types of Compressors 145

8.2.1 Positive-displacement compressors 145
8.2.3 Reciprocating air compressors (1 CFM to 6300 CFM) 145

Thermodynamics of a reciprocating air compressor 147
8.2.4 Rotary screw compressors (30 CFM to 3000 CFM) 147
8.2.5 Vane compressor (40 CFM to 800 CFM) 148
8.2.6 Centrifugal compressors (400 CFM to 15000 CFM) 149
8.3 Compressed Air-System Layout 149
8.4 Energy-Saving Potential in a Compressed-Air System 150
8.4.1 Analyze compressed-air quality and quantity need 150
8.4.2 Inappropriate use of compressed air 151
8.4.3 Leakage in a compressed-air system 151
Leak-detection methods 152
8.4.4 Pressure drop in a compressed-air system 152
8.4.5 Controls of a compressed-air system 153
Individual compressor controls 153
Modulating or throttling control 153
Multiple compressor control 153
8.4.6 Compressed-air storage 154
xvi Contents
8.4.7 Regular maintenance 154

8.4.8 Heat recovery in compressed-air systems 155
Checklist 155
Thumb Rules 156
Fill in the Blanks 157
9. Energy Audit of HVAC Systems 159–192
9.1 Introduction to HVAC 159
9.2 Components of an Air-Conditioning System 160
Outside air damper 160
Mixing chamber 160
Filter 160
Heating and cooling coils 160
Fan 160
9.3 Types of Air-Conditioning Systems 160
9.4 Human Comfort Zone and Psychrometry 163
Psychrometry 164
Dry-bulb temperature 164
Wet-bulb temperature 164
Relative humidity 164
9.5 Vapour-Compression Refrigeration Cycle 164
9.5.1 Performance of vapour-compression refrigeration cycle 165
9.5.2 Parameters affecting the performance of vapour-compression
refrigeration cycle 166
9.5.3 Parts of a vapour-compression refrigeration cycle 167
Condenser 168
Expansion valve 168
Evaporator 169
Refrigerant 169
9.6 Energy Use Indices 169
9.7 Impact of Refrigerants on Environment and Global Warming 170
9.8 Energy-Saving Measures in HVAC 171
9.8.1 CAV vs VAV 171
CAVs with terminal reheat systems 171
CAV systems with terminal reheat in interior spaces and perimeter induction or
fan-coil units 171
Contents xvii
All-air induction systems with perimeter reheat 171

CAV double-duct systems 172
Variable air volume (VAV) systems 172
9.8.2 Optimize ventilation air 172
9.8.3 Use of variable-speed drive 173
9.8.4 Replace existing chiller 175
9.8.5 Use of boost-up systems or alternative systems 176
9.8.6 Duct-leakage repair 176
9.8.7 Heat-recovery wheel 176
9.8.8 Exhaust fans 177
9.8.9 Reducing cooling load 177
9.8.10 Operate the system at higher evaporator temperature and
lower condenser temperature 178
9.8.13 Use of a vapour-absorption refrigeration system 180

9.8.14 Replace vapour-compression-based cooling with evaporative cooling 181
9.8.15 Use of alternative refrigerant 182
9.8.16 Encourage green building concept in india 183
9.8.17 Promote use of BMS and DDC systems 184
9.8.18 Thermal energy storage (TES) based air-conditioning system 184
Advantages of a VRF system 186

9.9 Star Rating and Labelling by BEE 187
Checklist 188
Thumb Rules 189
10. Electrical-Load Management 193–207
10.1 Electrical Basics 193
10.2 Electrical Load Management 194
10.2.1 Electricity and its cost 195
10.2.2 Load-management techniques 196
Use of storage system 196
Change in technology 196
Decentralized power generation 197
Reduce electricity use during peak hours 197
Use of demand controllers 197
xviii Contents
10.3 Variable-Frequency Drive 198

Use of variable-frequency drive 199
10.4 Harmonics and Its Effects 200
10.4.1 Cause and effect of harmonics 201
10.4.2 How to control harmonics 201
10.5 Electricity Tariff 201
PART A: Residencial premises (at low and medium voltage) 202
PART B: Tariffs for high-tension consumers contracted for 100 kVA and above
(3.3 kV and above, 3-phase, 50 cycles/second) and extra high tension 202
Power-factor penalty 203
Power-factor rebate 203
10.6 Power Factor 203
10.6.1 How to improve power factor 204
10.7 Transmission and Distribution Losses 205
Why do technical losses occur in transmission and distribution of electricity? 205
Methods to reduce technical losses 205
Why do commercial losses occur in transmission and distribution of electricity? 206
Methods to Reduce Commercial Losses 206
11. Energy Audit of Motors 208–232
11.2 Parameters Related to Motors 211
11.4 Energy Conservation in Motors 214

11.4.1 Appropriate loading of motor 214
Direct electrical measurement 214
Slip measurement 215
Amperage readings 215
11.4.2 Selection of the right motor 216
11.4.3 Assessing motor and drive-system operating conditions 217
Motor rewinding 217
Power-factor improvement 218
Power quality 218
Effect of harmonics on an induction motor 219
Variable-frequency drives 220
Contents xix
11.4.4 Optimization of the complete system 220

Adopting MEPS (minimum energy performance standard) 220
Change the connections 221
Use of soft starters 221
Use of more copper 221
Reduce idle and redundant operations 221
Misalignment 222
Regular inspection and maintenance 222
222
11.5 BEE Star Rating and Labelling 229

Thumb Rules 229
Abbreviations 230
Justify the Following Statements 231
12. Energy Audit of Pumps, Blowers, and Cooling Towers 233–272
Part A: Pumps 233
12.A.1 Centrifugal Pump 234
12.A.2 Positive-Displacement Pump 234
12.A.4 Flow Control and Pump Losses 240

12.A.5 Series and Parallel Arrangement of Pumps 241
12.A.6 Selection of Pump 242
12.A.7 Energy-Saving Potential in a Pump 244
12.A.7.1 Correct sizing of pumps 245
12.A.7.2 Trim impeller of an oversized pump 245
12.A.7.3 Keeping the pump clean and well maintained 246
12.A.7.4 Select right-size motor for a pump 247
12.A.7.6 Use of multiple-speed pumps 247

12.A.7.7 Check pipe layout 248
xx Contents
12.A.8 Steps to Design New Pumping System 248

Step 1 Identify requirement 248
Step 2 Design the pumping system 249
Thumb Rules 249

Part B: Fans and Blowers 249
12.B.1.1 Centrifugal fans 250

12.B.1.2 Axial fans 251
12.B.2 Fan Laws and Curves 251
12.B.3 Power Consumption by a Fan 256
12.B.4 Energy-Saving Potential in Fans 257
12.B.4.1 Fan selection 257
12.B.4.2 Maintenance of a fan 257
12.B.4.3 Identify and rectify leakage 258
12.B.4.5 Use of variable-frequency driven fans 259

12.B.4.6 Reduce pressure loss in the duct by proper duct design 259
12.B.4.7 Fans in series and parallel arrangements 259
Part C: Cooling Tower 261
12.C.2 Performance of a Cooling Tower 263

12.C.3 Components of a Cooling Tower 264
12.C.3.1 Packing materials 264
12.C.3.2 Hot-water distribution system 265
12.C.3.3 Cooled water basin 265
12.C.3.4 Fans and controllers 265
12.C.3.5 Louvers and drift eliminators 265
12.C.3.6 Tower material of a cooling tower 265
12.C.4.1 Sizing of the cooling tower 266

12.C.4.2 Reduce water loss 267
12.C.4.3 Reduce blowdown 267
12.C.4.4 Maintenance, monitoring, and optimization 267
12.C.4.5 Minimizing corrosion and scale 268
12.C.4.6 Variable frequency drive for fans 268
Thumb rules 268
Checklist for pumps, fans, and cooling towers 269
Descriptive questions 270
Contents xxi
Short-answer questions 270

Numerical problem 271
Fill in the blanks 271
Justify the following statements 272
Multiple-choice questions 272
13. Energy Audit of Lighting Systems 273–294
13.1 Fundamentals of Lighting 273
13.2 Different Lighting Systems 275
13.2.1 Incandescent lamp 275
13.2.3 Fluorescent lamps 277

13.2.4 High-intensity discharge (HID) lamps 277
Mercury vapour 277
Metal halide 277
High-pressure sodium (HPS) 278
Low-pressure sodium (LPS) 278
Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) 279
13.3 Ballasts 280
Magnetic ballast 281
Standard core-and-coil 281
Electronic ballasts 281
HID ballast 281
13.4 Fixtures (Luminaries) 281
13.6 Lenses and Louvres 282

13.7 Lighting Control Systems 283
13.7.1 Timers (time-scheduling control system) 283
13.7.2 Dimmer 283
13.7.3 Photocell 283
13.7.4 Infrared presence sensors 284
13.7.5 Ultrasonic presence sensor 284
13.8 Lighting System Audit 284
Step 1 Observation 284
Step 2 Output measurement 285
Step 3 Input measurement 285
Step 4 Compilation of results 285
Step 5 ILER analysis 285
13.9 Energy-Saving Opportunities 286
13.9.1 Daylighting 286
xxii Contents
13.9.2 Task lighting 287

13.9.3 Solar-powered lighting 287
13.9.4 Group re-lamping 288
13.9.5 De-lamping 288
13.9.6 Daylight saving 288
Use of metal halide lamps 289

Use of high-pressure sodium-vapour lamps 289
Use of light emitting diode (LED) lamps 289
Use of electronic ballast 289
Bachat lamp yojana 290

Checklist 291
Short-Answer Questions 292
Numerical Problem 293
14. Energy Audit Applied to Buildings 295–309
14.1 Energy-Saving Measures in New Buildings 296
14.1.2 Envelop heat gain 297

14.1.3 Equipment selection 299
14.1.4 Insulation 300
14.1.5 Cool roof 300
14.1.6 Improving air-tightness 301
14.1.8 Co-ordination between designer and developer 301

14.1.9 HVAC sizing and number of lightings 301
14.1.11 Adopt solar water heating 302

14.1.12 Promote use of decentralized power plants 303
14.1.13 Energy-saving measures in existing buildings 303
14.2 Water Audit 305
Water-audit methodology 305
Part A: Planning and preparation 305
Part C: Data collection 306

Part D: Analysis 306
14.3 How to Audit Your Home? 306
Contents xxiii
14.4 General Energy-saving Tips Applicable to New as Well as Existing Buildings 307
15. Thermal Insulation and Refractory Materials 310–330
15.2 Heat Transfer Mechanism in Thermal Insulation 310

15.2.1 Conduction 311
15.2.2 Convection 311
15.2.3 Radiation 311
15.2.4 Thermal conductivity 312
15.2.5 R-value of insulation 313
15.3.1 Fibrous insulation 315

15.3.2 Cellular insulation 317
15.3.3 Granular insulation 317
15.4 Different Forms of Insulation Materials Available In The Market 319
15.5 Selection of Insulating Material 320
15.6 Calculation of Insulation Thickness 320
15.7 Economic Thickness of Insulation 322
15.8 Refractory Material 324
15.9 Properties of Refractory Materials 324
Melting point 324
Porosity 325
Bulk density 325
Pyrometric cone equivalent (PCE) 325
Thermal expansion 325
Thermal conductivity 325
Cold crushing strength 326
15.10 Commonly Used Refractory Materials 326
Fireclay bricks 326
High-alumina refractory 326
Silica bricks 326
Magnesite refractory 326
Dolomite, chromite, zirconia, and monolithic refractory 326
15.11 Selection of Refractory Material 327

15.12 How to Improve Life of a Refractory Material 327
xxiv Contents
Checklist 328
16. Energy Audit of Heat Exchangers, Waste-Heat Recovery, and
Co-generation 331–361
16.1 Basics of a Heat Exchanger 331
16.2 Heat-Exchanger Applications 334
Preheater 334
Radiator 334
Evaporator and condenser 334
Steam condenser 334
16.3 Performance of a Heat Exchanger 335
16.3.1 Log mean temperature difference (LMTD) 335
16.3.2 Effectiveness — NTU method 338
16.3.3 Pinch analysis 341
16.4 Fouling 343
Sedimentation fouling 343
Inverse solubility fouling 343
Chemical reaction fouling 343
Corrosion-product fouling 343
Biological fouling 343
Prevention and removal of fouling 344
16.5 Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association 344
16.6 Selection of a Heat Exchanger 346
Heat-exchanger tube inserts 346
Use of deformed tubes 347
16.8 Waste-Heat-Recovery Equipment 349

16.8.1 Recuperator (gas-to-gas or gas-to-air heat exchanger) 349
16.8.2 Rotary wheel (heat wheel) 351
16.8.3 Heat-pipe heat exchanger 352
16.8.4 Waste-heat boiler 353
16.8.5 Thermoelectric generator 353
16.8.6 Heat-recovery steam generator (HRSG) 354
16.9 Hurdles in the Waste-Heat-Recovery Process 354
Contents xxv
16.10 Co-Generation 355

16.11 Types of Co-Generation 356
16.11.1 Internal-combustion-engine based co-generation 356
16.11.2 Steam-turbine-based co-generation 357
16.11.3 Gas-turbine-based co-generation 358
16.11.4 Microturbine-based co-generation 358
16.11.5 Fuel-cell-based cogeneration 358
16.12 Feasibility of a Combined Cycle 359
Energy-saving tips in heat exchangers 359
Numerical Problem 361
17. Computer Software and Formats for Energy Audit 362–372
17.1 Name of Software: Energy Lens 362
by Doe for Calculating Home and Building Energy Use 362

17.3 Name of Software: Iheat by Hancock 363
17.4 Name of Software: Matrix 4 Utility Accounting System 363
17.6 Name of Software: 3E Plus (for Insulation Thickness Calculator) 364

17.7 Name of Software: Pump-Flo (to Select Pump) 364
17.8 Name of Software: Eco2.0 To Calculate Energy Saving Due to
Variable Speed Drive Instead of Conventional Drives. 364
17.9 Name of Software: Honeywell VFD, Energy-Saving and Payback Calculator 365
17.10 Name of Software: Canmost—Motor Selection Tool 365
17.11 Name of Software: Motormaster+ 365
Annexure I 373
Annexure II 404
References 419
Index 425
Global and Indian Energy Scenarios
1
Energy is fundamental to daily life—whether it is to provide light, charge mobiles
to irrigate our crops, or to run commercial or electrical enterprises. It provides
� 1.1 ENERGY CONSERVATION
Table 1.1 Classification of energy
Primary energy and Fossil fuels like coal, lignite, oil, natural gas, nuclear, biomass, which are either
Secondary energy found or stored in nature, are primary energy.
Primary energy when converted to electricity, heat, etc., is known as secondary energy.
Commercial energy and Commercial energy is used by industrial, agricultural, transport, domestic, and
Noncommercial energy commercial users in electricity, coal, or other available petroleum forms.
Firewood, cattle dung, agro waste, solar heat, wind etc., are noncommercial ener-
gy. As they are not bought at a price, they are often ignored in energy accounting.
Renewable energy and Inexhaustible sources give renewable energy like wind, sun, geothermal, tidal
Nonrenewable energy waves, hydro, etc. They are clean and have minimum impact on the environment.
All conventional fuels like coal, oil, gas, etc., are nonrenewable energy.
2 Handbook of Energy Audit
� 1.2 ENERGY AUDIT
Table 1.2 Distribution of different plants in the Indian energy scenario
Type of plant Total capacity (MW) Percentage contribution

Coal 1,34,389 59
Hydro 39,789 17
Renewable 28,184 12
Natural gas 20,381 9
Nuclear 4780 2
Oil 1200 1
Total 2,28,723
Source:
1200
Tons of CO2 equivalent per GWhr
1041
1000
800
622
600
400
200
46 39 18 15 14
17
0
ro
s
d
l
al
a
oa
ga
as
rp
in
yd
le
m
om
W
C
la
uc
er
al
H
So
ur
th
N
Bi
at
eo
N
Chart 1.1 Comparison of lifecycle emission
Source:
Global and Indian Energy Scenarios 3
35.00%
Transmission and distribution losses
30.00% 29.20%
25.00%
20.00%
15.00% 13.30%
10.00% 7.70%
5.90% 6.10%
5.00%
0.00%
USA China Austrailia Brazil India
Chart 1.2 Transmission and distribution losses in India and abroad
� 1.3 ENERGY SCENARIO OF INDIA
1.3.1 Coal
Major coal field

TAJIKISTAN
Main coal-fired power plant
Main steel plant

AFGHANISTAN Jammu and
Kashmir Coal-importing port
Himachal CHINA
Pradesh
Punjab Uttarakhand Arunachal
Pradesh
PAKISTAN
Haryana
Delhi NEPAL Sikkim BHUTAN
Assam Nagaland
Uttar Pradesh Meghalaya
Rajasthan Bihar Manipur
INDIA 3 2 BANGLADESH
Tripura
1 Mizoram
4 West
Jharkhand Bengal
Madhya Pradesh Kolkata
Gujarat 5 MYANMAR
Haldia
Chhattisgarh
6 Paradip
Odisha
7
Maharashtra
Mumbai
8 Visakhapatnam
Hyderabad
Andhra
Pradesh
Bay of Bengal
Goa
Arabian Karnataka
sea Ennore
Neyvoli
(lignite) Chennai
Tamil
Nadu
Kerala
Tuticorin Major coal fields
1. Raniganj
SRI LANKA
2. Jharia
3. East Bokaro & west Bokaro
4. Singrauli
5. Pench-Kanhan, Tawa Valley
Indian Ocean
6. Talcher
Km 7. Chanda-wardha
0 250 500 8. Godavari Valley
Figure 1.1 Indian coal map (See color figure)

CO2 SO2 + NO2

30000 t/day 680 t/day
COAL
12000 t/day 1000 MW POWER STATION
FURNACE OIL
101 m3/day 920 MW
WATER GT
98000 m3/day
UAT
ELECTRICITY
80 MW
80 MW 5000 Crores
ASH
4200 t/day
Figure 1.2 Energy balance for a 1000 MW thermal power plant (See color figure)
Source:
1.3.2 Oil and Natural Gas
1.3.3 Electricity
Andhra Pradesh,
Tamil Nadu, 1% 3%
Eastern offshore Tamil Nadu, Tripura, 3%
3% Andhra Pradesh, 1% 3% Rajasthan, 1%
Rajasthan, Gujarat,
9% 6%
Eastern
CBM, 7%
offshore,
35%
Gujarat, Western
18% offshore,
45%
Assam, 10%
Assam, 23%
Western offshore,
32%
Chart 1.3 Geographical distribution of crude oil and natural gas in India (See color figure)
Source:
250
Electricity (MW) thousands
200
150
100
50
0
1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Year
Thermal Hydro Nuclear Other Total
Figure 1.3 Total electricity production (See color figure)
1.3.4 Hydro Energy

1.3.5 Nuclear Energy
� 1.4 PRESENT NONRENEWABLE ENERGY SCENARIO

Installed renewable energy
Solar
4%
Biomass 13%
Hydro 13%
Wind
70%
Chart 1.4 Energy distribution of total

installed capacity of 25410 MW (as on
August 2012) (See color figure)
1.4.1 Wind Energy
Indian Wind Atlas
Wind Atlas
The Indian Wind Atlas
Table 1.3 State-wise installed capacities of wind energy
State Installed capacity (MW) % of total production

Tamil Nadu 7153 38.56
Gujarat 3093 16.67
Maharashtra 2976 16.04
Rajasthan 2355 12.69
Karnataka 2113 11.39
Andhra Pradesh 435 2.34
Madhya Pradesh 386 2.08
Kerala 35 0.19
Others 4 0.02
Total 18, 550
Table 1.4 State-wise potential for installation of wind farms
State Potential (MW) State Potential (MW)

Andaman & Nicobar 2 Madhya Pradesh 920
Andhra Pradesh 5394 Maharashtra 5439
Arunachal Pradesh 201 Manipur 7
Assam 53 Meghalaya 44
Chhattisgarh 23 Nagaland 3
Gujarat 10609 Odisha 910
Himachal Pradesh 20 Rajasthan 5005
Contd
State Potential (MW) State Potential (MW)

Jammu & Kashmir 5311 Sikkim 98
Karnataka 8591 Tamil Nadu 5374
Kerala 790 Uttarakhand 161
Lakshadweep 16 Uttar Pradesh 137
West Bengal 22 Total 49, 130
Table 1.5 Indian wind energy on the world map
Country Installed capacity (MW)

China 62, 364
USA 46, 919
Germany 29, 060
Spain 21, 674
India 16, 084
France 6800
Italy 6737
UK 6540
Other countries 41, 491
Total capacity 2, 37, 669
1.4.2 Biomass Power Generation
jatropha
Table 1.6 State-wise details of biogas power generation
State Installed (kW) Under installation State Installed Under installation

(kW) (kW) (kW)
Andhra Pradesh 253 279 Tamil Nadu 1051 1117
Bihar 0 3 Uttarakhand 37 17
Gujarat 30 0 Uttar Pradesh 10 122
Haryana 115 20 Madhya Pradesh 25 13
Karnataka 746.5 450 Chhattisgarh 0 10
Maharashtra 524.5 215 Kerala 118 9
Punjab 166.5 516 West Bengal 60 0
Rajasthan 7.5 10 Odisha 4 3
Total 3148 2784
1.4.3 Small Hydropower Plant
Table 1.7 Statewise details of small hydropower projects

Potential Installed Under installation Potential Installed Under installation
State State
(MW) (MW) (MW) (MW) (MW) (MW)
Andhra Pradesh 978.4 217.8 35.25 Manipur 109.1 5.5 2.8
Arunachal Pradesh 1341.4 101.5 31 Meghalaya 230 31 1.7
Assam 238.7 31.1 15 Mizoram 168.9 36.5 0.5
Chhattisgarh 1107.1 27.2 140 Nagaland 197 28.7 4.2
Gujarat 202 15.6 - Odisha 295.5 64.3 3.6
Contd
Potential Installed Under installation Potential Installed Under installation

State State
(MW) (MW) (MW) (MW) (MW) (MW)
Goa 6.5 0.05 - Punjab 441.1 154.5 21.2
Haryana 110 70.1 3.35 Rajasthan 57.2 23.9 -
Himachal Pradesh 2397.9 536.9 182.5 Sikkim 266.6 52.1 0.2
Jammu & Kashmir 1430.7 130.5 34.7 Tamil Nadu 46.9 16 -
Karnataka 4141.1 915.4 322 Tripura 46.9 16 -
Kerala 704.1 158.4 52.8 Uttarakhand 1707.9 170.8 178
Madhya Pradesh 820.4 86.1 4.9 Uttar Pradesh 460.8 25.1 -
Andaman &
Maharashtra 794.3 295.5 80.6 7.9 5.3 -
Nicobar
Total 19750 3496 1251
1.4.4 Solar Power
1.4.5 Off-grid Renewable Power
1.4.6 Decentralized System

Figure 1.4 Map of gas pipelines in India (See color figure)

� 1.5 PRESENT ENERGY CONSUMPTION

Others, Traction and
5% Railway, 2%
Commercial,
9%
Industy, 45%
Agricultural,
17%
Domestic,
22%
Chart 1.5 Sector-wise distribution of present

1.5.1 Gross Domestic Product (GDP) energy consumption (See color figure)
C I G X
M
1.5.2 Energy Intensity
1.5.3 Current Energy Production and Pricing

Energy intensity of GDP at constant purchasing power parities
Unit: koe/$05p
Less than 0.15
koe/$05p
0.15 to 0.20 koe/$05p
0.20 to 0.30 koe/$05p
0.30 to 0.70 koe/$05p
More than 0.70 koe/$05p
No data
Source Enerdata
Figure 1.5 World map of energy intensity (See color figure)

7000 0.17
0.165
6000
0.16
Energy intensity (kWh) per rupee)

Per capita energy cons. (kWh)
5000 0.155
0.15
4000
0.145
3000
0.14
2000 0.135
0.13
1000
0.125
0 0.12
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020
Year
Figure 1.6 History of per-capita energy consumption and energy intensity

450
Primary energy production in thousands of

400 389.279
360.399
350
322.988
300
peta joules
250
200
150 130.51
100
50 33.286
0
Non Crude oil Coal Hydro Nuclear
conventional
Figure 1.7 Different sources of energy contributing to total primary energy
� 1.6 ENERGY SECURITY

� 1.7 ENERGY STRATEGY FOR THE FUTURE
1.7.1 National Electricity Policy, 2005
1.7.2 Tariff Policy, 2006

1.7.4 The Electricity Act, 2003

� 1.8 CLEAN DEVELOPMENT MECHANISM
1.8.1 Objectives of the Clean Development Mechanism
1.8.2 Applications of the Clean Development Mechanism
If you cannot create a drop of oil or a watt of power, you have no right to waste it.
Descriptive Questions
Q-3 Write a note on Indian energy security and the Indian energy strategy for future.
Short-Answer Questions
Q-5 What is the Indian Wind Atlas
Multiple-Choice Questions
emission
nd
(b) 3rd
th
(d) 5th
Answers
1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (a) 5. (d) 6. (b) 7. (b)
THINK GREEN
Glossary of Energy Terms
∑ Solid fuel Hard coal

including anthracite and bituminous coal.
Lignite
Coke
∑ Liquid fuel Crude
Motor gasoline
Kerosene
o o
: Kerosene and gasoline or naphtha are blended
volume.
Gas oil or diesel oil
o o
Fuel oil: It consists of residual fuel oil and heavy fuel oil. It is a general
process.
heavy hydrocarbon oil, tar, and pitch. It has high carbon and low ash
: It is semisolid or solid hydrocarbon of brown
: It is a noncondensable gas collected in the petroleum-
∑ Gaseous fuel Natural gas
Coke or oven gas

Biogas
∑ It is obtained from natural or managed forests and also includes wood
∑ Charcoal
∑ Bagasse
∑ Installed capacity
∑ Energy
energy
2
Types of Energy Audits and
Energy-Audit Methodology
� 2.1 DEFINITION OF ENERGY AUDIT

Types of Energy Audits and Energy-Audit Methodology 23
� 2.2 COMPANY/BUILDING WHERE ENERGY AUDIT IS PERFORMED
Industry/Building
Plant A/Ground Floor Plant B/First Floor
Department Department Department Department

A/Section I B/Section II A B
Process Process
Process A Process B Process
A B
Equipment Equipment B Equipment A Equipment A Equipment

A
Chart 2.1 Symbolic representation of the company or building where the audit is performed
� 2.3 ENERGY-AUDIT METHODOLOGY
Preliminary audit
walkthrough audit
Table 2.1 Preliminary and detailed audits
Preliminary audit (Walkthrough audit) Detailed audit
Fast process of existing data collection, e.g., collection Observe the parameters if metering devices are
of energy bill, gas bill, invoice. installed and if not, use measuring devices.
Check for steam, fluid, compressed air, chilled air, Apart from physical check, carry out energy and
fuel leak, damper position, etc. material balance for each stream and process.
Identify immediate and low-cost energy-saving areas, In addition to immediate and low-cost energy-
e.g., setting the thermostat on higher temperature in saving potential, work out vigorously for technology
air conditions, reducing lighting lamps, etc. change, retrofits, cost of change, or upgradation of
installation, etc.
Identify the areas where detailed energy audit is Carry out in-depth financial analysis of proposed
required like process modification, waste-heat changes. Suggest ESCOs.
utilization, etc.
Detailed audit
∑
∑
∑
Phase I Audit Preparation

� Step 1:
∑
∑
Audit criteria Data inventory

and
measurement
Preparing the audit
Scope report with
recommendations
Analyzing
Selection of energy-use
team pattern
Audit plan
Benchmarking
and Preparing the action
comparative analysis plan
Checklist
preparation
Initial
walkthrough Identifying
energy-saving
potential
Collecting energy
bills and data Implementing the
action plan
Cost-benefit
Preliminary analysis analysis
PREPARATION EXECUTION REPORTING
Chart 2.2 Three phases of audit

∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
� Step 2:
Industry/Building
Plant A/Ground Floor Plant B/First Floor
Department Department Department Department

A/Section I B/Section II A B
Process Process
Process Process A B Process
A B
Equipment Equipment
Equipment
Equipment Equipment A A
A B
Chart 2.3 Scope of audit
∑
� Step 3:
� Step 4:
∑
∑
∑
∑
� Step 5:
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
� Step 6:
� Step 7:
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
� Step 8:
A preliminary analysis
Fine gas
902 MJ Hot exhaust
air 1500 MJ
Electricity
10 KJ
Steam Steam Process Condensate
HD oil boiler 3987 KJ heating 1600 KJ
5000 MJ
Blow down loss Product

50 MJ Air
Electricity Refrigeration Cold water Process Finished

500 MJ plant cooling product
Heat from condenser 1500 MJ
Figure 2.1 Energy flow chart 1

Total Efficiency (HHV) : 65.00%
Recycle: 50%
0.99 MPa
1273 K 34 mol/s 1149 K
566 K 0.99 MPa
0.99 MPa 1750 K
55.181 MW 310 mol/s
SOFC
Combustor
Inverter 0.772 V Exhaust gas 0.101 MPa

97% 1750 K 1237 K Water
1 123 K 0.98 MPa
Blower 1.0 MPa
0.032 MW Heat
841 K exchanger
Feed
Pre- Pre- 0.97 MPa pump
heater heater 400 K 365 K
635 K 0.1 MPa 0.1 MPa
100 MW
Natural gas 1.01 MPa
(methane) 580 K Vapor
290 K Separator
1.01 MPa G CP TB CP TB 290 K
112 mol/s 1.01 MPA
12.620 MW 0.1 MPa Oxygen 0.924 MW
A.C. gen
Oxygen Lique-
95% 322 K
separator faction
Air 0.1 MPA
290 K Air Carbon Dioxide
Air 1.844 MW
290 K tank
2264 mol/s 365 K
Figure 2.2 Energy flow chart 2

Phase II Execution
� Step 1:
Sankey
diagram
TOTAL
56 56
ENERGY
IN
100
T% = 100% 27
or
T Joules 17
17 27
Waste Sound S% Heat H%

energy or or
out S Joules H Joules
Figure 2.3 A sample Sankey diagram

250
Diesel consumption in GPM
200
150
100
50
0
Jan Feb Mar April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
Month of the year
Figure 2.4 Inventory diagram for diesel-oil consumption per month

3300
3200
Unit consumption kWh 3100

3000
2900
2800
2700
2600
2500
2400
Jan Feb Mar April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
Month of the year
Figure 2.5 Inventory diagram for annual electricity consumption

Cleaning cost
4%
Maintenance
cost
16%
Energy Cost
54%
Operating
cost
26%
Figure 2.6 Pie chart of annual building-operating cost (See color figure)
7000
Consumption in MJ
Annual Energy
6000
5000
4000
3000
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
Year
Plant A Plant B
Figure 2.7 Specific energy consumptions of two different plants

Salvage value
Revenues
t=0
End of life-cycle
Maintenance costs
Initial cost
Figure 2.8 Cash flow of a project
∑
� Step 2:
Energy consumed (kW)

Energy intensity (kW per ton) =
on (ton)
Productio
� Step 3:
∑
∑
∑
∑
� Step 4:
Energy Conservation Methods (ECM)
∑
x x
∑
� Step 5:
Phase III Reporting

� Step 1:
∑
Table 2.2 Sample audit report
S. No. Content
1 Summary of report
1.1 Key findings like annual consumption, budget, performance indicators, etc.
1.2 Recommended energy-conservation methods
1.3 Outcome of financial analysis
2 Audit, objective, scope, and methodology
3 About the plant
3.1 Introduction of plant and general plant details
3.2 Process and production of plant
3.3 Plant layout
Type of energy used in the plant
4 Process description
4.1 Flow diagram
4.2 Energy balance
5 Energy analysis (whichever applicable)
5.1 Boiler assessment
5.2 Lighting system assessment
5.3 HVAC system assessment
5.4 Compressed-air system assessment
6 Energy use and cost analysis
6.1 Specific energy consumption
6.2 Analysis of energy use and production pattern
6.3 Energy benchmarking
7 Energy-conservation measures
7.1 Suggested energy-conservation measures with financial analysis
7.2 Energy-action plan
7.3 Energy benchmarking
8 Concluding remarks and brief action plan for implementation of energy-saving measures
9 Acknowledgement
10 Annexure
Worksheet and calculations
Technical data
List of supplier/vendors for technologies and systems
� Step 2:
∑
∑
∑
∑
� Step 3:
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
� 2.4 FINANCIAL ANALYSIS
principal (P)
interest (I
depreciation
time value of money
simple
interest
F = *
compound interest
F =
capital cost Annual cash
2.4.1 Simple Payback
Capital cost
Annual savings
0 5 0 5 10 15
Project life (years) Project life (years)
Project A Project B
Figure 2.9 Simple payback method applied to two different types of projects
2.4.2 Return on Investment
Annual net cash flow

¥100
Capital cost
Total saving (for life of project) - Estimated project cost 100

¥
Estimated project cost Project life
2.4.3 Net Present Value and Internal Rate of Return
present value of money future value of

money
internal rate
of return.
B1 - C1 B2 - C2 B - Cn
– + 2
+ �� + n
(1 + r ) (1 + r ) (1 + r )n
B1 - C1 B - C2 B - Cn
– + 2 2
+ �� + n
(1 + IRR ) (1 + IRR ) (1 + IRR )n
Example 2.1
Solution
n
B1 - C1 B2 - C2 B - Cn B -C
–
(1 + r )
+
(1 + r ) 2
+ �� + n
(1 + r )n
= Â (1t + r )tt
t =0
3400 - 3000 40700 - 4000 33500 - 5000 2500 + 9000

+ + + = 8955 Rupees
(1 + 0.12 ) (1 + 0.12 )2 (1 + 0.12 )3 (1 + 0.12 )4
Example 2.2
Solution
Table 2.3 Net present value for different discount rates
Discount rate Net present value

12% +8955
16% +7139
17% +441
18% –1104
Figure 2.10 Screenshot of Microsoft Excel 2007
2.4.4 Lifecycle Cost Method
C
Â tn= 0 (1 + td )t
= –
� 2.5 SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS
� 2.6 PROJECT-FINANCING OPTIONS
2.6.1 Credit Financing (Loan)

2.6.2 Lease Financing
operating lease,
capital lease
2.6.3 Equity and Bonds
� 2.7 ENERGY MONITORING AND TARGETING
Energy monitoring
Table 2.4 Tabulated data for energy consumption for 12 weeks
Week Production (tonnes) Energy consumption (kWh)

1 140 145
2 90 105
3 70 92
4 80 87
5 120 147
6 130 157
7 140 145
8 100 110
9 90 114
10 80 106
11 70 84
12 65 76
2.7.1 Regression Analysis
180
160 y = 0.9572x + 20.277
140 R² = 0.9049
Energy (kWh)
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Production (tonnes)
Figure 2.11 Energy consumption vs production
2.7.2 Cumulative Sum (CUSUM)
Example 2.3
Solution
Step 1:
Step 2
Step 3
Table 2.5 Energy consumption for different production rates over two years
Month Energy consumption (toe/month) Production (tonnes/month)

1 610 720
2 630 780
3 590 680
4 700 840
5 680 770
6 580 630
7 620 780
8 750 960
9 690 790
10 710 830
11 570 610
12 590 670
13 600 780
14 650 820
15 680 940
16 590 750
17 550 610
18 580 670
19 580 780
20 620 830
21 530 950
22 670 840
23 650 800
24 610 710
800
Energy consumption (toe/month)

y = 0.5651x + 216.69
750
700
650
600
550
500
500 600 700 800 900 1000
Producton rate (tonnes/month)
Figure 2.12 Energy consumption vs production rates for the first twelve months
Step 4
Step 5
Step 6
Step 7
Step 8
Table 2.6 Calculated values of energy consumption and CUSUM

Month Energy consumption Production Energy consumption Energy consumption CUSUM
(actual) (calculated) (actual – calculated)
1 610 720 623.4 –13.4 –13.4
2 630 780 657.3 –27.3 –40.7
3 590 680 600.8 –10.8 –51.5
4 700 840 691.2 8.8 –42.7
5 680 770 651.65 28.35 –14.35
6 580 630 572.55 7.45 –6.9
7 620 780 657.3 –37.3 –44.2
8 750 960 759 –9 –53.2
9 690 790 662.95 27.05 –26.15
10 710 830 685.55 24.45 –1.7
11 570 610 561.25 8.75 7.05
12 590 670 595.15 –5.15 1.9
13 600 780 657.3 –57.3 –55.4
Month Energy consumption Production Energy consumption Energy consumption CUSUM

(actual) (calculated) (actual – calculated)
14 650 820 679.9 –29.9 –85.3
15 680 940 747.7 –67.7 –153
16 590 750 640.35 –50.35 –203.35
17 550 610 561.25 –11.25 –214.6
18 580 670 595.15 –15.15 –229.75
19 580 780 657.3 –77.3 –307.05
20 620 830 685.55 –65.55 –372.6
21 530 950 753.35 –223.35 –595.95
22 670 840 691.2 –21.2 –617.15
23 650 800 668.6 –18.6 –635.75
24 610 710 617.75 –7.75 –643.5
100
0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23
-100
Months
-200
CUSUM
-300
-400
-500
-600
-700
Figure 2.13 CUSUM chart for given data
2.7.3 Targeting
∑ Performance Benchmarks
∑ Normalized Performance Indicator

3
Answers
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
8. 9. 10.
Survey Instrumentation
3
� 3.1 ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT
Electrical measurement includes estimating the energy consumption of the entire plant/factory/
building and the energy consumptions of individual systems. It includes the wattmeter, ammeter,
multimeter, power-factor meter, etc. These instruments can measure and/or record the data for a
particular period and help check the change in pattern over a period of time.
3.1.1 Multimeter
As the name says, the multimeter (also known as volt–ohm meter) is a versatile measuring
instrument as it can measure voltage, current, and resistance. It is available in many forms like
analogue, digital, clamp–on, etc., with measuring capabilities ranging from 0 to 300 A, 0 to 600 V,
3.1.2 Power-Factor Meter

A power-factor meter measures the ratio between resistive power and total (resistive + inductive)
power. The value of the power factor is important to an auditor as power distortion and penalty are
decided by it.
3.1.3 Power Analyzer

The power analyzer is a single and three-phase power measuring system, capable of measuring
voltage, current, power factor, instantaneous power, instantaneous voltage, reactive volt–amperes,
frequency, average and maximum power, harmonic distortion, energy in watt-hour. It is able to
store or print the data and also network with computer software and similar instruments at different
locations. Some high-end models have features like measuring wide bandwidth, accurate capturing
Survey Instrumentation 49
of voltage and current waveforms, harmonic analysis, high-frequency power spectrum analysis,
synchronized measurement, etc. Figure 3.1 shows a multimeter, power-factor meter, and power
analyzer.
Figure 3.1 Multimeter, power-factor meter, and power analyzer (See color figure)
� 3.2 THERMAL MEASUREMENT
3.2.1 Temperature Measurement
of waste heat, and potential for waste-heat recovery. Temperature-measurement equipment are
available in many forms like surface temperature probes, immersion probes, radiation-shielded
probes, infrared thermometers (noncontact thermometers), thermographic equipment, etc.
Temperature is measured by three basic methods—thermal expansion, change in resistance, and
thermocouples. Mercury in glass is an example of the thermal-expansion principle, normally used
for on-site temperature measurement. This method lacks the means for automated data recording
and accuracy.
A Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) operates on the basis of the change in resistance
as a function of temperature. Usually, copper and platinum are used as they show a fairly linear
increase of resistance with rise in temperature.
Thermocouples work on the principle, “when two dissimilar metals are joined with each other,
known as the Seebeck effect. Contact thermometers work on the thermocouple principle and are
For surface-temperature measurement, a leaf-type probe is used. They are calibrated for different
temperature ranges, decided by a wire diameter. A probe consists of a wire housed inside a metallic
tube, and is known as a sheath.
Infrared thermometers, or noncontact thermometers, can measure temperature from a distance by
measuring the infrared energy emitted by the object and its emissivity. These are helpful to measure
temperatures of distant locations and close systems like furnaces, etc. An infrared thermometer
torch and its working is shown in Figure 3.2.
Bandwidth
filter Emissivity
Lens
Hot Energy
target Detector Amp
radiance
Output
Irradiance signal
reflected energy
Linearization
Figure 3.2 Infrared thermometer and its working (See color figure)
Like a usual camera, the thermographic camera or infrared camera (FLIR— Forward-Looking
Infrared Camera) captures thermal images of the object by detecting its radiation. It can work even in
total darkness. Apart from an energy audit, this device is very useful in rescue operations in smoke-
camera are shown in Figure 3.3. A thermal leak detector works on the same principle and helps an
auditor identify the area of heat leak.
Figure 3.3 Thermographic image of a building (See color figure)

Apart from temperature, humidity plays an important role in the HVAC industry. A psychrometer
is used to measure the relative humidity of air. It has two bulbs, one dry and the other wetted
with wick. Due to evaporation of water from the wick of the wet bulb, it measures the saturation
temperature of air at the corresponding vapour
pressure. Readings of dry-bulb temperature and wet-
bulb temperature give the Relative Humidity (RH)
at that location. A hygrometer is a device which
measures moisture content in the air. Images of a
psychrometer and hygrometer are shown in Figure
3.4.
� Air-leakage Measurement The blower door
test measures the air tightness of a building. In this
Figure 3.4 Psychrometer and hygrometer
(See color figure)
through unsealed gaps, cracks, openings, etc. A manometer measures the pressure difference
between two sides of door which shows the amount of air leak in the room.
3.2.2 Pressure Measurement

The U-tube manometer is a device which measures the difference in system pressure and atmospheric
pressure by measuring the height of a liquid (water, alcohol, or mercury) in a U-shaped clear glass tube.
Pgauge = Psystem – Patm = r gh (3.1)
Here, r is the density of the liquid in the tube, measured in kg/m3. A more sensitive version of
the U-tube manometer is the inclined-tube manometer.
The most commonly known pressure measurement device is a Bourdon gauge, in which an
elliptical section tube is used which is sealed at one end. When exposed to high pressure at the open
gauge pressure on the dial.

Bellows and barometers are also used as pressure-measuring devices. Piezoelectric pressure
sensors and strain-gauge sensors are used where precise pressure measurements are required. In
the piezoelectric pressure sensor, change in pressure is detected by displacement of a thin metal
or semiconductor diaphragm, which causes a strain on the piezoelectric crystals integrated in
circuit. They offer the advantage of small size, fast response, and wide operating range. Vacuum is
measured by Pirani and ionization gauges.
Process pressure
P2
h
P1
Figure 3.5 U-tube manometer, Bourdon gauge, piezoelectric pressure sensor,

and digital manometer (See color figure)
A Pitot tube with a manometer is used to measure total and static pressures. It has double-
walled tubes—the inner tube measures total pressure, the outer tube measures static pressure, and
differential pressure can be obtained from it.
3.2.3 Flow Measurement

meters, etc., are installed at all critical plant locations. An

auditor can read data either from a measuring device or
This method uses ultrasound sensors to detect average
beam of ultrasound. It has no moving parts and, hence,

is wear-free and maintenance-free, has no pressure drop,
and is ideal for non-intrusive parts.
3.2.4 Velocity Measurement

An auditor needs to measure velocity of air in the HVAC
section and combustion air. The velocities of air and gases,
Figure 3.6 Ultrasonic flowmeter
(See color figure)
by cup anemometers, windmill anemometers, hot-wire
sensors, laser dopplers, sonic anemometers, etc. To determine the velocity, an anemometer detects
3.2.5 Combustion and Flue-Gas Analysis
gas composition. Combustion testing determines the concentration

of products of stack gas, which are usually carbon dioxide, carbon
monoxide, and oxygen. The concentration and temperature of the
Fyrite® gas analyzer, and portable combustion analyzer are known

methods to measure the composition of stack gas.
� Orsat Apparatus In this test, a measured volume of stack
gas is taken to a calibrated water-jacketed burette, which is
connected by a glass capillary tube to two or three absorption Figure 3.7 Anemometer to
pipettes containing chemical solutions that absorb the gases. A measure air velocity
(See color figure)
solution of caustic potash is used to absorb the carbon dioxide gas;
solution of cuprous chloride is used to absorb carbon monoxide. During the stages of absorption,
the reduction in volume after each stage is a measure of each constituent.
as it requires considerable time, the operator has to handle it accurately, and it is not useful for low
concentrations. Hence, portable and easy-to-use equipment are used.
Figure 3.8 Combustion-gas analyzer (See color figure)
� Fyrite® Gas Analyzer It can analyze carbon dioxide or oxygen by taking the gas sample
®
gas analyzer is, it does not depend upon complicated sequential tests, is free from the effect of
� Portable Combustion Analyzer It is shown in Figure 3.9 is generally used by boiler and
furnace attendants and energy auditors. The combustion analyzer has in-built chemical cells for
measurement and display of oxygen level, gas temperature,
2 x 2 2
Many PCAs offer data acquisition and printing facility. The
sampling probe is inserted in the middle of the stack, where
A more advanced unit for a combustion analyzer is the
environment compliance. Whether the combustion in plant

is as per environmental regulations or not, can be checked
by this equipment which can help improve the overall
and smoke testers are few more equipment used to measure

Figure 3.9 Lux meter
pressure in draft tubes and quality of combustion respectively.
(See color figure)
� 3.3 LIGHT MEASUREMENT
and lux meters are used to measure the intensity of light in a particular area. A lux meter consists
of photocells, which sense light output and convert it to lux, footcandle, or cd/m2. Some units offer
internal memory, data logging, and recording facility. Data obtained from lux and light meters are
helpful in optimizing the sizes and types of lighting systems and ensuring that proper lighting level
is maintained as per standards.
� 3.4 SPEED MEASUREMENT
Speed measurement is critical to applications like electric

motors, fans, pumps, compressors, etc. A tachometer, or RPM
meter, is used to measure the rotation of a shaft. A digital or
analogue dial displays the speed in RPM. A tachometer can
be used where direct access is possible, while a stroboscope is
used in case of noncontact type of speed measurement. Hard
performed by a stroboscope. Both units have built-in memory s Figure 3.10 Tachometer and
that permit automatic storage of maximum, minimum, average, stroboscope (See color figure)
last displayed value, etc., in advanced versions.
� 3.5 DATA LOGGER AND DATA-ACQUISITION SYSTEM
A data logger is a digital-processor-based electronic device that records data over a stipulated time,
either with a built-in sensor or via signals received from a sensor. They are small and portable
devices equipped with microprocessors, memory, sensors, etc. Many of them are interfaced with
personal computers and appropriate software. They are general-purpose as well as tailor-made
logger is automatic collection of data at a 24-hour basis, and the device can be left unattended
to measure and record data for a particular duration. The costs of data loggers are decreasing as
technology improves.
Data acquisition It is the process of sampling signals that measure physical conditions and
converting the resulting samples into digital numeric values that can be manipulated by a computer.
They include sensors that convert physical parameters to electric signals, signal-conditioning
circuits to convert sensor signals into digital values, and analogue-to-digital converters.
The difference between a data logger and a data acquisition system is data loggers are battery-
operated, and have high resolution, in-built memory, and slow sample rates.
Table 3.1 gives a list of other special-purpose instruments with the parameters measured by them.
Table 3.1 List of some other special-purpose instruments
S. No. Name of instrument Parameters measured

1. Hot disk transient plane source Thermal conductivity, thermal diffusivity, specific heat, etc., of
(Gustafsson probe) solids and liquids
2. Blower door test Building’s air tightness
3. Digital thermo-anemometer Air velocity in feet per minute or metre per second, air temper-
ature in °F or °C
4. Amprobe— relative humidity Relative humidity of air
temperature meter
Contd...
S. No. Name of instrument Parameters measured

5. TDS meter Conductivity and, thereby, total dissolved solids in blowdown
water of a boiler
6. Dynamometer Power produced by engine, motor, or other prime mover
7. Pyranometer and pyrheliometer Diffused and beam solar radiation
8. Sunshine recorder Hours of sunshine over a day
� 3.6 THERMAL BASICS
Common terms used in thermal energy are explained here:

1. Temperature is a measure of the molecular activity of a substance. The greater the
temperature scales normally employed for measurement purposes are the Fahrenheit (F)
and Celsius (C) scales.
2. Pressure is a measure of the force exerted per unit area on the boundaries of a substance
(or system). It is caused by the collisions of the molecules of the substance with the
boundaries of the system. As molecules hit the walls, they exert forces that try to push the
walls outward. The forces resulting from all of these collisions cause the pressure exerted
2
, or
psi.
When pressure is measured relative to a perfect vacuum, it is called absolute pressure and
when measured relative to atmospheric pressure, it is called gauge pressure.
Pabs = Patm + Pabsgauge (3.2)
3. Energy Potential
Energy Kinetic Energy (KE) is the energy of
motion and Internal Energy (IE) is the energy in microscopic form (rotation, vibration,
as stored energy or transit energy.

4. Heat
because of temperature difference. Heat can be transferred in three different mechanisms
like conduction, convection, or radiation. In conduction, the process of heat transfer occurs
in the direction of temperature gradient from one particle to another without moving them
from their places. While in convection, particles move from their places. Radiation occurs
through electromagnetic waves and is independent of the medium in which it occurs.
5. is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of any
substance through one degree. Solids and liquids do not change their volumes on heating
pressure and volume.

m ¥ Cp ¥ (T2 – T1) (3.3)
m ¥ Cv ¥ (T2 – T1) (3.4)

6. It is transformation from one phase or state to another by heat transfer.
terms for phase-change process are given in the following table.

Table 3.2 Phase-change processes
Solid Liquid Gas

Solid --- Melting Sublimation
Liquid Freezing --- Boiling or evaporation
Gas Deposition Condensation ---
7. is a thermodynamic property and is the summation of internal energy of the

system and product of pressure and volume.
h = U + pV (3.5)
8. is the energy released or absorbed by a body during change of phase.
Temperature change does not occur during phase-change process and, hence, the name
given to the exchange of heat is a synonym of the word hidden; while sensible heat is the
one due to change in temperature.
Latent heat of fusion (or enthalpy of fusion) is the change in enthalpy resulting from
heating a substance to change its state from solid to liquid. Similarly, latent heat of
vaporization is the enthalpy change required to transfer the substance from liquid into a
gas at a particular pressure.
9. is the science dealing with the study of moist air. Dry air is a mixture of a
number of gases like nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, etc. Moist air is a mixture of dry air
and water vapour. Saturated air is a mixture of dry air and water vapour when the air has
diffused the maximum amount of water vapour into it.
10. is the mass of water vapour in 1 kg of dry air; and the ratio of actual mass of
water vapour in a given volume of air to the mass of water vapour in the same volume of
saturated air at the same temperature and pressure is termed relative humidity.
11. is the temperature recorded by a thermometer and wet-bulb
temperature is the temperature of air recorded by a thermometer whose bulb is surrounded
by a wet cloth exposed to air.
12. is recorded by a thermometer when the moisture present in the air
begins to condensate.
13. are materials storing potential energy that can be released for work of heat. A fuel
can be solid, liquid, or gas in nature. Wood, coal, charcoal, peat, etc., are examples of solid
fuels. Heat released from the complete combustion of fuel is known as heat of combustion.
14. is the heat produced by the complete combustion of fuel

and measured in kJ/kg. The is the total heat liberated by complete
combustion of one unit of fuel including the heat recovered from condensed water vapour.
If the heat recovered from condensed water vapour is excluded, it is termed
value.
HCV – LCV = Mass of H2 ¥ Latent heat (3.6)
Table 3.3 Calorific values of some fuels
Solid fuel Calorific value Liquid fuel Calorific value Gaseous fuel Calorific value
(kJ/kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/m3)
Peat 14,500 Petrol 44,250 Natural gas 35,500 to 46,000
Lignite coal 21,000 Kerosene/Paraffin oil 44,000 Coal gas 21,000 to 25,000
Bituminous coal 31,500 Fuel oil 44,250 Producer gas 4200 to 6600
Anthracite coal 36,000 Alcohol 26,800 Blast-furnace gas 3800
Wood charcoal 28,000 Petrol 44,250 Coke or oven gas 14,500 to 19,000
Coke 32,500 Diesel 44,800 Oil gas 17,000 to 25,000
15. Steam which includes water droplets is known as wet

steam. When the steam is heated further, all water droplets evaporate and the steam is
called dry saturated steam. Heating it further at higher than its boiling point is termed
superheating and the steam is called superheated steam.
16. describe fundamental physical quantities like temperature,
pressure, and entropy.
The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that “If two systems are in thermal equilibrium
The of thermodynamics states that “When energy passes, as work, as heat, or

with matter into or out from a system, its internal energy changes in accord with the law of
The second law of thermodynamics states that “In a natural thermodynamic process, the
The third law of thermodynamics states that “The entropy of a system approaches a
1.
2.
Answers
1. (d) 2. (a) 3. 4. (a) 5. 6. 7. (d)
8. (d)
Energy Audit of Boilers
4
A boiler, or a steam generator, produces steam at a designed pressure and
Data
Source
� 4.1 CLASSIFICATIONS OF BOILERS

Energy Audit of Boilers 61
4.1.1 Fire-tube Boiler
Steam Hot
out Boiler gases
Furnace Smoke stack
Figure 4.1 A typical fire-tube boiler
4.1.2 Packaged Boiler

Anti Steam
Safety Water level priming stop
alarm Manhole pipe valve Internal flues
valve
Steam space
Boiler feed
Water Water
Blowdown Coal feed
Figure 4.2 Lancashire boiler

Fully trimmed with all safety
controls and piping
Exhaust
stack High temp.
Davited hinged
access doors refractory lined
(tubes) rear door
UL. listed
burner
Flame
sight port
All A.S.M.E. code

piping to second
Extra heavy skids valve
Fully automated Gas, oil or combination and supports
processor forced draft burners
Figure 4.3 Internal construction of a packaged boiler (See color figure)

Source:
4.1.3 Water-tube Boiler
Hot
gases
Furnace Water pipes Steam
out
Smoke stack
Water in
Figure 4.4 A typical water-tube boiler

Steam
Steam off-take Feedwater
Steam
Water Feedwater
Waste gases
to stack
Heat Waste gases

Heat to stack
(a) Straight-tube longitudinal drum (b) Straight-tube cross drum
Steam off-take
Feedwater
Waste gases
to stack
Mud drum
Heat
(c) Bent-tube (Stirling boiler)
Figure 4.5 Water-tube boilers
Underfeed stokers
Overfeed stokers
Mass-feed stokers
Spreader stokers
Air
Dumping Dumping
damper
grate Air damper grate
Push Retort Spray pipe
Spray pipe bar
Coal
Ash PLT Distribution Ash PLT
block
Figure 4.6 Cross section of underfeed stoker (Source Reference: T C Elliott)
Rear furnace arch

Coal air nozzles
Grate cooling tubes Fuel feed gate
Water cooled header

Adjustable ash dam
Vibration
Grate generator
support and
flaxing
Air zones member
Figure 4.7 Cross section of overfeed mass-feed stoker (Source Reference: T C Elliott)
Overfire air nozzle
Coal hopper
Furnace arch
Fuel feed grate
Grate clips
or grate keys
Air control dampers
Figure 4.8 Cross section of overfeed travelling grate stoker (Source Reference: T C Elliott)
Exhaust pipe
Pressure spring
Raw coal feed pipe

Air intake
Grinding roll
Ring or bowl
Bearing
Worm gear Worm drive
Bearing
Figure 4.9 Ring pulverizer (See color figure)
4.1.5 Pulverized Coal Boiler

4.1.6 Fluidized-Bed Boiler (FBC)
Figure 4.10 Fluidized-bed combustion boiler

Gasifier Gas stream cleanup/component separation Fuels

Syngas
CO/H2 Chemicals
H2
H2 Transportation fuels
Gaseous
constituents
Coal
Particulates
Electric power
Combined
Biomass Combustion Turbine
Sulfur/ cycle
Feedstock sulfuric acid Generator
Petroleum Solids Air
coke/resid Electric power
Oxygen ASU Air Exhaust
Water
Waste
Exhaust Stack
Heat recovery
Steam steam generator CO2 for sequestration
Marketable solid by-products Generator
Electric power
Steam turbine
Figure 4.11 Integrated gasification combined cycle (See color figure)

� 4.2 PARTS OF A BOILER
evaporator
superheater
economizer
Air preheaters
burner
boiler blowdown system
feedwater pump
collecting tank/hotwell
boiler combustion air system
de-aerator
� 4.3 EFFICIENCY OF A BOILER
4.3.1 Direct Method

Output Enthaply of steam - Enthalpy of feedwater

h= = ¥100
Input Heat r eleased in boiler
EXAMPLE 4.1
Solution
10000 ¥ (2899.2 - 440.17)

h= ¥ 100
860 ¥ 41200
h
4.3.2 Indirect Method

Step 1:
¥C ¥ H2 ¥ S2 O2
C H 2 S2 O2
Step 2:
O2
¥ 100
21 - O2
¥
Step 3:
mg ¥ C pg ¥ (T f - Ta )
¥ 100
GCV of fuel
CO2 SO2 N2 N2 O2
C
Tf
Ta
Step 4:
M ¥ [ H fg + C p steam ¥ (T f - Ta )]
H2 = ¥ 100
GCV of fuel
Step 5:
9 ¥ H 2 ¥ [ H fg + C p steam (T f - Ta )]
2 = ¥ 100
GCV of fuel
Step 6:
Actual air supply ¥ Humidity factor ¥ c p (T f - Ta )

= ¥ 100
GCV of fuel
Step 7:
Total fly ash collected

¥ GCV of fly ash
kg of fuel burnt
= ¥
GCV of fuel
Step 8:
Total bottom ash collected
¥ GCV of bottom ash
kg of fuel burnt
= ¥100
GCV V of fuel
Step 9:
Table 4.1 Percentage heat loss from a boiler surface
Boiler capacity (kg/h) % heat loss

90,000 0.5
45,000 0.7
22,500 0.9
10,000 1.0
Step 10:
EXAMPLE 4.2
2 2 2
2 2 2
Solution
¥ ¥ ¥
3.8
¥ 100
21 - 3.8
17.03 ¥ 1.005 ¥ (260 - 20)

¥ 100
41200
9 ¥ 0.12 ¥ [2444 ¥ (260 - 20)]

H2 ¥ 100
41200
H2
0.01 ¥ ( 2444 + 1.88 ¥ ( 260 - 20 ))

= ¥ 100
41200
0.0195 ¥ 19.69 ¥ [2444 + 1.88 ¥ (260 - 20)]

= ¥ 100
41200
84
Efficiency of boiler
83.2
82.4
81.6
80.8
0 10 20 30 40
Ambient air temperature C
Figure 4.12 Effect of ambient temperature on efficiency
� 4.4 ROLE OF EXCESS AIR IN BOILER EFFICIENCY

Table 4.2 Effect of excess air on combustion efficiency

Excess air % Combustion efficiency
(Tf – Ta)ºC
95 150 205 260 315
9.5 85.4 83.1 80.8 78.4 76.0
15 85.2 82.8 80.4 77.9 75.4
28 84.7 82.1 79.5 76.7 74.0
45 84.1 81.2 78.2 75.2 72.1
82 82.8 79.3 75.6 71.9 68.2
EXAMPLE 4.3
`
7
O ¥ 100
23 - 7
O2
2
O ¥ 100
23 - 2
Ê h inittial ˆ
¥ Á1 - ¥
Ë h modified ˜¯
`/
18
O2 and CO2 in flue gas (% by volume)

14
CO2
10
Anthrasite coal
Bituminous coal
O2 Fuel oil
6 Propane
Natural gas
0
20 60 100 140
Excess air
Figure 4.13 O2, CO2, and excess air
4.4.1 How to Measure Excess Air
4.4.2 Excess Air Control

� 4.5 ENERGY-SAVING METHODS
2
4.5.2 Waste-Heat Utilization
Table 4.3 Energy saved due to feedwater heating

Feedwater temperature in ºC Energy saved in kJ/kg for different boiler operating pressures (bar)
1 5 10 15 100
40 250 464 585 660 1133
60 167 377 502 577 1049
80 84 294 418 493 966
100 --- 211 334 410 882
120 --- 126 251 326 798
2 2
Table 4.4 Stack gas and feedwater temperatures for different fuels
Type of fuel Acid dew point temperature ºC Minimum stack-gas Minimum feedwater
temperature ºC temperature ºC
Natural gas 65.5 121.1 99
Oil 82.2 135 99
Low sulphur oil 93.3 149 104.4
Intermittent blowdown
continuous blowdown
Feed water TDS x % make up water

Maximum permissible TDS
4.5.4 Effective Boiler Loading

Flash steam
Blowdown lines
Flash Tank
To sewer
Figure 4.14 Heat recovery in blowdown

4.5.5 Exhaust-Gas Recirculation

Table 4.5 Thermal conductivity values of different types of scales
Material Thermal Conductivity in W/mK

Silicate scale 0.35
Carbonate scale 0.60
Sulphate scale 1.45
Mild steel 52.50
80
70
% Increase in cost
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Scale thickness (inch)
Figure 4.15 Effect of scale deposition on operating cost
Methods to Monitor Scale Formation
Water-treatment Methods
internal water-treatment
External treatment
4.5.9 Heat Loss in De-aeration
4.5.10 Use of Briquette-Fired Boilers
Table 4.6 Composition of briquettes
Appearance Gray/ Black

Nature Cellulose
Bulk Density 1100 kg/m3
Carbon 40% to 42%
Hydrogen 3%
Sulphur Nil
Moisture Less than 5%
GCV 3800 to 4000 kcal/kg
Ash 5% to 8%
CHECKLIST
THUMB RULES
Answers
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
8. 9. 10. 11. 12.
5
Energy Audit of Furnaces
furnace
� 5.1 PARTS OF A FURNACE
� Heating System
� Refractory
� Loading Unloading System
� Heat Exchanger
� Instrumentation and Control

Energy Audit of Furnaces 87
� 5.2 CLASSIFICATION OF FURNACES
� Batch Furnace
� Continuous Furnace
Furnace
Type of Type of Material

loading heating handling
Flow-
Batch Direct-fired through
Indirectly Conveyer
Continuous heated belt
Rotary kiln
Walking
beam
Vertical
shaft
Car bottom
Chart 5.1 Classification of furnaces

88
BF gas holder
Ironmaking process Steelmaking process Rolling process Major products
Rolling
Rail
Plants Steel piling
Steel section
Steel bar
Long product
Dust rolling mill
Catcher
Coking Venturi scrubber Wire rod
Power generator
coal Cokes Wire rod rolling mill
BG LDG Oxygen,
Scrap auxiliary materials
Plate
Moltern
Direct Plate rolling mill
Coke oven Steel Billet rolling
Powder
Hot rolled coil
cokes
Continuous Hot rolled sheet
Hot blast Hot caster Bloom Hot strip rolling mill
Ingot making
metal
Sintering machine stove Blast Cold rolled coil
furnace Cold rolled sheet
Low pressure steam Slab Steel sheet for
Waste heat boiler Scrap Cold stip rolling mill
plating
Coke High pressure steam
oven Dust Soaking Welded pipe
remover Deaerator butt welded pipe
Coke car Turbine G Electric furnace Welded pipe mill
Cokes 200° C Power generator Reheating furnace Seamless pipe
Slabbing Blooming
Belt conveyor Condenser mill Seamless pipe mill
Circulation Cyclone Cast iron products

blower Pure water tank
Figure 5.1 Roles of furnaces in the steel industry

Table 5.1 Details of different types of furnaces
Process Process description Type of furnace Source of heating Approximate tempera-

ture, °C
Carbonization Conversion of coal to coke Coke oven Indirect heating 1000 to 1200
Calcination Removal of CO2 from Rotary kiln Fossil fuel 1200 to 1300
CaCO3 for cement
production
Heating Hot working and/or heat Batch /Continuous Oil- or gas-fired Below melting point
treatment type
Sintering To produce compacts Sintering furnace Fossil or electric Below melting point
of particles
Electrolysis of To produce Al, Mg, Hall-Heroult cell Electric 700 to 900
molten metal and Na
Refining To produce steel Electric Electric or chemical 1600
Smelting To produce matte smelter Fossil or chemical 1200
Converting To produce copper from Side-blown Chemical 1100 to 1200
matte converter
� Flow-through
� Conveyer Belt
� Rotary Kilns
Figure 5.2 Conveyer and rotary-kiln furnace (See color figure)
� Walking Beam
� Vertical Shaft
� 5.3 ENERGY-SAVING MEASURES IN FURNACES
5.3.1 Heat Generation
Flue loss
Heat input to furnace Usable heat
Operating Wall loss

Coolant loss
Stored loss
heat
Chart 5.2 Heat losses in a furnace
5.3.2 Air Preheating

Table 5.2 Energy saving due to air preheater
Furnace exhaust-gas temperature, Gain in efficiency for preheated air temperature, ºC

ºC
315 425 540 650 760 990
540 13 18 - - - -
650 14 19 23 - - -
760 15 20 24 28 - -
870 17 22 26 30 34 -
990 18 24 28 33 37 40
1100 20 26 31 35 39 43
1200 23 29 34 39 43 47
1315 26 32 38 43 47 51
5.3.3 Oxygen Enrichment
Air Air
Oxygen Fuel
Fuel
Fuel
Oxygen
Oxygen injection lance Oxygen
Figure 5.3 Different methods of oxygen enrichment

5.3.4 Heat Transfer
Q = e s A (Ts4 - T•4 )
(Ts T
5.3.5 Heat Loss Through Outer Surface and Openings

5.3.6 Heat Recovery
Tri-generation
5.3.7 Use of Advanced Technology
turndown ratio
5.3.8 Energy Saving in an Electric-Fired Furnace
Electrodes
Charging Arc
Slag Spout
door
� Energy Saving in an Arc Furnace Arc furnaces are Molten steel
Figure 5.4 Arc furnace

(See color figure)
5.3.9 Changing Power Source from AC to DC

AC
DC electric furnace
DCL
(-)
Electric room
VCB Transformer
Transformer
Bottom electrode
(+)
Substatin
Bottom electrode
cooling device
Figure 5.5 Schematic of a dc arc furnace

5.3.10 Use of Continuous Casting Machine
5.3.11 Use of a High-Frequency Melting Furnace
Table 5.3 Comparison of low-frequency and high-frequency melting furnaces
Low-frequency melting furnace High-frequency melting furnace

Slow melting process due to low current density Rapid melting process due to high current density
Difficult to have batch operation Possible to have batch operation
Low equipment cost High equipment cost
High specific power consumption (719 kWh/t) Low specific power consumption (630 kWh/t)
Slow melting speed (910 kg/h) Fast melting speed (1550 kg/h)
5.3.12 Energy Saving in a Fuel-Fired Furnace
� Use of Pulverized Coal Instead of Coking Coal
� Installation of Top-Gas-Recovery Turbine
� Dry Quenching of Coke

Figure 5.6 A turbine to produce electricity from blast-furnace exhaust gas
� 5.4 FURNACE EFFICIENCY
Heat in the stock

Heat in the fuel
mstock ¥ C p ¥ DT
h=
mfuel ¥ CV
m
Cp
T
mfuel
Step 1: Calculate theoretical air required.
¥C ¥H ¥S O
C H S O
Step 2: Calculate actual air supplied, which is a summation of theoretical air and excess air.
O2
¥ 100
21 - O 2
Step 3:
m g ¥ C p ¥ (T f - Ta )
¥ 100
GCV of fuel
m
+N
Cp
Tf
Ta
GCV
Step 4: Calculate heat loss due to evaporation of water formed due to H2
H
9 ¥ H 2 ¥ [H fg + C p steam ¥ (T f - Ta )]
¥ 100
GCV of fuel
Cp
Step 5:
mstock ¥ C p stock ¥ (T f - Ta )
= ¥ 100
GCV of fuel
m
Cp
Tf
Ta
Step 6:
Actual air supply ¥ Humidity factor ¥ C p steam ¥ (T f - Ta )

= ¥ 100
GCV of fueel
Step 7: Calculate heat loss due to radiation and convection heal loss from the furnace’s outer
Q È 9.7Twall
2
˘ ÈÊ T - 75 ˆ ˘
=Í
qsurface = - 1.42Twall + 164 ˙ - ÍÁ amb
Ë ˜¯ (0.085 (Twall - 100 ) + 90 )˙
A Î 1, 000 ˚ Î 50 ˚
Reference Industrial Furnaces
A
T =
qsur face
¥ 100
GCV of fuel
Step 8:
(
t ¥ s ¥ A ¥ T f4 - Ta4 ) ¥ 100
GCV of fuel
t
A
Tf
Ta
Step 9:
m water ¥ C p water ¥ (Two - Twi )

¥ 100
GCV of fuel
m
C
T T
Step 10:
re think
re use
re cycle
re inkTM
CASE STUDY
� Objective
furnace
� Technical Detail
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
Details Units Data
Monthly energy consumption of 30 kg induction arc furnace kWh 14, 434
Material handled per month kg 13, 970
Number of cycles per month No 438
Specific energy consumption kWh/Mt 968
Annual energy consumption kWh 1, 73, 208
Cost of energy Rs 8, 66, 040
Annual energy saving due to induction furnace kWh 1, 03, 925
Annual cost saving Rs 5, 19, 625
Investment for induction furnace Rs 10, 00, 000
(Medium frequency-3000 Hz, 50 kg and 100 kg pot size at
90 kW and 125 kW respectively)
Payback period Years 1.92
� Outcome
CHECKLIST
Answers
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
8.
Energy Audit of a Power Plant
6
� 6.1 INDIAN POWER-PLANT SCENARIO
The total installed capacity of Indian power plants is 258.701 GW (Data Source CEA, as on
31/01/2015) being produced by National Hydroelectric Power Corporation (NHPC), National
Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC), Nuclear Power Corporation of India (NPCIL), state-
level co-operations, and private sectors. The Power Grid Corporation of India is responsible for
the inter-state transmission of electricity and development of the national grid.
Out of total electricity generation in India, 69.71% is from coal, gas and diesel-based thermal
power stations, 15.79 % is from hydro generation, 2.23 % is from nuclear-based power plants,
and the remaining 12.25% is contributed by renewable sources (includes small hydro projects,
power plants.
� 6.2 HOW IS ENERGY AUDIT OF POWER PLANTS HELPFUL?
Energy audit of a power plant results in resource protection—as less fuel is required for generation
of electricity, substantial reduction in CO2 emission, and increased electricity generation from the
range of 36–40%, and that of a supercritical pressure range thermal power plant is around 40–44%.
Hence, there is good scope to achieve the above-mentioned goals. Energy audit of a thermal power
plant is discussed in the present chapter after a brief description of thermal power plants.
� 6.3 TYPES OF POWER PLANTS
6.3.1 Thermal Power Plant

Since inception of the Rankine cycle, steam power plants use it as a standard cycle. The real Rankine
cycle used in a power plant is much more complex than the original simple ideal Rankine cycle.
Energy Audit of a Power Plant 103
A thermal power plant continuously converts the energy of fossil fuels like coal, oil, or gas into
work and ultimately into electricity.
The Rankine cycle consists of four thermodynamic processes: (i) reversible constant pressure
heating of water to steam in a boiler, (ii) reversible adiabatic expansion of steam in a turbine,
(iii) reversible constant-pressure heat rejection in the condenser, and (iv) reversible adiabatic
compression of liquid in a pump. The ideal Rankine cycle is a combination of all these processes,
and Figure 6.1 gives its schematic representation. Figures 6.2 and 6.3 give its thermodynamic
representations on p-v and T-s.
1
WT
Superheater Turbine
Steam
Evaporator generator
Q1 2
Economizer Condenser
Q2
3
Pump
Figure 6.1 Schematic of a thermal power plant
P CP T
4 B 1 CP
B 1
3 2 4
3 2
V S
Figure 6.2 Rankine cycle on p-V coordinates Figure 6.3 Rankine cycle on T-s coordinates
Wnet WT - WP (h1 - h2 ) - (h4 - h3 )

h= = = (6.1)
Q1 Q1 h1 - h4
where WP = pump work
WT = turbine work
Wnet = net work = turbine work – pump work
Q1 = heat input
h1 to h4 = enthalpy of steam at terminal points
The combustion gases leaving the boiler are at much higher temperatures than the saturation
temperature at which steam is produced in a steam drum in an ideal Rankine cycle, resulting in
irreversibility. Use of superheat and reheat reduces overall temperature difference between steam
with superheat and reheat in which ab shows temperature drop in the combustion gas, 1234
represents the superheat cycle, and 123456 is the reheat cycle. Reheating is carried out at 20% to
25% of initial steam pressure to optimize the performance.
T T a
a
3
1 1
b
7 8
b
2
4
6
3 2 5 4¢ 4
S S
Figure 6.4 Rankine cycle with superheat Figure 6.5 Rankine cycle with reheat
feedwater heaters. Feed heaters are basically of two types — open or closed. They extract live
steam and use its energy to heat the condensate. In most thermal power plants, closed feedwater
heaters are used with at least one open feedwater heater to serve the purpose of de-aeration. Though
successively diminishes with the increase in the number of feedwater heaters. The schematic and
T-s diagram of regeneration is shown in Figures 6.6 and 6.7 respectively.
T 1
1 Steam
turbine
B 2 3
2 4
10
9 m1 Steam m2 m3
8 generator Condenser
7 m1 3
6 5
P P P
5 4 10
8 6
9 7
S
Figure 6.6 Rankine cycle with regeneration Figure 6.7 Schematic diagram of regeneration
Cooling pond
Generator
Chimney
I.D. Fan Turbine
F.D. Fan Hot Cold
Air from Water
Gas to atmosphere Water
atmosphere
Chlorine
Condenser plant
Generator
Gas from Hot well Water storage
chimney Heavy pump basin
oil pump
Boiler Gas to
feed pump atmosphere Intake C.W.
Coal Distilled ejector pump house Pump
storage water
Oil transfer
pump River water
Coal
L.P. Feed heater for make up
H.P. Feed heater
Evaporator River
Treated water
Water treatment
plant
Storage tank Day tank
Booster pump
Railway tanker heavy oil
Raw water
Surface
U.G. Tank
reservoir
Bore well
Figure 6.8 Typical layout of a thermal power plant

Energy Audit of a Power Plant
105
power avaiilable at the generator

h overall =
y the combustion of fuel
rate of energy release by
= hgenerator ¥ hturbine ¥ hthermal ¥ hboiler (6.2)
The value of hoverall is around 35%; hence, the remaining 65% is lost to the environment
Heat rate
and steam rate
Q1
Heat rate = (6.3)
Wnet
1 kg
Steam rate = (6.4)
Wnet kWs
Figure 6.9 shows steam and water circuits of a thermal power plant.
168 Kg/cm2 Reheated steam Main steam

Main steam
320°C 150 Kglcm2, 540°C 35 Kgicm2, 540° C
Reheated steam
IP SV & CV Bled steam
210 MW, KWU design,
3 cylinder turbine
HP SV & CV 247 MVA
Generator
HPT IPT LPT GEN.

Boiler
drum
Deaerator
120°C
Condenser
0.91 Kg/cm2
Super reheater
vacuum
Bled steam
heater
B.F.P. Warm water
Economizer
1300°C
Evaporator
Cooled water
30°C
FRS C.W. pump Cooling tower
Flue
gases 244°C Condensate
180 45°C
Kg/cm2 Feed water
HP heaters LP heaters
Air Coal Boiler C.E.pump Condenser
Feed water cooling water
Figure 6.9 Steam and water circuits of thermal power plant (See color figure)
(Source: http://indianpowersector.com )
6.3.2 Combined-Cycle Power Plant

As there is a wide difference between combustion temperature and steam temperature, there is a
used with a high-temperature plant as a topping plant over a steam-operated power plant. A gas-
turbine plant, either of open or closed type, is used as a topping plant as it offers advantages like
faster and cheaper installation, quick starting, and fast response to load change. A gas turbine alone
Figure 6.10 shows the schematic of an open gas-turbine cycle. The gas enters a compressor
where it is compressed and delivered to the combustor. Heat is added at constant pressure in
the combustor (theoretically) and hot gas expands through the turbine, and then mixes with the
atmosphere and fresh air is supplied to the compressor. The compressor is driven by the turbine
and the difference is available on the shaft as the net power output. The compression of air in the
compressor and expansion of gas in the turbine are ideally isentropic in nature.
Fuel
Air Inlet Exhaust Gas

Combustor
Generator
Compressor Turbine
Figure 6.10 Open-cycle gas-turbine plant

Figure 6.11 shows intercooling and reheating in an open-cycle gas-turbine plant, and Figure 6.12
shows regeneration in an open-cycle gas-turbine plant. Use of intercooling between two stages of
power output of the turbine. In regeneration, the waste heat of the exhaust gas of the turbine is
Coolant Combustor
(air, water etc.)
Fuel Fuel
intercooler
Generator
LP compressor HP compressor HP compressor Power turbine
Figure 6.11 Intercooling and reheating in an open-cycle gas-turbine plant

Regenerator
Combustor
Generator
Compressor Turbine
Figure 6.12 Regeneration in an open-cycle gas-turbine plant

Fuel
b c
C.C
Air Gas Generator
Compressor Turbine
d 1
a
Fuel C.C
Steam
e Turbine
Generator
H
R 2
S Condenser
G
f Pump
4 3
Figure 6.13 Schematic flow diagram of a combined-cycle power plant
combustor, and gas turbine in the topping cycle; and a heat-recovery steam generator, steam turbine,
condenser and pump in the bottoming cycle. The path of the open-cycle gas turbine is indicated as
abcdef. Gas leaves the turbine at the point d as it is further heated in the combustion chamber where
fuel is supplied and passes through the heat-recovery steam generator, which is a conventional
steam generator having heat exchangers like an evaporator, economizer, superheater, reheater, etc.
further combustion. The gas leaves the HRSG at f. The path followed by the steam cycle is shown
Energy-audit methods and checklist discussed in the chapters are focused on thermal and
combined-cycle power plant technology as out of the total electricity production, 65% is produced
by these technologies. These are also applicable to steam cycles of nuclear power plants.
� 6.4 ENERGY AUDIT OF POWER PLANT

service utilities, collection of design and operating data, measurement of various parameters,
technologies and their technical and economical viabilities, prioritization, documentation, and
and, therefore, will be a valuable input into the next inspection maintenance scope to implement
the necessary corrective actions. Some useful observations of energy audit of a power plant are
discussed in detail as follows.
6.4.1 Use of Supercritical Pressure Boilers
Use of supercritical-pressure boiler instead of subcritical boilers.
(refer Rankine cycle T-s diagram), and environment friendly. A supercritical cycle with reheat
Adopting a supercritical boiler instead of a subcritical boiler will reduce fuel consumption and,
consecutively, carbon dioxide emissions reduce by approximately 5 percent. A supercritical boiler
is also known as a once-through boiler as it does not require a drum which adds to quick start and
rapid load change. However, supercritical-type generation requires more sophisticated equipment
design and high-strength material to withstand the high temperatures and pressures. Extremely
pure water is required since all solids present are deposited in the tubes or carried to the turbine
blades. Availability of high-temperature resistance material at economical rates has increased the
adoption of supercritical-pressure steam generation.
6.4.2 Improving Condenser Performance by Condenser-Tube Cleaning
Select appropriate method to clean the condenser tubes.

A condenser degrades primarily due to fouling of the tubes and air in-leakage.
Tube fouling leads to reduced heat-transfer rates, while air in-leakage directly increases the back
by mechanical, thermal, or chemical methods.

A more suitable method for online cleaning is using rubber sponge balls
condenser tubes with the coolant. Frictional contact between the balls and tubing scrapes away
most of the fouling accumulated on the inside of the tubes. The balls are circulated through the
condenser for a few hours each day. Periodical checking and replacement of balls are required as
sponge balls eventually lose their surface roughness, or become deformed, and become unable to
contact the inside wall closely.
Figure 6.14 shows the basic arrangement of a typical ball-type tube-cleaning system. The main
components are a ball injection nozzle, a ball strainer, a ball recirculating pump, and a ball collector.
Condenser cooling
Ball collecter water pump
Condenser
Ball recirculating pump
Figure 6.14 Arrangement of ball-type tube-cleaning system
6.4.3 Waste-Heat Recovery
Identify the source of waste heat and utilize it.

Before installing any heat-recovery system, an investigation needs to be carried
1. Recycling energy back into the process

2. Recovering energy for other on-site uses
3. Recovering energy for electricity generation
Active heat recovery requires
input of energy to upgrade the waste heat to a higher temperature, while passive heat recovery
uses a heat exchanger of different type to transfer the heat from the higher temperature source to
the lower temperature stream. The advantage of a passive heat-recovery device is that it does not
is simpler to implement and maintain than active heat-recovery strategies. In some applications,
both types of heat-recovery devices are used together.
over the course of day and year, and fouling characteristics. Some waste-heat-recovery systems are
discussed here:
In this process, thermal energy of the high-temperature
exhaust gas, which was previously wasted, is recovered, is converted into steam in the waste-heat
boiler, and is used for driving the steam turbine to generate electrical power.
Exhaust gas out
Pre heater Steam

turbine Condenser
Pump
Super Cooling tower
heater
Pump
Exhaust gas in
Figure 6.15 Waste-heat-driven steam turbine

The probable layout of waste-heat recovery steam generation is shown in Figure 6.15. The
should involve low-pressure loss. Dust accumulation in the heat-exchanger tube, and resultant
corrosive gases, the design should be such that the temperature of the heat-exchanger tube does not
fall in a range to cause low- or high-temperature corrosion. Use of a preheater and superheater will
small, supplementary fuel is used. The electric power generated is used as auxiliary power.
In this arrangement, latent heat of
steam leaving the steam turbine and sensible heat of exhaust gas leaving the HRSG is utilized. The
arrangement is shown in Figure 6.16. As discussed in Section 6.3.2, a combined-cycle power plant
utilizes the waste heat of a gas-turbine exhaust. The energy of steam generated in the heat-recovery
steam generator is utilized in a steam turbine.
Now, instead of condensing the steam in a conventional condenser, it is taken to LNG condensing
heat-exchanger condenser where LNG at a low temperature is pumped to the required pressure. The
LNG gets vaporized at –162oC exchanging latent heat with steam. Feedwater will be circulated in
a shell-and-tube type heat exchanger utilizing remaining sensible heat of exhaust gas to preheat the
water till the saturation temperature. Some mass of preheated water will be used in heating NG up
to 120°C.
The advantages of these methods are given here:
1. The condensation of steam takes place at a lower temperature which reduces condenser
2. Additional hot water/air is not required to vaporize and preheat LNG.

Some examples of waste-heat recovery for applicable temperature ranges are listed here.
If waste-heat stream temperature is more than 100°C, waste heat is used for.
1. Preheating combustion air.
2. Preheating boiler make-up water using a feedwater economizer.
Combustion
chamber
AC GT
LNG at -120° C
To combustion
chamber HRSG
ST
LNG condenser
Exhaust LNG
NG at
-162° C
Figure 6.16 Waste-heat recovery in LNG fuelled HRSG system

3. Preheating the supply air into a process such as a food dryer by passing its supply air and
exhaust through an air-to-air heat exchanger.
5. Using waste heat from a process to meet other in-plant needs such as space heating, water
lower temperature processes.
for absorption chillers of refrigeration or air-conditioning devices.
6.4.4 Improvement in Performance of Air Preheater
Minimize leakage and losses from an air preheater.
of the economizer. There are two primary types of air preheaters—regenerative, rotating-type and
more advanced systems using heat pipes.

The majority of air preheaters used with utility-scale boilers is the regenerative type. (refer
enamel-coated carbon steel material at the cooler end due to acid deposition. The cylinder rotates
cold pre-combustion air. The cylinder rotates on an axle. Ductwork manifolds on the top and bottom
use of regenerative air preheaters is air leakage as shown in Figure 6.18 from the higher-pressure
to lost heat recuperation. Fans are affected by the leakage since the combustion air requirement is
Forced Draft (FD) and Induced Draft
(ID
the furnace.
Combustion air Flue gas

(to boiler) (from boiler) Rotary housing
Gas
Air
Inlet air to stack
Leaking air
Figure 6.18 Leakage from circum of air preheater
Figure 6.17 Construction of air preheater Source: Alstom Power

Commissioning of air preheaters generally results in air leakage from the combustion-air side
2
power consumption of the FD fan; and if ID fans are used, even more auxiliary power is required
to transfer the extra air.
evident in the loads on the fans as compared to original design loads if all other leakages are taken
into account. If the air preheater allows a substantial amount of leakage and that is not addressed,
Improvements to seals on regenerative air preheaters have enabled the reduction of air leakage to
roughly 6%. Different types of seals like carbon seal, Controller

electromechanical seal, or a gap controller is used to
reduce the leakage.
The gap between the sector plate and rotor changes Air
Gap
according to the boiler load and gas temperature. adjuster
Radial
Figure 6.19 shows the noncontact-type sensor which seal
measures the gap and automatically controls the
vertical gap within the desired limit. Enhancing the
heat-transfer area and maintaining exit temperature of Exhaust
gas
6.4.5 Sootblowing Optimization
Figure 6.19 Gap controller of air preheater

sootblower.
Sootblowing is an important part of boiler operation, since a clean heat-transfer
employ soot-cleaning devices like sootblowers, sonic devices, water lances, and water cannons, or
hydro-jets. These soot-cleaning devices use steam, water, or air to dislodge slag and clean surfaces
within a boiler. The number of soot-cleaning devices on a given power-generating unit can range
from several to over a hundred. Manual sequential and time-based sequencing of soot-cleaning
devices have been the traditional methods employed to improve boiler cleanliness. These soot-
cleaning devices are generally automated and are initiated by a master control device.
Frequent operation of a sootblower wastes steam, increases blower maintenance cost, and
aggravates the tube erosion. Conversely, far less frequent blowing allows too much soot accumulation
blown. Therefore, intelligent adjustment of the cleaning schedule according to the actual cleaning
and reduce fatigue in the turbine blades. Adjusting the amount of water sprayed into the steam
header after the steam has passed through the superheater controls the steam temperature. The
addition of spray water. Typical arrangement of a steam-temperature controller by an attemperator

is shown in Figure 6.20. Some boilers are equipped with burner tilt which alters the distribution
of heat for reheat temperature control that directly effects steam superheat temperature. Gas-pass
dampers and gas recirculation is also used to control steam temperature in some utility boilers. At
low loads, gas recirculation is high to assist in achieving reheat temperature while at high loads, gas
recirculation is reduced to its minimum value.
Recommendations for steam-temperature control systems are listed here:
1. Instruments should be installed as close as practical to the source of the measurement.
Temperature measurement should be located at least 20 pipe diameters downstream of any
attemperator.
2. Proper coordination is required when more than one method of controlling the temperature
is adopted.
Attemperator
spray water
flow
Attemperator
FT Attemperator
block valve control valve
Secondary
Spray water superheater
inlet Final steam
temperature temperature
Drain Stop Check
valve valve valve TT TT
To turbine
Primary Attemperator Secondary

superheater superheater
Drum
Figure 6.20 Typical arrangement of an attemperator
6.4.7 Reduction in Auxiliary Power Consumption
Minimize auxiliary power consumption.

Auxiliary power consumption of Indian power plants is around 6.15% for a 500
MW plant and 8 to 10% for a 100 to 250 MW power plants. Various systems contributing to
of equipment, start-up and shut-down, age of the plant and coal quality are key features affecting
auxiliary power requirement.
Auxiliaries may consume up to 12% of total generation; hence, reduction of even 0.5–1.0 % will
result in huge savings and additional output of a few megawatts.
Suggestions on individual auxiliary power-consumption devices are given in the following
section.
1. Use speed control in place of valve control.

2. Use variable-speed-drive boiler feed pump and condensate extraction pump and variable-
speed-drive hydraulic coupling.
Feed water
system
38% Cooling
Draft
water
system
system
25%
13%
Ash Coal
Power handling
handling Auxiliary
system and
Consumption grinding
8%
7%
Water
Compressed
treatment
air system
plant
5%
3%
Lighting
1%
Figure 6.21 Various systems of auxiliary power consumption

3. Perform boiler feed pump scoop operation in three-element mode instead of DP mode.
4. Avoid recirculation and faulty valve.
5. Replacement of worn-out cartridge of boiler feed pump reduces current consumption and
6. Perform CEP pressure reduction by stage removal.
1. Arrest air in-leaks in the draft system by O2 measurement as excess air for combustion
results in increase of FD, PA, and ID fan power. Leakage in APH results in increase of FD,
PA, and ID fan-power consumption. Leakage in duct and ESP body results in increase of
ID fan-power consumption.
2. Compare analyses of fan performances with respect to design condition and identify gaps
by investigation and observation.
3. Check inlet/outlet duct connections, and fan body for holes and cracks.
4. Remove deposit formations in impellers and casings.
5. Treat erosion of impeller blades.
6. Properly maintain primary-air-to-secondary-air ratio to reduce the PA fan-power
consumption.
7. Eliminate damper and inlet guide-vane-based capacity control with variable speed-control
systems.
sized impellers.
1. Utilize proper capacity of the loading system and avoid idle running of conveyors/crushers.
2. Use auto Star–Delta starters instead of Direct OnLine (DOL) to minimize losses.
3. Observe that crushers are adequately and constantly loaded.
1. Maintain proper air–fuel ratio.
3. Optimized mill parameters like ball loading, roller pressure, etc., with respect to size and
quality of coal.
Cooling-Water Pumps
2. Avoid mismatch of required head and rated head by proper selection of pump.
3. Avoid circulation of water in standby systems.
4. Use of booster pump is more advisable for small loads at higher pressure.
5. Check seals and packing to minimize waste of water.
Cooling Tower
2. Follow the manufacturer’s recommended clearances around cooling towers while locating,
and relocate or modify structures that interfere with inlet and exhaust air.
3. Optimize cooling-tower fan-blade angle on weather and/or load basis.
4. Correct excessive and/or uneven fan-blade tip clearance.
5. Periodically clean plugged distribution nozzles of cooling tower.
6. Maintain the optimum liquid to gas ratio (normally 1.4 to 1.6).
1. Avoid oversized pumps.
3. Do impeller trimming to permanently reduce the capacity of the pump.

4. Periodically check valves and leakage in gland sealing. Also check for deposition on
impeller and casing.
1. Reduce discharge air pressure to lowest allowable limit.

2. Install a control system to coordinate more than one air compressor.
4. Identify and attend leakages and minimize purges.

5. Monitor the compressed-air distribution system and select lower pressure drop network.
6.4.8 Gas-Turbine Inlet Air Cooling
Inlet air temperature of air compressor of gas turbine.

Cooling the turbine inlet air even by a few degrees increases power output
substantially. This is because combustion turbines are constant-volume machines; hence, at a given
shaft speed, they always move the same volume of air while the power developed by the turbine
output. Another reason of poor performance of gas turbine during summer is power consumption
of the compressor. The work required to compress air is directly proportional to the temperature
of the air, so reducing the inlet air temperature reduces the work of compression and there is more
work available at the turbine shaft. The typical gas turbine on a hot summer day, for instance,
produces up to 20% less power than on a cold winter day.
There is, however, a limitation on the amount of inlet-air cooling that can safely be accomplished.
If the temperature is allowed to go too low, ice may form on inlet guide vanes which will damage
the compressor blades. This phenomenon may occur even when the inlet-air temperature is above
the freezing point of moisture as the suction at a turbine inlet creates low pressure. To avoid
this problem, most turbine manufacturers recommend a minimum inlet air temperature of 8ºC.
Traditionally, mechanical chillers or evaporative coolers are used to cool combustion turbine inlet
air. Recently, fogging system or absorption chillers are used to cool the inlet air.
Water tank Combustion air
Air Wetted
filter media
Water
treatment
Make up Blow down

Exhaust gas Fuel
Combustion turbine
Figure 6.22 Evaporative cooling for air cooling

Factors affecting the selection and economics of a turbine inlet system are listed below:
1. Combustion turbine characteristics
Evaporative cooling and fogging systems (refer Figure 6.22) are useful for less humid locations.
Their initial and running costs are low and cooling capacity is also low. For more humid locations,
mechanical chillers are the alternative solution. Absorption chillers are used when the plant is in a
combined cycle or cogeneration mode and has access to low-pressure steam.
Q-1 How are superheat and reheat processes helpful in a Rankine cycle?
controlled?
(c) hydro power plants (d) nuclear power plants

Q-3 Which one of the following is not an advantage of performing energy audit of a power plant?
(a) Reduced CO2 emission
Q-5 Role of open feedwater heater in a ranking cycle is to perform
(c) 45 to 50% (d) 55 to 60%
(c) 5, more (d) 10, more
(c) 25–35% (d) 35–45 %
(c) 20% (d) 10%
(c) 20, more (d) 30, more

(c) 10 (d) 15
Answers
1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (c) 5. (a) 6. (d) 7. (a)
8. (d) 9. (d) 10. (a) 11. (a) 12. (d) 13. (d) 14. (a)
15. (b)
Energy Audit of Steam-Distribution Systems
7
� 7.1 WHY IS STEAM USED AS A HEATING FLUID?
Table 7.1 Latent heats of different fluids at their boiling points
Substance Normal boiling point, ºC Latent heat, kJ/kg

Water 100 2257
Ammonia –33.3 1357
Ethanol 78.2 838.3
Ethylene glycol 198.7 800.1
Hydrogen –252.8 445.7
Mercury 356.7 294.7
Nitrogen –195.8 198.6
R-134a –26.1 216.8
Energy Audit of Steam-Distribution Systems 123
� 7.2 STEAM BASICS
sensible heat
latent heat
Steam
Atmospheric pressure 7 bar
100°C 170°C
Latent heat
Latent heat
2,257 kJ/kg 2,050 kJ/kg
170°C
100°C
Sensible heat
Sensible heat
0°C 0°C
Figure 7.1 Conversion of water to steam at atmospheric pressure and higher pressure
Phases of Steam
in the T s
Steam generation, steam utilization and steam recovery

800
221 bar
750
350
.2
700
650 Dry steam line

ABS temperature K
600
1 bar
550 Water line
500 Superheated lines

450 Constant volume
2 /kg
r
400 0.5 m
a
h
112 b
2700 kJ/kg
350
0.25
0.006
Isothermal I.
300 Dryness fraction
x=
273.16
250
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Entropy and kJ/kgK
Figure 7.2 T-s diagram of steam

th
� 7.3 HOW TO ESTIMATE REQUIREMENT OF STEAM?
Table 7.2 Steam quantity required by different consumers
Consumer Process Steam pressure required (bar) Steam flow rate required (kg/h)
Bakery Dough room and oven 2 2
Soft drink Bottle washing for 100 bottles/ minute 2 13
Dairy Pasteurizer 2 to 6 115
Hospital Sterilizing and disinfecting (1500 cc) 4 to 4.5 12
Laundry Steam ironing 8 2
EXAMPLE 7.1
Calculate the requirement of steam for a bottle-washing plant of 2000 bottles/minute capacity.
Solution
� 7.4 STEAM-DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
Boiler-1 Boiler-2
High-pressure stem
Turbine generator Pressure-reducing
station
Process-1 Process-2
Low-pressure vent
Process turbine
drive
Condense
Process-3
Process-4
Condensate Degenerator
receiver
Condensate
receiver
Figure 7.3 Sample of a steam-distribution network

� 7.5 PRESSURE
Table 7.3 Uses of steam

Process Application of steam
Power generation To drive a turbine, which in turn produces electricity.
Mechanical drive To drive steam-powered turbines as an option of electricity purchased from a grid.
Drying To dry agricultural and chemical products.
Injecting For agitation or blending in chemical and petroleum process.
Quenching To regulate the reaction temperature in an exothermic reaction process by direct
injecting in the process.
Contd
Process Application of steam

Diluting To dilute process gas and thereby reduce coke formation on the surface of a heat
exchanger.
Pressure regulating To control partial pressure of a reaction process, steam is injected with reactants.
Transporting To transport the products, steam is injected in the process for entrainment.
Stripping To remove contaminants from a process fluid.
Fractionating To separate components having different boiling points in a distillation tower.
Ejecting To maintain vacuum in the process.
� 7.6 PIPING
Table 7.4 Steam velocities for different steam qualities
Steam quality Steam velocity in pipe (m/s)

Superheated 50 to 70
Dry saturated 30 to 40
Wet 20 to 30
EXAMPLE 7.2
Calculate the pipe diameter, handling steam for a process which requires 7000 kg/h of wet steam
at 10 bar pressure.
Solution
3
3
¥
2
p xD
D
Figure 7.4 A–Incorrect connection;

B–Correct connection
Figure 7.5 A–Incorrect branch connection; B–Correct branch connection
� 7.7 LOSSES IN STEAM-DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
7.7.1 Quantify and Estimate of Steam Leak

Table 7.5 Steam loss at different steam pressures

Leakage size (mm) Leakage of steam in kg/h at a given steam pressure (bar)
3.45 6.89 10.34 13.79 17.24 20.68 24.13
3.2 12 21 30 39 48 60 67
6.4 46 82 118 153 191 239 268
9.5 103 183 265 347 430 538 604
12.7 183 326 470 616 764 956 1073
19.1 411 733 1058 1387 1719 2151 2413
25.4 731 1303 1881 2465 3056 3824 4290
31.8 1143 2036 2938 3851 4776 5975 6703
38.1 1645 2931 4231 5546 6877 8604 9653
Table 7.6 Steam losses at different plume lengths

Plume length (ft) Steam loss (kg/h)
21°C ambient temperature 32°C ambient temperature
3 15.4 22.6
6 77.0 131.4
9 226.5 362.4
12 394.1 634.2
7.7.2 Insulation on Steam-Distribution Lines and Condensate Return Lines

Table 7.7 Heat losses from un-insulated pipes at different steam pressures per 100 feet length of pipe
Distribution-line diameter, Heat loss per 100 feet (30.84 m) of un-insulated steam line (million kJ/yr) at 24 °C
inches (mm) ambient temperature
Steam pressure (bar)
1 10 20 40
1 (25.4) 148 300 395 522
2 (50.8) 248 506 665 886
4 (101.6) 438 896 1182 1582
8 (203.2) 780 1625 2142 2875
Table 7.8 Heat losses from un-insulated pipes at different steam temperatures per m length of pipe
Distribution-line diameter, Heat loss per m of un-insulated steam line (MJ/h) at 21ºC ambient temperature
inches (mm) Steam temperature (°C)
93 204 316 427 538
1 (25.4) 1 3 6 9 14
2 (50.8) 2 5 9 14 20
4 (101.6) 3 8 14 24 37
8 (203.2) 5 13 25 42 66
EXAMPLE 7.3
Calculate heat loss from a bare pipe of 1-inch diameter, carrying steam at 10 bar pressure for a
length of 1000 feet.
Solution
` `
` `
` `
`
7.7.3 Flash Steam
Table 7.9 Energy loss from vent steam
Pipe diameter, Energy content of a vent steam in million kJ/yr

inch (mm) (Make-up water temperature is 25ºC and steam condenses at 40°C)
Steam velocity, m/s
1 1.5 2 2.5 3
2 (50.8) 95 148 195 243 295
4 (101.6) 390 580 781 976 1171
6 (152.4) 881 1319 1757 2200 2638
10 (254) 2442 3661 4885 6198 7327
EXAMPLE 7.4
Quantify the steam leak per annum for a vent diameter of 2 inches and steam velocity of 2.5 m/s.
Solution
`
`
7.7.4 Condensate Recovery
Saturated
vapor supply
High-pressure Low-pressure
condensate flash vessel
Steam trap Saturated

Level
vapor
controller
Saturated
liquid Condensate
discharge
Figure 7.6 Condensate-recovery system

EXAMPLE 7.5
Consider a steam system that returns an additional 5000 kg/h of condensate at 82ºC due to distri-
82%, and make-up water temperature of 25°C. The water and sewage costs, and treatment cost is
0.05 `/
Solution ¥
¥ ¥
¥ ¥ ¥ `
Heat Remaining in condensate (%)
Heat Loss in Condensate

30
25
20
15
10
5
0
50 70 90 110 130 150 170
Condensate Temperature (°C)
Figure 7.7 Heat loss in a condensate at different temperatures
7.7.5 Pipe Size

� 7.8 ENERGY-CONSERVATION METHODS
7.8.1 Use of Two Different-Capacity Steam Generators for Two Different Pressure Requirements
7.8.2 Install Turbine Between High-Pressure Steam Generator and End Use in New Set-up Or
Replace Pressure-Reducing Valve with Turbine in Existing Set-up
turbogenerators
7.8.3 Use Steam-Turbine Drive Instead of Electric Motor
7.8.4 Cover Open Vessels Containing Hot Water

Table 7.10 Evaporative heat loss from steam to different atmosphere temperatures
Fluid temperature, °C Evaporative heat loss in W/m2 from one square foot of open area
Atmospheric temperature, °C
18 24 29 35 40
43 769 699 630 557 479
54 1509 1424 1339 1250 1162
65 2800 2696 2589 2482 2375
77 5065 4933 4800 4668 4536
88 9135 8962 8788 8621 8454
7.8.5 Use Removable Insulations on Valves and Fittings
7.8.6 Use Steam at Lowest Possible Pressure
7.8.7 Use Low-Pressure Waste Steam to Run Vapour-Absorption Refrigeration System
7.8.8 Enhance Heat Transfer
7.8.9 Proper Selection of Steam Trap

7.8.10 Use of Vapour Recompression
7.8.11 Use of Dry Steam
Table 7.11 Steam traps

Type of steam trap Working-principle Cut-section image Features
subcategory
Inverted bucket The mechanism consists of Outlet It can withstand high
steam trap an inverted bucket attached pressure.
by a lever to a valve. It has good tolerance to
Under normal conditions, Orifice
water-hammer condition.
the bucket hangs down, Bleed hole
It can be used in
pulling the valve off its seat. Inverted
superheated steam lines.
bucket
Condensate flows under
It fails in open mode so
the bottom of the bucket
it’s safe.
filling the body and flowing
away through the outlet. Small hole size discharges
When steam accumulates Inlet air very slowly.
below the bucket, it raises Not suitable for
it and lifts the lever and fluctuating pressure
thereby shuts the outlet. It applications.
remains off till the steam
condenses or vents off.

subcategory
Float-type The ball float-type trap It ensures continuous
mechanical operates by sensing discharge of steam; hence,
steam trap the difference in suitable for high rate of
density between steam heat-transfer applications.
and condensate. The Linear behaviours for
condensate accumulating all types of condensate
in the valve chamber load and not affected by
lifts the valve off from fluctuations in mass-flow
its position and releases rate and pressure; it is
condensate. New versions water-hammer resistant.
have thermostatic air vents A valve operates best
for automatic release of air. in its range of pressure
difference for higher
pressure difference; it will
close and will not pass
condensate.
Thermodynamic In this robust and simple Peripheral outlets
Long service life, compact,
steam trap trap, dynamic effect of simple; and large capacity.
flash steam is utilized. It can work in water-
During start-up, the steam hammer and vibration,
pressure raises the disc easy to maintain.
and cool condensate and It will not work in low
air is discharged. When differential pressure.
flash-steam pressure builds
up above the disc, it is
forced down and sealed.
Condensation of steam
reopens the valve.
Balanced The operating element is a Open Small, lightweight, and
pressure steam capsule containing a special has a large capacity.
trap liquid and water mixture Valve is full open during
whose boiling point is Valve open start-up condition
below water. The capsule allowing maximum
Closed
is in relaxed condition condensate removal.
at cold temperature. As Simple to maintain.
the condensate passes
It may damage by water-
through it, the liquid in
Vaporised fill hammer or corrosion at
the capsule expands and
long run.
valve shuts. Heat loss from
the trap cools the water It will not open until the
surrounding the capsule condensate temperature
and restores original drops below steam
position. temperature.
Contd

subcategory
Bimetallic steam It is made of two dissimilar Open Compact, open while
trap metal strips welded start-up, can withstand
together. The element water-hammer and
deflects when heated. corrosive condensate and
high steam pressure.
It does not respond

quickly to change in load
or pressure because the
element is slow to react.
Closed
A single bimetal strip may

not meet required power;
hence, a large mass is
required.
Impulse steam It consists of a hollow It can work for a wide

trap piston (A) with a piston range of pressure.
disc (B) and both are It is good at venting air.
placed in a tapered piston F B Tight shut-off is not
(C). The valve is lifted up A
D
C
E possible as some steam
in case of accumulation of continuously leaks
Condensate
steam. in
Condensate
out
through the vent.
Extremely small clearance
is easily affected by dirt.
Labyrinth steam It consists of a series Small and compact and

Condensate in
trap of baffles which can be have less chances of
adjusted by a handwheel. mechanical failure.
Hot condensate passing Condensate out Manual adjustment is
between the baffle and trap required.
casing expands and drops
in pressure.
Source:
CHECKLIST
Housekeeping Checklist
Some Retrofits
THUMB RULES
Numerical Problems
¢
¢
` `
` `
Answers
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.
15. 16.
Compressed Air System
8
Maintenance
Installation cost, 7 %
Energy cost, cost, 2 %
73 %
Initial cost,
18 %
Figure 8.1 Cost distribution
instrument air
Table 8.1 Applications of compressed air
Name of industry Type of application

Automobile Tool powering, controls, actuators, conveying
Textile Agitation, tool powering, controls, actuators, conveying
Contd.
Name of industry Type of application

Chemical and pharmaceuticals Controls, actuators, conveying
Food Dehydration, bottling and packaging plants, spraying, cleaning, controls,
actuators, conveying
Wood and furniture Sawing, hoisting, clamping, tool powering, spraying, controls, actuators
Fabrication and manufacturing Clamping, stamping, tool powering, cleaning, controls, actuators, injec-
tion moulding, spraying
Petroleum Gas compressing, controls, actuators
Pulp, paper, rubber, plastic Controls, actuators, conveying, tool powering, clamping, forming, injec-
tion moulding
Agriculture Spraying pesticides, material-handling
Mining Pneumatic tools, hoists, pumps, controls, actuators, conveying
Gas-power plants Starting gas turbines, controls, actuators
Transportation Pneumatic tools, hoists, air brakes
Miscellaneous applications Service industries, water-treatment plants, recreation, etc.
� 8.1 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPRESSORS
Compressor
Positive Continuous
displacement flow
Reciprocating Rotary Ejector Dynamic
Single acting Screw Centrifugal flow
Double acting Scroll Axial flow
Diaphragm Vane Mixed flow
Lobe
Chart 8.1 Classification of compressors

Compressed Air System 145
� 8.2 TYPES OF COMPRESSORS
8.2.1 Positive-Displacement Compressors
reciprocating compressor
rotary compressor
8.2.2 Continuous-Flow Compressors
centrifugal compressor
8.2.3 Reciprocating Air Compressors (1 CFM to 6300 CFM)

oil-free compressors
Suction valve (discharge

valve on opposite side)
Piston 2nd stage Discharge valve
Suction valve
Air inlet
1st stage
1st stage
Crankcase
oil dipstick Connecting rods
Oil sump
Crankshaft
Figure 8.2 Reciprocating compressor

Thermodynamics of a Reciprocating Air Compressor

p
p pv
pv
Isothermal work
Actual work
Volume of air inhaled

Stroke volume
V
È
ÍÊ p2 ˆ
()
1
˘
- 1˙
n
1- c
ÍÁË p1 ˜¯
hv
Vs ˙
ÍÎ ˙˚
Vc Vs n
Discharge valve will close at end piston stroke
E D Valve open
V
dp
P2 Compression
line
Re-expansion
line
Intake valve open C
V2 B P1
O
V1
Volume
Figure 8.3 pv diagram of a reciprocating air compressor
8.2.4 Rotary Screw Compressors (30 CFM to 3000 CFM)

Shaft seals
Timing gears
Cooling jackets
Asymmetric rotors
Anti-friction and
roller bearings
Figure 8.4 Rotary screw compressor (See color figure)
8.2.5 Vane Compressor (40 CFM to 800 CFM)
Air in
Air out
Figure 8.5 Vane compressor

8.2.6 Centrifugal Compressors (400 CFM to 15000 CFM)
Figure 8.6 Centrifugal compressor
� 8.3 COMPRESSED AIR-SYSTEM LAYOUT

Air receiver (main)

Primary filter
Pre-filter (dryer)
Auto
Compressor drain Dryer
After-filter (dryer)
Ring main Drain line system
Branch
line Main trunk
line
Air receiver
(local)
user process Oil/water
(large intermittent demand for compressed air) separator
Figure 8.7 Compressed air layout
� 8.4 ENERGY-SAVING POTENTIAL IN A COMPRESSED-AIR SYSTEM
8.4.1 Analyze Compressed-Air Quality and Quantity Need
oversized compressors
8.4.2 Inappropriate Use of Compressed Air
Table 8.2 Alternatives of compressed air
Inappropriate use Alternative

Cooling, drying, cleaning, draining compressed air lines, Brush, broom, dust collector, blower, fan
clearing jams
Aerating, agitating, oxygenating, percolating Mixtures and low-pressure blowers
Aspirating Low-pressure blowers
Atomizing in fuel oil Low-pressure blowers
Vacuum generation in ejector Vacuum pump
8.4.3 Leakage in a Compressed-Air System
Table 8.3 Cost estimation of leakage

Size of leakage Energy cost per year in rupees
∑ 1/16≤ 62,760
∑ 1/8≤ 2,51,400
∑ 1/4≤ 10,05,840
Leak-detection Methods
Ultrasonic acoustic leak detectors
soap
solution
isolation valve
Step 1:
Step 2:
Step 3:
T¥ T+t
T
t
Step 1:
Step 2:
Step 3: P bar.
Step 4: P bar.
Step 5: T
V¥ P –P ¥T
8.4.4 Pressure Drop in a Compressed-Air System
pressure drop
8.4.5 Controls of a Compressed-Air System
Individual Compressor Controls
Modulating or Throttling Control
Multiple Compressor Control

8.4.6 Compressed-Air Storage
T ¥ C ¥ Pa
P1 - P2
T C is
Pa P P
8.4.7 Regular Maintenance
Step 1:
Step 2:
Step 3:
Step 4:
Step 4:
Step 5:
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
8.4.8 Heat Recovery in Compressed-air Systems
¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥
CHECKLIST
THUMB RULES
3
Fill in the Blanks
Answers
Fill in the Blanks
1. 4.
2. 5.
3.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. (a) 6. 7. (a)
8.
Energy Audit of HVAC Systems
9
-
� 9.1 INTRODUCTION TO HVAC
In institutional, commercial, and residential buildings, air-conditioning systems are mainly for
the occupants’ health and comfort. They are often called comfort air-conditioning systems. In
manufacturing buildings, air-conditioning systems are provided for product processing or for the
health and comfort of workers as well as processing and are called processing air-conditioning
systems. Cold storages are used for food preservation.
Most refrigeration systems used for air-conditioning are vapour-compression-cycle-based
systems. Vapour absorption is still more popular where waste heat is available and high initial cost
is allowable. Air-expansion refrigeration systems are used mainly in aircraft and cryogenics (low-
temperature refrigeration).
Basic processes of air-conditioning systems are mentioned here:
1. Sensible cooling
2. Sensible heating
3. Humidifying
4. Dehumidifying
5. Air cleaning
6. Air change
7. Air movement
In sensible cooling and heating processes, heat is removed or added in conditioned space
to maintain the temperature. and are processes of adding or
removing water vapour from the air. Air cleaning is removing dust and other particulates, biological
contaminants to maintain air quality. Air change is the process of exchanging air between the
outdoor and indoor to maintain oxygen level, air quality, and freshness. Air movement is to control
air circulation. Out of the basic seven processes, the climate decides the required processes which
may again vary throughout the year depending on whether the climate is hot and humid or cool and
dry.
� 9.2 COMPONENTS OF AN AIR-CONDITIONING SYSTEM
Outside Air Damper It regulates outside air intake. The arrangement is provided which closes
off the outside air intake when the system is switched off as well as when the power is off. It is also
Mixing Chamber Air returning from the room mixes with the outside fresh air (ventilation
air) in this chamber.
Return air from
the space
Outside air
Conditioned supply
Mixing air to the space
Outside air chamber
damper
Heating coil
Cooling coil
Fan
Filter
Humidifier
Figure 9.1 Schematic of an air-conditioning system

Figure 9.1 shows the basic components of an air-conditioning system.
Filter
so that it cleans the return air and the ventilation air. It also prevents heating and cooling coil
across it.
Heating and Cooling Coils The heating coil increases air temperature and the cooling coil
thermostats.
It adds moisture and is controlled by a humidistat.
Fan It supplies air to the space though a duct.
� 9.3 TYPES OF AIR-CONDITIONING SYSTEMS
In commercial and residential buildings, air-conditioning systems are used for residents’ health
and comfort; hence, they are called comfort air-conditioning systems. In manufacturing buildings
and processes, air-conditioning systems are provided for product, process, or workers’ health and
comfort, and are called process air-conditioning systems. Based on their size, construction, and
Energy Audit of HVAC Systems 161
Air
conditioning
Evaporative Desiccant Thermal Clean room

Individual Space air Central air
cooling air based air storage air air
system conditioning conditioning
conditioning conditioning conditioning conditioning
Chart 9.1 Classification of air-conditioning systems
Individual systems are commonly known as window, split, or package air conditioners. Window
air conditioners are installed in a window or through a wall, while in a split or package air
conditioner, indoor and outdoor units are mounted separately. An outdoor condensing unit consists
of a compressor and condenser, and an indoor air handler is located at a more advantageous location
with reduced noise level. Individual systems are factory-assembled units.
Individual systems have main components like, evaporator, compressor, condenser, capillary
evaporator, the refrigerant evaporates and absorbs room
heat directly; hence, it is known as direct expansion (DX) coil. The system schematic is shown in
Figure 9.2.
Supply outlet
Room air
conditioner
Return
grille
Figure 9.2 Individual air-conditioning system
Space air-conditioning systems

by an evaporator and fan coil, a heat pump or another device within or outside the conditioned
space. It usually has a short-supply and no-return ducts. Space air-conditioning systems are usually
employed with a separate outdoor ventilation air system to provide outdoor air for the occupants in
the conditioned space.
Evaporative-cooling air-conditioning systems use the cooling effect of the evaporation of liquid
water to cool an airstream directly or indirectly. When an evaporative cooler provides only a portion
of the cooling effect, it becomes a component of a central hydronic or a packaged unit system.
or indirect-contact heat exchanger, exhaust fan, water sprays, reticulating water pump, and water
sump. An evaporative cooling system consumes low energy as compared to vapour-compression-
based air-conditioning systems due to absence of a compressor, but it can perform well only in dry
atmosphere.
Wet side Spray

air fan nozzle manifold
Moisture separators
Stainless steel housing
Air filter
Heat exchanger
Supply Water sump

air fan
Wet side air filter
Figure 9.3 Evaporative cooling system
A desiccant-based air-conditioning system is a system in which latent cooling is performed by
a considerable part of expensive vapour-compression refrigeration is replaced by inexpensive

evaporative cooling. A desiccant-based air-conditioning system is usually a hybrid system of
There are two airstreams in a desiccant-based air-conditioning system: a process airstream and a
regenerative airstream. Process air can be all outdoor air or a mixture of outdoor and recirculating
air. Process air is also conditioned air supplied directly to the conditioned space or enclosed
manufacturing process, or to the Air-Handling Unit (AHU), Packaged Unit (PU), or terminal for
further treatment. Regenerative airstream is a high-temperature airstream used to reactivate the
desiccant.
A desiccant-based air-conditioned system consists of the following components: rotary desiccant
and piping.
In a thermal storage air-conditioning system, the electricity-driven refrigeration compressors
are operated during off-peak hours. Stored chilled water or stored ice in tanks is used to provide
cooling in buildings during peak hours when high electric demand charges and electric energy rates
are in effect. A thermal storage system reduces high electric demand for HVAC&R and partially or
fully shifts the high electric energy rates from peak hours to off-peak hours. A thermal storage air-
conditioning system is always of central air-conditioning type. Further details of thermal storage
type of air-conditioning systems are given in Section 9.8.18.
Clean-room or clean-space air-conditioning systems serve spaces where there is a need for
critical control of particulates, temperature, relative humidity, ventilation, noise, vibration, and
space pressurization. In a clean-space air-conditioning system, the quality of indoor environmental
control directly affects the quality of the products produced in the clean space.
A clean-space air-conditioning system consists of a recirculating air unit and a make-up air
piping work, pumps, refrigeration systems, and related controls.

A central hydronic air-conditioning system or central air-conditioning system uses a central
zones of conditioned space. The heat capacity of water is 3000 times higher than that of air; hence,
or cool the conditioned space. However, the system becomes more complicated and expensive for
small size.
Cooling
tower
Ppump.ct Tcond.set
Condenser
Expansion Pchiller
valve Chiller
Compressor
Tchw.set
Evaporator
Main water loop
Cooling oil
Filter Supply fan
Tspa.set
Ventilation
air
Figure 9.4 Central air-conditioning system
� 9.4 HUMAN COMFORT ZONE AND PSYCHROMETRY
which is achieved by obtaining heat balance between persons and their surrounding environment. A
person generates heat by digestion of food (metabolism) and loses heat by conduction, convection,
radiation, and evaporative cooling (by perspiration) which is the primary heat-loss mechanism. It
is a known fact that only 20% of the food we digest is converted into energy and the rest is wasted
in heat or any other form. There are many parameters which affect the amount of heat released by
our bodies, namely, activity of a person, surrounding atmospheric temperature and humidity, air
motion, clothing, metabolic rate, etc.
Human comfort can be achieved at air temperatures between about 20ºC and 26.6ºC, and relative
humidity between 20% and 70%, under varying air velocities and radiant surface temperatures.
Figure 9.5 shows the generalized “comfort zone” for summer and winter weather.
90° 80° 70°

90
e 0%
bl 10 60%
ne ta
(Relative humidity)
r o
zo m
fo RH
rt co
50%
fo 80
80 m %
co 7
8 0 40%
er % 9 94 4
m 8 6 75
m 8 4
Su 75 6 30%
6
34 0
Wet bulb temperature, deg. F
70
20%
66
p. 10%
m
te 0
60 e
tiv 6 80
c
fe
Ef 5
5 75 table
fer
m
71 co
%
50
50
65
75
84
97
97
63
81
e
% on
65
tz
48
60 or
40 o mf
rc
55 nte
Wi
50 60 70 80 90 100
Dry bulb temperature, deg, F
Figure 9.5 Human comfort chart
Psychrometry Air is a mixture of gasses and water vapour. Dry air is made of nitrogen,
oxygen, and minute portions of other gases. The amount of water vapour varies greatly for different
locations and weather conditions. Air obeys Dalton’s law which states that “Total barometric
pressure is the summation of pressure exerted by dry gases and partial pressure exerted by water
vapour”. Psyhrometric terms are explained here.
Dry-bulb temperature is measured by a standard thermometer with a dry-sensing bulb.
Wet-bulb temperature is measured by a thermometer using a sensing bulb covered with a
wet wick and the thermometer is rotated in air. Moving of the thermometer in air makes the water
evaporate from the wick, absorbing latent heat of evaporation from the wick, which lowers bulb
temperature. The amount of evaporation is decided by the relative humidity of air. An instrument
measuring dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures is known as a sling psychrometer (Figure 3.4 in
Chapter 3).
Relative humidity is the ratio of the amount of water vapour present in the sample air and
the amount of water vapour in saturated air. Knowing dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures of air,
relative humidity can be obtained and is expresses as % RH.
� 9.5 VAPOUR-COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION CYCLE
The vapour-compression refrigeration cycle is the most common cycle based on which most HVAC
devices work. It consists of four basic components, namely, compressor, condenser, evaporator,
and expansion valve. In an ideal vapour-compression refrigeration cycle, the refrigerant enters the
compressor as a saturated vapour and is compressed isentropically. Compressed vapour is cooled
in a condenser to the saturated liquid state and then expands from high pressure to low pressure in
the expansion device. A mixture of the refrigerant liquid and vapour comes out of the expansion
of evaporation, which is known as cooling effect. Schematic arrangement of vapour-compression

refrigeration cycle and thermodynamic representation on ph and Ts diagrams are shown in Figures
9.6 and 9.7 respectively.
Condenser
3 2
Compressor
Expansion
valve
Evaporator
4 1
Figure 9.6 Schematic of vapour-compression refrigeration cycle
2
3 2
p
3
T3
T4 1
4 1 4
h3 = h4 h1 s4 s1
Figure 9.7 Thermodynamic representation of vapour-compression refrigeration cycle
9.5.1 Performance of Vapour-Compression Refrigeration Cycle

Table 9.1 shows the thermodynamic nature of processes in all the components of a vapour-
compression refrigeration cycle.
Table 9.1 Processes of vapour-compression refrigeration cycle
Process Component Thermodynamic nature Steady-flow analysis

1-2 Compressor Isentropic compressions = constant Win = m(h2 – h1)
2-3 Condenser Isobaric condensation Qh = m(h3 – h2)
3-4 Expansion valve Isenthalpic expansion h4 = h3
4-1 Evaporator Isobaric evaporation Qr = m(h1 – h4)
The performance of the same is measure in terms of COP as given in Equation (9.1).
QR h1 - h4
COPR = = (9.1)
Win h2 - h1
Here, QR is refrigeration effect (amount of heat removed in evaporator) and Win is work input to
the compressor.
9.5.2 Parameters Affecting the Performance of Vapour-Compression Refrigeration Cycle

The vapour-compression refrigeration cycle discussed in the earlier section is an ideal cycle and
the actual cycle is affected by several parameters like evaporator pressure, condenser pressure,
subcooling, superheating, etc.
The refrigerant coming out of the condenser is usually subcooled to a temperature lower than
the saturated temperature corresponding to the condensing pressure of the refrigerant, shown in
Figure 9.8. This increases the refrigerating effect. The degree of subcooling depends mainly on the
temperature of the coolant (e.g., atmospheric air, surface water, or well water) during condensation
and the construction and capacity of the condenser.
Subcooling
3¢ 2 3 2
p p
3
1 1 Superheating
4¢ 4 4
h h
Figure 9.8 Effect of subcooling and superheating on vapour-compression refrigeration cycle
The refrigerant vapour at the suction of the compressor is slightly superheated which ensures dry
compression in compressor, and if the superheating process is occurring in the last few coils of the
evaporator, it increases the refrigerating capacity of the system. Thus, subcooing and superheating
are advisable for better performance of vapour-compression refrigeration system. A typical ph chart
for R134a refrigerant is shown in Figure 9.9.
decreases the capacity of the reciprocating compressor and increases the power consumption per
unit refrigeration. Likewise, increase in condenser pressure decreases refrigeration capacity and
power consumption increases. Thus, both these operating conditions are not advisable.
For multiple temperature applications like cold storages, dairy industry, etc., multistage vapour
valves, etc.
R-134a
10
9 R-134a S = 1.9
8 Pressure-enthalpy diagram
S = 1.8
7 s = specific entropy, kJ/kg¢K
S = 1.7
6
S = 1.6
T = Temperature ° C
S = 1.5
5
S = 1.4
S = 2.0
4
S = 1.3
S = 1.2
T = 90
S = 1.1
3
S = 1.0
T = 80
S = 0.9
T = 70
2
T = 60
Pressure [MPa]
S = 2.1
T = 200
T = 50
T = 190
T = 40
1
T = 180
0.9
0.8 T = 30
T = 170
0.7
T = 20
T = 160
0.6
0.5
T = 10
T = 150
0.4
T = 140
T=0
0.3
T = 130
0.2 T = 10
T = 120
T = 110
T = 20
0.1
140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400 420 440 460 480 500 520 540 560 580 600
Enthalpy [kJ/kg]
Figure 9.9 ph chart of refrigerant R134a
9.5.3 Parts of a Vapour-Compression Refrigeration Cycle

The refrigerant vapour entering the compressor is compressed to high pressure by a reciprocating,
scroll, screw or centrifugal compressor, out of which the reciprocating scroll and screw are positive-
displacement type and the centrifugal compressor is of dynamic type. Basics of compressors
available in capacity of 0.5 ton to 200 ton and can handle compression ratio of 10 to 12. For
small systems, hermetically sealed reciprocating compressors are used in which the compressor
and motor are directly coupled and housed in a single unit. Open compressors are more suitable for
large systems. Low initial cost is the advantage of a reciprocating compressor; at the same time, it
requires frequent maintenance.
Centrifugal compressors are variable-volume displacement units of open as well as hermetic
types. They are available from 90- to 2000-ton capacity. The main advantage of centrifugal
Screw compressors are positive-displacement-type machines and are of single-screw, twin-

screw, oil-type or oil-free type. Their capacity range is 20 to 1000 tons and they operate at high
compression ratio. Main advantages of screw compressors are they are compact, lightweight, silent,
Condenser Compressed high-pressure and high-temperature refrigerant vapour comes to

the condenser, where it is condensed to liquid state by removing its latent heat and subcooled by
removing sensible heat. Air or water is used to remove heat of the refrigerant. Both have their
inherent advantages and allocations. Air-cooled condenser does not require water, simple and
less maintenance is involved but works at higher condensation temperature and air having less
heat-carrying capacity requires more heat-transfer surface area. Proper air circulation and regular
cleaning are essential in air-cooled condensers.
water is used to condense the refrigerant while in a close-circuit water-cooled condenser, a cooling
tower is required which adds to initial as well as operating cost
of the plant. Mostly, a shell-and-tube arrangement is used for a
water-cooled condenser.
Expansion Valve the function of an expansion valve is
to meter the liquid refrigerant in the evaporator and maintain
a pressure difference between the condenser and evaporator.
Different expansion valves used in the HVAC industry are hand
valve, capillary tube, etc.
Water outlet Safety valve connection Service socket Liffting lug Refrigerant inlet
connection
Water inlet Front cover Refrigerant outlet connection Heat exchange tubes End cover
Figure 9.10 Air-cooled and water-cooled condensers (Source: Alfa laval)

A capillary tube is the simplest expansion device to produce pressure difference. It is made of a
small-diameter tube and is suitable for company-assembled devices like refrigerator, water cooler,
display type cabinets, window air conditioners, etc. It cannot regulate the amount of refrigerant so
The most common expansion device is the thermostatic expansion valve which can control the
more internal port, it is able to balance pressure more accurately and is known as a balanced
expansion valve.
Evaporator Refrigerant evaporates and absorbs latent heat of evaporation from the
surroundings in an evaporator. An air-cooled evaporator may be of natural circulation type or
forced circulation type. Liquid-cooled heat exchangers are shell-and-tube type or plate-type. Shell-
Refrigerant The refrigerant plays the role of absorbing and transmitting heat in a vapour-
compression refrigeration system. Most common desirable properties of a refrigerant are pressure-
temperature relationship (it should not have excessively low pressure in the evaporator and high
pressure in the condenser), freezing point, chemical stability, toxicity, ozone-depletion potential,
global warming potential, and cost. CFCs were popular refrigerants in the last century and they
have now been replaced with HFCs and HCFCs to save the environment.
In addition to the listed components, controls, thermostats, high-pressure–low-pressure switches,
relief valves, oil separators, solenoid valves, accumulators, dehydrators, insulations, etc., complete
a vapour-compression refrigeration system.
� 9.6 ENERGY USE INDICES
According to ASHRAE standards, following are the current energy-use indices for refrigeration
compressors, packaged units, heat pumps, and chillers:
input in kW, at any given set of rating conditions.

Refrigeration effect kW
COP = (9.2)
Work input kW
device, in W, under designated operating conditions.

Refrigeration effect BTU/hr
EER = (9.3)
Work input W
refrigeration effect.
Work input kW
(9.4)
Refgireration effect ton
4. Integrated Part Load Value (IPLV) is a single index of merit that is based on part-load EER
heat pumps based on the weighted operation at various load capacities.
Table 9.2 Relation between COP, EER, and kW/ton
COP EER kW/ton

1.76 6 2.0
2.34 8 1.5
2.93 10 1.2
3.56 12 1.0
4.39 15 0.8
5.86 20 0.6
8.89 30 0.4
IPLV = 0.01A + 0.42B + 0.45C + 0.12D (9.5)

where, A = COP or EER at 100% capacity
B = COP or EER at 75 % capacity
C = COP or EER at 50 % capacity
D = COP or EER at 25 % capacity
� 9.7 IMPACT OF REFRIGERANTS ON ENVIRONMENT AND GLOBAL WARMING
The surface of the earth is surrounded by a layer of air, called the atmosphere. The lower atmosphere
is called the homosphere, and the upper atmosphere is called the stratosphere. In the mid-1980s,
(CFCs) were widely used as refrigerants in mechanical refrigeration systems,
to produce thermal insulation foam and to produce aerosol propellants for many household
consumer products. CFC-11 (CCl3F) and CFC-12 (CCl2F2) are commonly used CFCs. They are
very stable. Halons are also halogenated hydrocarbons. If CFCs and halons leak or are discharged
from a refrigeration system during operation or repair to the lower atmosphere, they will migrate
to the upper stratosphere and decompose under the action of ultraviolet rays throughout decades
or centuries. The free chlorine atoms react with oxygen atoms of the ozone layer in the upper
stratosphere and cause a depletion of this layer. The theory of the depletion of the ozone layer was
may cause skin cancer, a serious threat to human beings.
1996, actions have been taken to ban the production of CFCs and halons before it is too late.
A cloudless homosphere is mainly transparent to short-wave solar radiation but is quite opaque to
long-wave infrared rays emitted from the surface of the earth. Carbon dioxide (CO2) has the greatest
blocking effect of all; water vapour and synthetic CFCs also play important roles in blocking the
direct escape of infrared energy. The phenomenon of transparency to incoming solar radiation and
blanketing of outgoing infrared rays is called the greenhouse effect. The increase of the CO2, water
vapour, CFCs, and other gases, often called greenhouse gases (GHGs), eventually will result in a
rise in air temperature near the earth’s surface. This is known as the global warming effect.
� 9.8 ENERGY-SAVING MEASURES IN HVAC
As an HVAC system is a tailor-made system designed and manufactured to meet the requirement
of a particular end user, its audit will also vary for different end users. In general, the methodology
to audit an HVAC system is given in Chart 9.2. It includes inspection and evaluation of HVAC
Check the HVAC system Visually inspect the plant

capacity of the building and monitor
maintenance schedule
Reduce internal load Use BMS
Improve insulation Change set temperatures
Add solar shading Change filters
Calculate savings due to

energy saving measures
taken up
Chart 9.2 Hierarchy of HVAC system audit
9.8.1 CAV vs VAV

A Constant Air Volume (CAV) system provides a constant amount of supply air, conditioned at
proper temperature to meet the thermal loads in each space based on a thermostat setting. Either
mixing cooled air with heated or bypassed air or directly reheating cooled air is used to control the
partial load conditions. Different types of CAV systems used presently are described below:
CAVs with terminal reheat systems which require the circulated air to be cooled to meet
design thermal loads. If partial thermal load conditions occur, reheat of pre-cooled air is required.
CAV systems with terminal reheat in interior spaces and perimeter induction or fan-coil
units For these systems, the energy waste is reduced at the perimeter spaces, since a large portion
of the air supplied to the perimeter spaces is re-circulated within each space by either induction or
fan-coil units.
All-air induction systems with perimeter reheat The induction units accept varying amounts
of warm return air to mix with primary air for temperature control. The energy waste due to reheat
is small for these systems. However, extensive static pressure control is required at the terminals.
CAV double-duct systems which have a cold-air duct and a hot-air duct. Mixing cold air with
hot air proportionally to meet the thermal load of the space controls the supply-air temperature.
Energy waste occurs during partial thermal load conditions when mixing is needed.
Variable Air Volume (VAV) systems provide a variable amount of supply air, conditioned at
a constant temperature to meet the thermal loads in each space based on thermostat setting. The
air volume is controlled using outlet dampers, inlet vanes, and variable speed drives. Only cooled
air is supplied at the central AHU while reheat is provided in each space depending on the thermal
types are:
VAV systems with terminal reheat which reduce the amount of air supplied as the cooling
load lowers until a preset minimum volume is reached. At this limit, reheat is provided to
the supply air to meet the thermal load. Because of this volume reduction, reheat energy
VAV systems with perimeter heating units providing only cooling since heating is performed
by other systems, such as hot-water baseboard units. The heating units are controlled by
outside air temperature, since the perimeter heating load is a function of the transmission
losses.
VAV double-duct systems which have cold-air and hot-air ducts and operate in a similar
way to VAV systems with terminal reheat. As the cooling load decreases, only cold air is
supplied until a preset minimum volume is reached. At this limit, the hot air is mixed with
the cold airstream.
effective energy-conservation measure for HVACs. However, energy saving can also be considered,
even if the existing system is a VAV. The potential for energy saving in HVAC systems depends on
several factors, including their design, the method of operation, and their maintenance.
9.8.2 Optimize Ventilation Air
where it is used to provide fresh air to occupants, and industrial facilities, where it is used to control
the level of dust, gases, fumes or vapours, especially in locations with extreme weather conditions.
The auditor should estimate the existing volume of fresh air and compare this estimation to the
amount of ventilation air required by the appropriate standards and codes.
loads. Some energy-conservation measures related to ventilation are described here. However, in
may actually reduce cooling and heating loads through the use of airside economizer cycles. The
potential of energy savings attributed to economizers is also discussed here.
First, evaluate the existing level of ventilation air through a mechanical system. The tracer-gas
or enthalpy-balance technique can be used to determine the amount of fresh air entering a room.
Once the existing ventilation air is estimated, it has to be compared to the ventilation requirements
by the applicable standards. Table 9.3 gives ventilation-air requirement for some selected spaces in
reduce the same.

Table 9.3 Ventilation-air requirement
Type of area Ventilation air flow (m3/h per person)

Room 17–26
Washrooms 51–85
Corridor 12–17
Public area 17–26
Meeting room 34–51
Dining room 26–34
Kitchen 60
Another method to control ventilation air is using CO2 sensors, as CO2 present in the room
indicates pollutant level in the room. A damper controller receives signals from the CO2 sensor and
The calculation of the energy saving by reducing ventilation air is given in Equation (9.6) for
heating and (9.7) for cooling.
3.6 ra C pa Nh (Voa , E - Voa , R )(Ti - To )
Units saved in heating = (9.6)
hh
where ra is density of air, Cpa Nh represents the number of operating hours in
heating mode, Voa,E and Voa,R represent existing and reduced ventilation air, Ti and To represent
temperature of air inside and outside and hh
3.6 ra Nh (Voa , E - Voa , R ) D Hc
Units saved in cooling = (9.7)
EER
where ra is density of air, Nh represents number of operating hours in cooling mode, Voa,E and
Voa,R Hc represents enthalpy difference of outside
and inside air, and EER
Apart from reducing ventilation air, other suggestions are listed below:
1. Use low-leakage dampers which restrict leakage to 1% compared to standard dampers
which allow 5 to 10% leakage when closed.
2. Use controls to shut off ventilation air during no-occupancy periods.
doors and windows, accumulation of fumes, odour, dirt and dust, etc.
9.8.3 Use of Variable-Speed Drive

In India, most HVAC systems are designed to keep the building cool on the hottest days and,
therefore, the HVAC system needs to work at full capacity only on the 20 to 30 hottest days during
the year. On the other 335 days, the HVAC system can operate at a reduced capacity. This is where
a variable air-volume system with variable speed drives (also called variable-frequency drives, or
used.
If a building uses a constant-volume air-handling system with no variable-speed drives, the
the appropriate rooms does not control the speed of the motor and does not save energy as well.
Following components if driven through variable-speed machines will able to save energy.
1. Centrifugal air-handler fans
2. Centrifugal exhaust fans
3. Centrifugal chilled-water pumps
4. Centrifugal hot-water pumps
5. Cooling-tower pumps
6. Cooling-tower fans
The following example shows the amount of energy saved with a variable-speed drive.
EXAMPLE 9.1
A 50 hp fan needs to supply air 10 hours/day for 250 days. The cost of running the fan at full speed
would be
50 hp ¥ 0.746 kW / hp 2500 hrs ¥ ` 6 / kWh = ` 5, 59, 500
It is assumed that the fan runs at different speeds during the year as per the given schedule: 25%
of the time at 100%; 50% of the time at 80%; 25% of the time at 60%.
Solution
% rated speed Days (% of total days) Cost calculation Cost, ₹
50 hp ¥ (1.0) ¥ 0.746 kW / hp ¥ 625 hrs ¥ ` 6 / kWh

3
100 62.5 days (25 %) 1,39,875
50 hp ¥ (0.8) ¥ 0.746 kW / hp ¥ 1250 hrs ¥ ` 6 / kWh

3
80 125 days (50 %) 1,43,232
50 hp ¥ (0.6) ¥ 0.746 kW / hp ¥ 625 hrs ¥ ` 6 / kWh

3
60 62.5 days (25 %) 30,213
Total Cost 3,13,320
Potential saving in the 50 hp pump for a year = ` 5,59,500 – `3,13,320 = `2,46,180
The average payback period of a variable-frequency drive is 18 to 24 months but it also depends
on size, type, and operating hours. The lifespan of an HVAC equipment is 15 to 25 years and,
hence, adopting a variable-frequency drive will give substantial return. Online payback calculators
are available from various variable-frequency-drive manufacturers.
system run by a VFD increases the comfort of the building and reduces equipment-maintenance
costs and downtime. It also reduces the long-term wear and tear on equipment. The drives provide
a soft start instead of slamming motors at full speed, so HVAC systems last longer, requiring less
maintenance and causing fewer instances of unscheduled downtime.
9.8.4 Replace Existing Chiller
a multicompressor, variable-speed centrifugal chiller, or a scroll compressor chiller.

1. Multiple compressor chillers can be reciprocating, screw, or centrifugal, with capacities in
part-load conditions. A multicompressor chiller can save up to 25% of the energy of a

single compressor chiller.
2. Variable-speed compressor chillers are, in general, centrifugal and operate with variable
head pressure using variable-speed motors; therefore, they work best when their cooling
load is most of the time below the peak. Their typical capacity is in the range of 500 to
2500 kW. It is reported that chillers with variable-speed compressors can reduce the cooling
energy use by almost 50%.
scroll and an orbiting scroll, both needed to compress and increase the pressure of the
heat loss between the discharge and the suction gases is reduced.
The following example shows payback calculation of chiller replacement.
EXAMPLE 9.2
An existing chiller with a capacity of 800 kW and an average seasonal COP of 3.5 is to be replaced
by a new chiller with the same capacity but with an average seasonal COP of 4.5. Determine the
simple payback period of the chiller replacement if the cost of electricity is `6 / kWh and the cost
differential of the new chiller is ` 7,50,000. Assume that the number of equivalent full-load hours
for the chiller is 1000 per year, both before and after the replacement.
Solution:
Ê QNh Lf ˆ - Ê QNh Lf ˆ
Energy Saving = Ë (9.8)
COP ¯existing Ë COP ¯retrofit
Q stands for cooling
capacity, Nh stands for working hour, Lf
performance.
`3,04,800. If a new chillier is costing

`7,50,000 then simple payback time is less than two and a half years.
Before replacing an existing chiller, some proven recommendations for existing chillers are the
following:
1. Set the chiller water at the highest possible temperature to increase COP of the system.
2. Decrease condenser-water temperature (for water-cooled condenser) to improve the
performance.
3. Increase surface areas of the evaporator and condenser for more effective heat transfer.
4. Enlarge refrigerant lines for lower friction.
5. Carry out ozonation of the condenser water to prevent scaling and biological contamination.
9.8.5 Use of Boost-up Systems or Alternative Systems

Some alternative systems or boost-up systems are suggested here to reduce the cooling load on the
existing system: or
1. Use water-side economizers. In favourable weather conditions, water can be cooled by
using cooling towers instead of chillers, this cooled water will be circulated through chiller
circuits or heat-exchanger coils.
2. Evaporative cooling can be used in dry weather condition in series with chillers. It is
discussed in Section 9.8.14.
3. Use desiccant cooling for industrial applications.
4. Subcooling the refrigerant before it enters the expansion device increases refrigeration
capacity of the plant for the same amount of power consumption. Subcooling is achieved
either by a suction-line heat exchanger or an external heat sink such as a small cooling
tower or a ground-source water loop.
9.8.6 Duct-Leakage Repair
and installing proper insulation can reduce up to 30% of energy consumption in an HVAC. Duct
leakage increases during summer. To reduce duct leakage, ensure that duct connections are securely
fastened and use mastic sealants and gaskets.
9.8.7 Heat-Recovery Wheel

A heat-recovery wheel recovers total energy and assists in
meeting all the requirements of Indoor Air Quality (IAQ),
humidity control, and energy savings. Incorporation of heat-
recovery wheels into the air-conditioning system means more
outdoor air at lower energy cost and reduced chiller load.
In a typical installation, the wheel is positioned in an air-
handling unit so that it is divided into two semicircular sections.
Exhaust air passes out through one half and outdoor air enters
time, the wheel is rotated. Sensible heat is transferred as the

Figure 9.11 Heat-recovery wheel
metallic substrate picks up and stores heat from the warmer airstream and gives it up to the cooler
one.
1. Heating/cooling energy (e.g. 80%) is always returned to where it came from
Heat in Cooling energy out
Heat out Cooling energy in
2. Moisture and dry air (e.g. 80%) is always returned to where it came from
Dry air out
Dry air in
Figure 9.12 Heat-flow pattern through a heat-recovery wheel
To control the humidity of air, latent heat is transferred as the desiccant coating on the metallic
substrate adsorbs moisture from the airstream that has the higher humidity ratio and releases the
moisture into the airstream that has the lower humidity ratio.
Advantages of Heat-Recovery Wheel
1. Helps precondition the incoming fresh air
2. Easy to install in existing ventilation systems
3. Helps meet ventilation standards without adding operation cost
4. Maintains humidity level at no additional cost
5. With installation of heat recovery wheel, system capacity reduces from 30 to 65%
9.8.8 Exhaust Fans
9.8.9 Reducing Cooling Load

Figure 9.15 shows a model of a building adopted to reduce heat load on it. Some general areas
where cooling loads are reduced are discussed here:
1. Size the air-conditioning system accurately. Estimate the load based on theoretical
calculations to reduce the chances of oversizing the units. Consider differant factors like
seasonal effects, working cycle, climatic changes, use of ground-source heat pump while
designing the same.
building.
3. Instead of using central or package air-conditioning systems, use evaporative coolers for
4. In centrally air-conditioned room areas, certain applications like ovens, kitchens, cleaning
rooms adds on the cooling load. Isolate these areas to reduce the load on the system.
5. Cold storages which are mainatined in minus range of temperatures have serious effect on
performance due to ice build-up, frost, or frequent openings. Wind curtains and high-speed
doors are popularly used solutions.
9.8.10 Operate the System at Higher Evaporator Temperature and Lower Condenser Temperature
The evaporator temperature can be increased by changing process-temperature settings, using
larger evaporator-surface area, and keeping the evaporator clean from fouling or frosting. Similarly,
to reduce condenser temperature, install a condenser of larger size and use water or evaporative
cooled condenser.
Light-colored roof coatings

reflect solar radiation and
reduce conducting potential
Smaller cooling plant
accurately sized to meet Insulating the roof helps
the reduced cooling load decrease heat conduction to
Roof-wetting lowers the inside of the building
roof temperature by
evaporative and Structural overhangs
radiative cooling light shelves reduce
solar gain
Automatic louvers fixed

louvers and solar screens
block solar radiation
Spectrally selective
glazings let light in
but keep heat out
South
Movable awnings
provide shade
Window films reduce solar

gain without sacrificing
Tree block solar radiation and daylight or aesthetics
provide cooling benefit throught
avapotran spiration
Figure 9.13 Methods to reduce cooling load on a building

The role of the air-distribution system in an HVAC is to bring in fresh outside air to disperse
contaminants, to provide free cooling, to transport heat generated or removed by space-conditioning
equipment, and to create air movement in the space being conditioned. About 30% of the energy
consumed by air-conditioning systems is used to power the fans that drive air distribution. To
to the building. Reducing the friction of distribution system and pressure drop across the system
improves the performance. As air has to travel a long path in an air-conditioning system and is
occur, selecting components which offer minimum pressure drop will reduce running cost of the
will consume less energy. Friction in the fan ultimately turns into heat which is dissipated by the
this system are listed below:
reduced.
2. Relatively warmer air is supplied to the room using this system, which improves the
3. Air is supplied to the room from bottom and it moves towards ceiling; hence, heat load
of light is carried away by leaving air which reduces effective cooling load and required
cooling capacity of the HVAC system.
Floor slab Floor slab
Ceiling plenum
Ceiling plenum
Diffuser Floor plenum

Floor slab Floor slab
Figure 9.14 Conventional and underfloor air-disribution system

panels makes it easy to relocate the diffuser, wiring, and plumbing to accommodate changes.
and diluting it.
slab-to-slab height, reduced capacity of equipment, and reduced ducting. The additional cost
system is highly advantageous to buildings where frequenct internal changes are made. In addition,
this system offers easy excess for maintenance.
9.8.13 Use of a Vapour-Absorption Refrigeration System

The vapour-absorption refrigeration system is getting more attention nowadays due to less running
cost, environment-friendliness, and economic attractiveness when waste-heat source is available.
In this system, the refrigerant is absorbed by a transport medium and compressed in a liquid form.
Two commonly used absorption refrigeration systems are ammonia–water and lithium bromide–
water.
7 16
8
2 11 4 Heat
Waste
heat output
1 3
input
Evaporator 12 Absorber
Heat
exchanger
15
13
9 2
6
Waste
Condenser heat
water 5 1
input
Condenser Generator 14
(desorber)
Refrigerant 10 Solution
pump pump
Figure 9.15 Schematic of vapour-absorption refrigeration system

a condenser, an expansion valve, and an evaporator. However, the absorption cycle uses different
refrigerants and a different method of compression than the vapour-compression cycle. The
schematic of the vapour-absorption system is shown in Figure 9.15. The compressor of the vapour-
compression refrigeration cycle is replaced with a generator and an absorber. The refrigerant vapour
coming from the evaporator mixes with the returning absorbent and the mixture is pumped to the
generator. Heating of the mixture in generator separates the refrigerant vapour at high pressure
which is condensed in condenser, expanded in the expansion valve and evaporated in the evaporator
(similar to the vapour-compression refrigeration system).
9.8.14 Replace Vapour-Compression-Based Cooling with Evaporative Cooling

Due to geographical variations, India has varied weather conditions, from dry and cool in the
north to wet and humid in the south. In dry climates, use of evaporative cooling can be a cost-
effective option compared to a vapour-compression-based air-conditioning system. Alternatively,
vapour compression and evaporative cooling can be used in combination to reduce operating cost
of the system. As evaporative cooling has no compressor and works only with heat exchanger and
th
of a vapour-compressor-based system. Another advatange
of evaporative cooling is it continuously supplies fresh air.
The cost of an evaporative cooler is not directly comparable because it depends on the type
of end user, design, and material used and there are not many players in the market. Evaporative
cooling systems are of three types, namely, direct evaportive cooling, indirect evaporative cooling,
and direct–indirect evaporative cooling.
In direct evaporative cooling, water evaporates into the air and due to this, the temperature of air
reduces. The process is adiabatic saturation and is represneted in Figure 9.16. This type of cooling
for domestic applications.

Sp.humidity (Kg/Kg dry air)
Air in Cooled air to room

DEC 2
T1 T2
1
T 1¢ T 2¢ = T 1¢
Temperature ( C)
Figure 9.16 Direct evaporative cooling
In indirect evaporative cooling, air is used in a heat exchanger to remove the heat from supply
air and cooling of supply air takes place without adding moisture. A heat-exchanger surface will be
wetted with water over which outside air will pass and due to evaporation of the water, the surface
temperature of the heat exchanger will reduce and ultimately, the supply-air tempeature will reduce.
The disadvantage of direct evaporative cooling is overcome in indirect cooling. Figure 9.17 shows
arrangement and psychrometric represenation of indirect evaporative cooling, in which the full line
shows room-air path and the dotted line shows secondary-air (air used to cool room air) path.
The third type of evaporating cooling is direct–indirect type in which indirect cooling is used in
shown in Figure 9.18. The full line shows room-air path and the dotted line shows secondary-air
(air used to cool room air) path.
S, 3

Primary P, 1 Air-to-air P, 2 Cooled air to room
air heat exchanger
S, 2
2 1
Secondary S, 1
air DEC
Temperature (°C)
Primary Secondary
Figure 9.17 Indirect evaporative cooling
S, 3
Cooled air to room

Primary P, 1 Air-to-air P, 2 P, 3
air heat exchanger DEC
S, 2
3
2 1
Secondary S, 1
air DEC
Temperature (°C)
Primary Secondary
Figure 9.18 Direct–indirect evaporative cooling
9.8.15 Use of Alternative Refrigerant

There is global awareness to switch over from CFC to HFC to protect the environment as it has
zero Ozone-Depleting Potential (ODP). India, a party to the Montreal Protocol, and having issued
the ‘Ozone Rules 2000’, all OEMs in India using CFCs as refrigerants had to change over to non-
CFC refrigerants with effect from 1 January, 2003. There are certain advantages of CFCs: they are
CFC-12 was widely used in domestic refrigerators and air conditioners (domestic and mobile).
Properties which decide a refrigerant’s suitability as an alternative of CFC-12 are listed here.
1. Ozone-depletion potential
2. Global-warming potential
3. Toxicity
4. Flammability
5. Thermal and chemical stability
Suitable alternative refrigerants and their properties are listed in Table 9.4.
Table 9.4 Alternative refrigerants
Density
Boiling point (kg/m3)
Critical
Refrigerants Formula (°C) at 100 ODP GWP
Temperature (°C) Saturated Saturated
(kPa)
vapour liquid
CFC-12 CF2Cl2 112 29.8 7.57 1472.0 1 10600
HFC-134a CH2FCF3 101.1 26.16 5.50 1371.0 0 1300
HFC-152a CH3CHF2 113.5 25.0 3.25 1013.0 0 120
HC-290 C3H8 96.0 –30 3.14 584.4 0 3

Isobutene
C4H10 135.0 –11.7 1.66 608.3 0 3
HC-600a
Propane
C3H8 96.8 –42.1 2.42 580.7 0 3
HC-290
Among these, HFC-134a is more popular. The volumetric capacity of HFC-134a is about 12%
lower than CFC-12 at the standard rating conditions: –23.3°C for evaporator, 55°C for condenser
temperature which can be offset by increasing compressor displacement. Hence, performance of
a system with HFC-134a is approximately equal to that of CFC-12. The drawback of HFC is it is
immiscible with naphthenic mineral oils and benzene oils; hence, alternative synthetic oils have
been developed. These oils are hygroscopic and require more maintenance to ensure a moisture-
free system. Another change required with HFC-134a is resistant-grade electrical insulation for
9.8.16 Encourage Green Building Concept in India

The concept of green building is very much acceptable in India, as in the developed countries,
the energy-consumption growth rate is marginally higher than the population growth rate. For
energy consumers and can contribute to a high extent. Approximately, 30 to 40% of total energy is
1. Reduction in energy and water consumption

2. Improved productivity due to maintained human comfort
3. Rainwater harvesting
Some design aspects of green buildings are listed here:

1. Provision of charging points for electrically operated vehicles. Promote employees to use
mass transportation and shared vehicles.
2. More open space.
3. Building orientation to maximize south and north exposure and minimize west and east
exposure to follow the solar path. Placing windows and glazing on north wall to minimize
heat gain and maximize day lighting. Use of low U-value glazing.
4. Design of air-conditioning system as per ASHRAE standards.
5. Maintain U-value of roof and wall as per ASHRAE standards.
6. Minimize building footprints to reduce impact on environment.
7. Maximize daylight usage.
8. Use of rainwater harvesting and drip irrigation.
9. Cover 60% of roof area with garden and plantation.
10. Recycle grey water and reuse after treatment. Segregate and reuse building waste like paper
and plastic.
electronic ballasts, occupancy sensors, and controllers.
motors, BMS, CFC-free HVAC equipment, CO2 sensors.

14. Promote use of on-site renewable energy and salvaged material for construction.
16. Use of low-voltaic organic compound paints.
9.8.17 Promote Use of BMS and DDC Systems

Building management system and direct digital controls are techniques used to monitor and control
a variety of systems and functions at optimum level. Differant parameters controlled are HVAC,
are tailor-made systems and require common network connections.
9.8.18 Thermal Energy Storage (TES) Based Air-Conditioning System

Thermal energy storage is a cost-saving technique for allowing energy-intensive, electrically driven
cooling equipment to be predominantly operated during off-peak hours when electricity rates are
lower. During summer, air conditioners of buildings are the largest contributor to peak electrical
demand. The electricity consumption is peak during afternoon and evening hours and low at night
and early-morning hours. To meet this peak demand, utilities increase their generation capacity
and during lean-demand periods, the power plants are operated at less capacity which affects the
performance and return on investments.
TES may be considered a useful tool to reduce the number of refrigeration machines by means of
spreading the daytime load over a 24-hour period. In TES, water or another substance is cooled by
chillers during off-peak (usually night) hours and stored in an insulated tank. This stored coolness
is used during peak (usually afternoon) hours. Media used for thermal storage are of different types
like chilled water, ice, eutectic salts, etc. Among them, the chilled-water system works on storage
of sensible type of heat, while ice and eutectic salts work on storage of latent heat. Figures 9.19 and
9.20 show water- and ice-based thermal energy storage and silos storing the media.
Load shifting: Due to shifting of load during off-peak hours, advantage of daytime tariff
Storage system chillers operate at full load during off-peak hours instead of conventional
operation.
Less capacity and space required compared to conventional system.
During night hours, outdoor temperature is less; hence, condensation occurs at low
temperature and the net effect is rise in EER.
Easy to take up maintenance during off-peak hours.
Discharging
Building load
Building Ice harvester
load chiller
Discharging
pump Warm
Storage
Cool
Primary pump Chilled water Ice/water Ice-water

Chiller pump mixture pump
Charging
Figure 9.19 Water- and ice-based thermal energy storage (Source: ASHRAE)
Figure 9.20 Silo of thermal energy storage system

Use of thermal energy storage is not helpful for small-capacity systems (less than 100 tons) and
where peak demand charge is same as off-peak demand charge.
9.8.19 Use of Variable-Refrigerant Flow System (VRF)

Variable-Refrigerant Flow Systems (VRF) use multiple evaporators of different capacities and
different zones and heat recovery between different zones. They operate with direct expansion
unit and multiple indoor units with the difference that the multi-split unit turns ON or OFF in
Pulse Modulating Valve (PMV) which is controlled

by a microprocessor receiving signals from sensors located with each indoor unit. It ultimately
controls the compressor speed to match cooling or heating load on the system. A VRF system saves
11 to 17% energy with initial higher cost compared to conventional units. With this technology,
up to 48 indoor units are operated with single outdoor units and screw-compressor speed variation
ranges from 6 to 100%. Maximum system capacity is 70 kW (approx. 20 TR). A schematic of a
VRF system is shown in Figure 9.21.
Separation tube Header
Refrigerant
branch unit
Outdoor unit
Transmission
adaptor
Indoor unit
PC controller
Wireless
Central remote
remote
controller Wired remote Wired remote Wired remote
controller
controller controller controller
Figure 9.21 Schematic of a VRF system
Advantages of a VRF System
3. Precise humidity control.

4. It is possible to achieve simultaneous cooling and heating.
individualized bills.
6. As shown in Figure 9.22, a single condensing unit can be connected to different sizes of
indoor units of varying capacity (0.5 ton to 8 ton).
consumption and compressor speed to reduce energy consumption. It provides superior
excellent.
Room A
24°C
Room A Room B
24°C 18°C
Outdoor
condensing unit
Room C Room D Room E

27°C OFF 23°C
Cassette type
fan coil unit
0.6 Ton
Room 2 Ducted indoor unit
Room 1 8 Ton
Figure 9.22 Operating flexibility in a VRF system
� 9.9 STAR RATING AND LABELLING BY BEE
As a part of BEE star rating and labelling procedure, it is mandatory for manufacturers of different
and single-phase power supply to adopt the star-rating procedure. The range of EER for deciding
numbers of stars to be given to a particaular model is given in Tables 9.5 and 9.6 for different
timelines. Details of testing and sampling are mentioned in the BEE website.
Table 9.5 Star rating by BEE for room air conditioners valid from 1 January, 2012 to 31 December, 2013
Star rating Min. EER (W/W) Max. EER (W/W)

1 star 2.50 2.69
2 star 2.70 2.89
3 star 2.90 3.09
4 star 3.10 3.29
5 star 3.30
Table 9.6 Star rating by BEE for room air conditioners valid from 1 January, 2014 to 31 December, 2015
Star rating Min. EER (W/W) Max. EER (W/W)

1 star 2.70 2.89
2 star 2.90 3.09
3 star 3.10 3.29
4 star 3.30 3.49
5 star 3.50
Similarly, it is mandatory for direct-cool and frost-free refrigeators manufacturers to adopt star
rating and labelling for their products. Detailed information is available on the BEE website.
CHECKLIST
Energy-Management System
THUMB RULES
Fill in the Blanks
Answers
Fill in the Blanks

1. 4.
2. 5.
3. 6.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Electrical-Load Management
10
. Our
� 10.1 ELECTRICAL BASICS
Common terms used in electrical energy are explained here: The electrical power or demand used
in a circuit depends on two fundamental quantities, voltage and current.
1. Voltage is the magnitude of the push trying to send electrical charge through a wire. It is
measured in volts.
2. Current
voltage; it is measured in amperes (amps).
3. Power is voltage and current acting together to do useful work. It is measured in watts.
Power = Voltage × Current
4. Resistance
component or circuit has resistance and it changes electrical energy into another form of
energy like heat, light, or motion. It is measured in ohms.
5. Demand is the rate of use of electrical energy. It generally refers to the average power
measured over a given time interval.
6. Direct current (DC
7. Alternating current (AC
8. The supply frequency

frequency is cycles/second or hertz. In India, the typical household voltage goes through a
complete cycle of 50 times per second, known as 50 hertz (Hz).
9. In AC circuits, the current and voltage do not always work together. How well they work
power factor
heaters and incandescent lamps are called resistive loads. These loads do not reduce the
power factor. They allow the voltage and current to work together (unity pf). While inductive
devices cause inductive loads,
Volts ¥ Amps ¥ Power Factor

Kilowatt (kW) = = kVA ¥ Power Factor (10.1)
1000
10.
in kilowatt-hours (kWh).
11. Electricity tariff

or kW for each month. The tariff unit of electricity is kWh. It is a measure of energy use
usually one or two months, depend on the type of user.

12. Domestic customers are charged for usage of electric units only, while commercial and
industrial customers are charged for the amount of energy used and on peak demand for
each month. Contract demand is the amount of electricity a consumer is demanding
from utility and maximum demand is the highest average recorded during one demand
Demand factor is the ratio of maximum demand
to the connected load where connected load is the summation of all nameplate ratings
of the equipment existing in the area. To calculate load factor, the ratio of actual energy
� 10.2 ELECTRICAL LOAD MANAGEMENT
Key implementation challenges for India’s electricity sector include new project management and
and central government levels, and training of skilled manpower to prevent talent shortages for
operating latest technology plants.
Demand-Side Management (DSM). It is a process
is known as load management. If demand and supply are not matched successfully, the system
Electrical-Load Management 195
modelling considering topology, capacity, etc., and planning of load scenario considering weather,
management.
10.2.1 Electricity and its Cost
and consumed at the same moment. In addition, depending on plant production rate at various times
also includes cost of fuel, wages of plant operators, maintenance, depreciation, capital cost, taxes,
etc.
Thus, cost of electricity is given as the following equation:
Ct = a + bP + cE
where P is maximum power demand, E is annual energy supply; and a, b, and c
To meet continuously changing demands, the utility is made of different types of power plants,
base-load plant is a nuclear,
Intermediate plants
to operate at different load conditions. Peak-load plants
Generation Transmission Typical day load curve (% of daily peak)

100
Peak
load
80
Fuel Substation Intermediate
Power plant
cycling load
60
Power lines
40 Base load
Substation
20
0
Customers Distribution 0 8 12 18 24
Time
Figure 10.1 A typical 24-hour electric-system load profile
consumption (kVARh), and maximum demand. Power companies focus on reducing kWh
consumption and improving power factor. Power consumed over a predetermined time period is
known as maximum demand. Predetermined time

minutes.
per the hour of the day and season (kW and kWh charges are higher during peak time and lower
1.
2. Additional plant is not required to meet load demand; this not only reduces cost of electricity
4.
5.
Some common techniques to manage the load are discussed here.
10.2.2 Load-Management Techniques

Use of Storage System
to less cost involved and ease of operation. Some examples of energy storage are listed here:
1.
2.
industries.
4.
Change in Technology
less power for the same level of performance. For example,
system.
Decentralized Power Generation Generation of electricity on the location of use is known
heat and electricity are required simultaneously.

Reduce Electricity Use During Peak Hours
totally stopped. It will postpone or delay some activities, which are not on the priority list. If
Use of Demand Controllers Demand controllers set the limit for maximum load and
disconnect the load from the grid when the limit is crossed. According to the priority list, the
controller switches off the loads when the limit of maximum load exceeds and it is switched on
when the load is within limits. It consists of the following:
1. An input device to do programming of load.
5. Interface with a computer and printer.

Utility meter
pulse output
Loads 1-64
Demand
24 V DC relay
controller
Main feed/
disconnect
kW transducer
mA output
Telephone line/modern
communication
Remote PC
Figure 10.2 Demand-control device

loads. In case of manned loads, load and unload signals are given to the operator. In sophisticated
of a demand controller is easily recovered in a very short time and, hence, it is installed in almost
all industries. Mostly, lights, compressors, air conditioners, pumps, fans, packing machinery, etc.,
are controlled when maximum demand exceeds.
A demand controller operates either in preventive mode or predictive mode. Preventive mode is
manually disconnects the load. In the predictive method
� 10.3 VARIABLE-FREQUENCY DRIVE
As mentioned in the chapter on electrical motors, a major portion of electrical energy is consumed
for driving electric motors. It is used to drive pumps, fans, compressors, conveyers, presses, etc. A
load of any industry or process is not constant and so it is of the motor. Old ways to control motor
require continuous monitoring as well as maintenance, and cannot give precise speed control. Fans,
AC current to DC
current, and then with switching mechanism converting DC to synthetic AC with controlled voltage
In a voltage-source inverter
DC
pulses, which can damage the application at low frequency.

In a current-source inverter
DC
The pulse-width modulator
DC
single drive.
Sine wave Variable Mechanical
power frequency power
power
AC motor
Variable
frequency
controller
1540
Power conversion Power conversion

Operator
interface
Figure 10.3 Variable-speed drive
Table 10.1 Summary of types of loads

Type of load Change in parameters Applications
Variable torque Lower torque at low speed Centrifugal pump, fan, blower
Constant torque Same torque at all speeds Conveyer, positive-displacement
pump and compressor, extruder
Constant horsepower High torque at low speed, low torque at high Metal cutting and extruder
speed, constant horsepower at all speeds
Use of Variable-Frequency Drive
its uses are mentioned here:
2.
motor.
4.
� 10.4 HARMONICS AND ITS EFFECTS
of primary frequency superimposed on the alternating current waveform. A distorted harmonics
frequency is twice that of the fundamental frequency is called second-order harmonics, and that
which is three times the fundamental frequency is called third order harmonics. Even harmonics,
odd harmonics tend to add and
create distortion. Harmonic distortion is the degree to which a waveform deviates from its pure
sinusoidal waveform. The ideal sine waveform has zero harmonics. According to the International
and is represented as a percentage value. Total harmonic distortion is the summation of all harmonic
components of voltage or current waveforms compared to the fundamental component of the
Total harmonic distortion =

(V22 + V32 + V42 + º + Vn2 ) ¥ 100
V1
where V , V , V
Waveform Waveform
+ +
Current voltage
Current voltage
0 0
Time Time
- -
Figure 10.4 Ideal and distorted waveforms
Table 10.2 Power quality for different devices
Device Active power (W) Power factor THD (%)

16 W CFL with electronic ballast 16 0.91 20
400 W high-intensity discharge lighting with magnetic 425 0.99 14
transformer
100 W incandescent lighting 101 1 1
CPU 33 0.56 139
13≤ colour monitor 49 0.56 138
Laser printer (in use) 799 0.98 15
10.4.1 Cause and Effect of Harmonics
in motors, harmonics overheat the motor and make operation noisy. It may overheat capacitors and
10.4.2 How to Control Harmonics
1 har
Non-linear load Filter
Figure 10.5 Harmonics filter
Another solution is use of equipment to reduce the level of harmonics. By installing line reactors,
a feature of the unit.
� 10.5 ELECTRICITY TARIFF

PART A: Residencial Premises (at Low and Medium Voltage)

∑
∑
Fixed charges per month (other than BPL consumers)
Demand Charges
(a) Up to and including 2 kW ₹ 15 per month
(b) Above 2 to 4 kW ₹ 25 per month
(c) Above 4 to 6 kW ₹ 45 per month
(d) Above 6 kW ₹ 65 per month
For BPL (Below Poverty Line) consumers
Fixed charges ₹ 5 per month
Monthly charges – Energy charges (other than BPL consumers)
Usage Charges
(a) First 50 units 315 paise per unit
(b) Next 50 units 360 paise per unit
(c) Next 150 units 425 paise per unit
(d) Above 250 units 520 paise per unit
PART B: Tariffs for High-Tension Consumers Contracted for 100 kVA and above (3.3 kV and
above, 3-phase, 50 cycles/second) and Extra High Tension
Demand Charges
(a) For First 500 kVA of billing demand ₹ 120 per kVA per month
(b) For next 500 kVA of billing deamand ₹ 230 per kVA per month
(c) For billing demand in excess over 1000 kVA ₹ 350 per kVA per month
(d) For billing demand in excess over the contract demand ₹ 430 per kVA per month
Energy charges
For entire consumption during the month Charges

(a) Up to 500 kVA of billing demand 400 paise per unit
(b) For billing demand above 500 and upto 2500 kVA 420 paise per unit
(c) For billing demand above 2500 kVA 430 paise per unit
1.
2. 85% of contract demand
100 kVA
Time-of-use charges
Energy consumption during peak periods

(1) 7:00 to 11:00 h, and
(2) 18:00 to 22:00 h
For billing demand up to 500 kVA 35 paise per unit
For billing demand above 500 kVA 75 paise per unit
Power-Factor Penalty
Power-Factor Rebate
lights, railways, etc.
� 10.6 POWER FACTOR
In AC active component IR
which is in phase with the supply voltage and the reactive component Io which is perpendicular
I lags with
respect to the active component IR. Power factor cos j IR
and total value of current I W to the
apparent power in VA.
I R Real power or active power in W
cos f = =
I Apparent power in VA
Reactive power (kVAr)

A)
IR V r (kV
we
po
j
re nt
pa
Ap
Power factor
angle
IQ I Real power (kW)
Figure 10.6 Power factor
devices like AC motors, transformers, furnaces, ovens, etc., and is measured in kVAR. Reactive
performed. Depending on the type of application, apparent power is always in excess or active
useful work.
power factor is 0.8 in industry. It means that for a 1 MVA transformer, the consumer can draw
800 kW and to meet a low power factor, the utility company has to generate much more current
To discourage these activities, the electricity company charges penalty for low power factor.
Table 10.3 Values of power factors for some common electrical applications
Electrical equipment Power factor,
cos j
Transformer (no load) 0.1 to 0.15
Motor 0.7 to 0.85
Arc and resistance welding 0.35 to 0.6
Fluorescent lamp 0.4 to 0.6
DC drives 0.4 to 0.75
AC drives 0.95 to 0.97
Resistive load 1
10.6.1 How to Improve Power Factor

A high power factor is generally recomended to reduce transmission losses and improve voltage
correction equipment.
capacitors and if a load has capacitive value, inductors (reactors) are used to correct the power
factors. Inductors consume reactive power and capacitors supply reactive power. The disadvantage
the system.
� 10.7 TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION LOSSES
country. Off the record, it goes to 50% in some states. These losses are very important as they
technical and commercial. Technical losses are due to energy dissipated in the electricity conductors
to an extent with use of proper design and material. Commercial losses are due to pilferage, use of
defective meters, wrong reading of meters, and estimation of unmetered power supply.
Why do technical losses occur in transmission and distribution of electricity?
5. Poor load management.

6. Inadequate reactive compensation in grid.
Methods to Reduce Technical Losses
transformers.
6. Carry out detailed study to forecast load development during the next two years and prepare
Figure 10.7 Image of illegal tapping of electricity (See color figure)
Why do commercial losses occur in transmission and distribution of electricity?
country.
8. Another way to steal electricity is through excess unmetered use of electricity.

Methods to Reduce Commercial Losses
1. Set norms of severe penalties for tampering of meters and seals.
5. Conduct regular meter testing and replacement of faulty meters. Practice regularly.
Fill in the Blanks
Answers
1. 1 3.
2. 2 4.
Energy Audit of Motors
11
spend ` `
electrical energy to operate it. A price premium of `
` `
fundamentals of motors are discussed here.
� 11.1 CLASSIFICATION OF MOTORS
Alternating
current (AC) or Direct current (DC AC
AC asynchronous (induction) and synchronous motors.

Energy Audit of Motors 209
120 ¥ frequency (Hz)

number of poles
Electric motors
AC motors DC motors Special motors Efficiency
Standard
Single phase Polyphase Series wound Stepper motor
efficiency motor
Induction Synchronous High efficiency

Shunt wound Linear motor
motor
Compound Premium
Wound motor Universal motor efficiency motor
wound
Permanent
Squirrel cage
magnet
Chart 11.1 Classification of motors
Stator
Fan cover
Fan (Windings)
(hood)
Frame Bearings
Bracket
(end bell)
Rotor
Motor shaft
Conduit box Conduit box Seal
cover
Figure 11.1 Internal view of a motor (See color figure)
slip
Squirrel-cage motors are
Wound-rotor motors
AC
DC
DC
DC AC
to DC DC
Table 11.1 Synchronous speeds for different-pole motors

Poles Speed in rpm at 50 cycles
2 3000
4 1500
6 1000
8 750
10 600
DC series
2
motor a
compound motor
permanent-magnet motor
stepper motor linear

motor universal motor
Compressor 5%
RAC 5%
Fans 13%
Pumps 42%
Others 35%
Figure 11.2 Industrial uses of motors (See color figure)
small motors
medium motors
large motors
high
� 11.2 PARAMETERS RELATED TO MOTORS
∑ Horsepower or (or
∑ Phase
∑ Poles
∑ Core
∑ Torque
∑ Rotor
∑ Stator
∑ Insulation class
Table 11.2 Maximum allowable temperature

Temperature-tolerance class Maximum operation temperature allowed °C
A 105
B 130
F 155
H 180
∑ Air gap
∑ Design
Design A
Design B
Design C
Design D
∑ Frame size
∑ Enclosure
� 11.3 EFFICIENCY OF A MOTOR
Output Input - Losses Output

= =
Input Input Output + Losses
∑ Fixed losses
∑ Variable losses
∑ Core loss
∑ Windage-and-friction losses
∑ Stator losses I R
I2R loss. I2R
I2R
output hp ¥ 0.746
I
3 ¥ v ¥ pf ¥ h
v
pf
∑ Rotor losses
¥
∑ Stray-load losses
I2R
Table 11.3 No-load losses in a motor

Type of loss Typical distribution (%) Factors deciding loss Methods to reduce loss
Core loss 15–25 Type and quality of Use of improved magnetic material
magnetic material and by lengthening the core
Windage-and- 5–15 Design and selection of Improved bearing selection, airflow,
friction losses fan and bearings and fan design are employed
Table 11.4 Losses in a motor operating under loads

Type of loss Typical distribution (%) Factors deciding loss Methods to reduce loss
Stator loss 25–40 Stator conductor size Use of improved slot design or by
decreasing insulation thickness
Rotor loss 15–25 Rotor conductor size Increasing the size of the
conductive bars and end rings
Stray-load loss 10–20 Manufacturing and Use of optimized design and
design methods strict quality control procedures
minimizes stray-load losses
� 11.4 ENERGY CONSERVATION IN MOTORS
11.4.1 Appropriate Loading of Motor
Percent efficiency
100
95
100 hp
50 hp
90
85
80
75
70
0 25 50 75 100
Percent rated load
Source: IEEE Trans
Figure 11.3 Variation in efficiency for different loads on motors
Actual input power

Input power at rated load
slip
(Synchronous speed - Actual speed) ¥ 100

Synchronous speed
slip
Synchronous speed - full load nameplate rpm
0.746 ¥ motor load ¥ nameplate hp ¥ 100
measured input in kW
EXAMPLE 11.1
An induction motor having 1500 rpm synchronous speed is running at 1480 rpm. Its nameplate
Solution
20
= 0.8
1500 - 1475
0.746 ¥ 0.8 ¥ 25 ¥ 100
= 82.88 %
18
(2 ¥ LLA) - NLA
¥ 100
(2 ¥ NPA) - NLA
EXAMPLE 11.2
A 20 hp motor driving a pump is operating on 440 volts and has a loaded line amperage of 16.5.
When disconnected from the motor, the load amperage is 9.3. Calculate the load on the motor if the
nameplate amperage for 440 volts is 24.
Solution
(2 ¥ 16.5) - 9.3
¥ 100 = 61.2
(2 ¥ 24) - 9.3
11.4.2 Selection of the Right Motor
2.
I2R
∑
∑
11.4.3 Assessing Motor and Drive-System Operating Conditions
Motor Rewinding
I2R
2.
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
of `
Table 11.5 Effect of voltage imbalance on motor characteristics

Motor characteristics Supply voltage as % of normat voltage
90% 100% 110%
Starting torque 81% 100% 121%
Total current 111% 100% 93%
Speed 98.5% 100% 101%
Efficiency Decrease 100% Decrease
Motor Overheating
Temperature rise %
300
250
200
150
100
50 Insulation
0 breakdown
0 2 4 6 zone 8
Voltage imbalance %
Figure 11.4 Effect of voltage imbalance on motor temperature
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
∑
AC
brown-out,
∑
∑
∑
Good example for VFD drive Poor example for VFD drive
Operating hours
Operating hours
15 20
10
10
5
0 0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Percentage rated flow Percentage rated flow
Figure 11.5 Example showing suitability of motor for VFD
11.4.4 Optimization of the Complete System

A soft starter AC motors
electrical
Figure 11.6 Image of a soft starter

(See color figure)
∑
∑
∑
Table 11.6 Different types of belts with their range of efficiencies

Type of belt Efficiency Characteristics
Standard V-belt 90 to 96% Losses from flexing and slippage
Cogged V-belt 92 to 98% Lower losses from flexing and slippage
Synchronous belt 98 to 99% No slippage but most expensive
EXAMPLE 11.3
A 100 hp motor operates at 75% load and consumes 5,25,000 units annually. Calculate annual
Solution
¥ h of v h
` `
Table 11.7 Example of maintenance schedule

Time interval Action
Weekly Check oil level in bearings and oil rings.
Inspect the shaft for signs of oil leakage.
Inspect the starter, switches, and fuses.
Check the start-up time for the motor.
Monthly Blow out dirt, wipe up commutator and brushes, check brushes, inspect for wear,
check oil quality in sleeve bearings, check grease in antifriction bearings, check
operating speed, and check enclosure and foundation.
Yearly Re-grease antifriction bearings, check air gaps, check bearing clearances, and clean
slots in the commutator.
Table 11.8 Reasons for reduced losses in energy-efficient motors

Losses Reasons for reduced losses in energy-efficient motors
Iron losses Use of thinner gauge and lower-loss core steel reduces eddy-current losses
Stator I2R losses Use of more copper and large conductors
Rotor I2R losses Use of large rotor conductor bar
Friction and windage losses Use of more efficient fan design
Stray-load loss Use of quality control and optimized design
More copper
wiring in stator
Higher slot fill
Lower loss premium

steel core
Longer stator steel stack

with thinner laminations
Figure 11.7 IE3 Premium-efficiency motor (See color figure) Source:

2.
Table 11.9 Performance of EF1 motors
OUTPUT P FRAME FL FLC FLT EFFICIENCY (%) POWER FACTOR DOL STG. POT GD.2 NET
kW HP O SIZE RPM AMPS Kg-m FL 3/4 1/2 FL 3/4 1/2 STGT STGC %FLT KGM2 WT
L LOAD LOAD LOAD LOAD %FLT %FLC kG
E
0.37 0.50 2 SD71 2820 0.95 0.13 70.2 70.2 68.2 0.79 0.72 0.60 250 500 300 0.002 7.0
4 SD71 1400 1.00 0.26 730 730 71.0 070 058 0.43 225 600 275 0.004 7.0
6 SD/ND80 910 1.05 0.40 69.4 69.4 67.4 071 063 0.52 210 400 260 0.011 10/17
8 SD/ND90S 680 1.40 0.53 66.8 66.8 64.8 0.57 0.50 0.40 170 400 220 0.015 13/22
0.55 0.75 2 SD71 2800 1.30 0.19 74.0 74.0 72.0 0.78 0.72 0.60 250 500 300 0.002 7.0
4 SD/ND80 1410 1.25 0.37 78.0 780 76.0 078 075 0.64 200 500 250 0.007 10/17
6 SD/ND80 910 1.55 0.58 720 720 70.0 071 063 0.52 200 400 250 0.011 10/17
8 SD/ND90L 680 1.80 0.78 71.1 71.1 69.1 060 0.48 0.37 150 400 200 0.021 13/22
0.75 1.00 2 SD/ND80 2820 1.65 0.26 77.0 77.0 75.0 0.81 0.73 0.62 250 600 300 0.003 10/17
4 SD/ND80 1410 1.70 0.52 82.5 825 80.5 078 075 0.64 200 500 250 0.007 10/17
6 SD/ND90S 935 2.00 0.78 746 74.6 72.6 072 065 0.58 200 400 250 0.015 13/22
8 SD/ND100L 700 2.55 1.04 73.8 73.8 71.8 0.58 051 0.41 175 400 225 0.030 19/32
E
1.10 1.50 2 SD/ND80*** 2820 2.35 0.38 82.8 82.8 80.8 0.82 0.77 0.70 200 600 250 0.004 10/17
4 SD/ND90S 1415 2.40 0.76 83.8 838 81.8 078 075 0.64 200 500 250 0.014 13/22
6 SD/ND90L 935 2.75 1.15 773 773 75.3 072 065 0.58 200 500 250 0.021 16/25
8 SD100L/ 700 3.30 1.53 76.2 76.2 74.2 062 057 0.47 160 400 210 0.034 19/35
ND100L
1.50 2.00 2 SD/ND90S 2830 3.00 0.52 84.1 84.1 82.1 0.82 0.77 0.70 225 600 275 0.006 13/22
4 SD/ND90L 1415 3.00 1.03 85.0 850 83.0 081 078 0.71 200 600 250 0.019 16/25
6 SD/ND100L 935 3.60 1.56 79.6 79.6 77.6 0.72 065 0.58 200 500 250 0.030 19/32
8 SD112M/ 700 3.90 2.09 779 77.9 75.9 0.68 0.60 0.52 190 400 240 0.057 29/45
ND112M
2.20 3.00 2 SD/ND90L 2830 4.40 0.76 85.6 85.6 83.6 0.82 0.77 0.70 225 650 275 0.008 16/25
4 SD/ND100L 1440 4.30 1.49 86.4 864 84.4 082 078 0.72 200 600 250 0.030 19/32
6 SD/ND112M 935 5.00 2.29 82.2 82.2 80.2 0.75 0.70 0.60 200 500 250 0.046 29/42
8 ND132S 710 5.40 3.02 80.5 80.5 78.5 0.71 0.68 0.61 180 500 230 0.174 68.0
3.70 5.00 2 SD/ND100L 2875 7.20 1.25 87.5 87.5 85.5 0.82 0.77 0.70 250 650 300 0.022 19/36
4 SD/ND112M 1440 7.20 2.50 88.3 883 86.3 081 076 0.69 200 600 250 0.052 29/42
6 SD/ND132S 950 8.00 3.79 85.1 85.1 83.1 0.76 0.73 0.63 200 600 250 0.174 42/68
5.50 7.50 2 SD/ND132S 2865 9.70 1.87 88.6 88.6 86.6 0.89 0.85 0.80 250 600 300 0.034 29/45
4 SD/ND132S 1450 10.60 3.69 89.2 89.2 87.2 0.81 0.80 0.75 250 600 300 0.131 42/68
6 SD/ND132M 950 11.30 5.64 86.8 86.8 84.8 0.76 0.75 0.68 200 600 250 0.214 45/79
7.50 10.00 2 SD/ND132S*** 2880 13.70 2.54 89.5 89.5 87.5 0.85 0.82 0.76 200 650 250 0.062 45/68
4 SD/ND132M 1455 13.80 5.02 90.1 90.1 88.1 0.84 0.82 0.74 250 650 300 0.161 45/79
3.7 5.0 8 ND160M 710 8.0 5.08 83.0 83.0 81.0 0.74 0.70 0.62 150 700 200 0.46 125
5.5 7.5 8 ND160M 710 12.0 7.55 85.1 85.1 83.1 0.74 0.70 0.62 150 700 200 0.46 125
7.5 10.0 6 ND160M 975 11.0 5.49 88.1 88.1 86.1 0.80 0.76 0.68 200 700 250 0.46 125
8 ND160L 710 12.0 7.55 86.4 86.4 84.4 0.76 0.72 0.64 150 700 200 0.64 148
9.3 12.5 2 ND160M 2920 16.0 3.10 90.0 90.0 88.0 0.88 0.86 0.78 225 700 275 0.13 125
4 ND160M 1460 17.0 6.20 90.5 90.5 88.5 0.84 0.81 0.73 175 700 225 0.31 125
6 ND160L 975 18.0 9.29 89.3 89.3 87.3 0.80 0.76 0.68 200 700 250 0.59 148
8 ND180L 720 20.0 12.58 87.3 87.3 85.3 0.74 0.70 0.60 175 700 225 0.99 174
11 15 2 ND160M 2920 19.0 3.67 90.5 90.5 88.5 0.88 0.86 0.78 225 700 275 0.13 125
4 ND160M 1460 21.0 7.34 91.0 91.0 89.0 0.82 0.79 0.70 200 700 250 0.36 125
6 ND160L 975 21.0 10.99 89.7 89.7 87.7 0.80 0.76 0.68 200 700 250 0.64 148
8 ND180L 720 23.0 14.88 88.1 88.1 86.1 0.74 0.70 0.60 175 700 225 1.16 210
15 20 2 ND160M 2920 26.0 5.00 91.3 91.3 89.3 0.88 0.86 0.79 225 700 275 0.17 125
4 ND160L 1460 27.0 10.01 91.8 91.8 89.8 0.85 0.83 0.75 200 700 250 0.47 148
6 ND180L 975 29.0 14.98 90.5 90.5 88.5 0.79 0.73 0.66 225 700 275 1.16 210
8 ND200L 725 33.0 20.15 89.0 89.0 87.0 0.71 0.65 0.55 225 700 275 2.14 282
18.5 25 2 ND160L 2920 32.0 6.17 91.8 91.8 89.8 0.88 0.86 0.79 225 700 275 0.21 148
4 ND180M 1475 33.0 12.22 92.2 92.2 90.2 0.84 0.80 0.72 200 700 250 0.81 174
6 ND200L 975 34.0 18.48 91.3 91.3 89.3 0.84 0.82 0.73 200 700 250 1.69 282
8 ND225S 725 38.0 24.85 89.8 89.8 87.8 0.75 0.71 0.63 175 700 225 3.24 345
Table 11.10 Performance of EF1 motors
E
22 30 2 ND180M 2930 40.0 7.31 92.2 92.2 90.2 0.83 0.80 0.72 225 700 275 0.44 164
4 ND180L 1475 39.0 14.53 92.6 92.6 90.6 0.84 0.80 0.72 200 700 250 0.95 210
6 ND200L 975 40.0 21.98 91.8 91.8 89.8 0.84 0.82 0.78 200 700 250 2.04 282
8 ND225M 725 45.0 29.56 90.2 90.2 68.2 0.75 0.71 0.63 175 700 225 3.61 375
30 40 2 ND200L 2950 50.0 9.91 92.9 92.9 909 0.90 0.89 0.87 200 700 250 0.80 282
4 ND200L 1475 50.0 19.81 93.2 93.2 91.2 0.89 0.86 0.78 250 700 300 1.62 282
6 ND225M 980 53.0 29.82 92.6 92.6 90.6 0.85 0.82 0.73 200 700 250 3.61 375
8 ND250M 735 61.0 39.76 91.5 91.5 69.5 0.75 0.71 0.63 175 700 225 4.82 473
37 50 2 ND200L 2950 61.0 12.22 933 933 91.3 090 089 067 200 700 250 089 282
4 ND225S 1460 62.0 24.35 93.6 93.6 91.6 0.89 0.86 0.78 250 700 300 2.64 345
6 ND250M 980 66.0 36.77 93.0 930 910 084 081 072 250 700 300 482 473
8 ND280S 735 75.0 49.03 91.9 91.9 69.9 0.75 0.71 0.63 200 700 250 8.01 600
45 60 2 ND225M 2955 71.0 14.83 93.7 93.7 91.7 0.94 0.92 0.68 225 700 275 1.87 375
4 ND225M 1480 75.0 29.61 93.9 93.9 91.9 0.89 0.86 0.78 250 700 300 3.13 375
6 ND280S 980 79.0 44.72 93.4 934 914 085 082 073 250 700 300 801 600
8 ND280M 725 90.0 60.46 92.4 92.4 90.4 0.75 0.71 0.63 175 700 225 9.89 670
55 75 2 ND250M 2955 87.0 18.13 94.0 94.0 92.0 0.94 0.92 068 175 700 225 2.79 473
4 ND250M 1475 91.0 36.32 94.2 94.2 92.2 0.89 0.86 0.62 200 700 250 3.45 473
6 ND280M 980 95.0 54.66 93.8 938 918 086 082 0.74 175 700 225 989 670
8 ND315S 740 113.0 72.39 93.0 93.0 91.0 0.73 0.66 0.56 250 700 300 14.12 900
75 100 2 ND280S 2975 123 0 24.55 94.6 94.6 92.6 0.90 0.86 078 225 700 275 7.14 600
4 ND280S 1460 122.0 49.36 94.7 94.7 92.7 0.90 0.88 0.84 250 700 300 7.21 600
6 ND315S 987 129.0 74.01 94.2 94.2 92.2 0.86 0.82 0.74 250 700 300 14.12 900
8 ND315M 740 153.0 98.72 93.5 93.5 91.5 0.73 0.66 0.56 200 700 250 18.98 950
90 120 2 ND280M 2975 146 0 29.47 950 950 930 090 086 078 225 700 275 8.18 670
4 ND280M 1460 146.0 59.23 95.0 95.0 93.0 0.90 0.88 0.84 250 700 300 8.26 670
6 ND315M 987 154 0 88.81 94.5 945 925 086 082 074 250 700 300 1700 950
8 ND315L 740 178.0 118.46 94.0 94.0 92.0 0.75 0.72 0.68 250 700 300 29.85 1160
110 150 2 ND315S 2965 171.0 36.13 95.0 95.0 93.0 094 091 084 200 700 250 663 900
4 ND315S 1466 175.0 72.00 95.2 95.2 93.2 0.92 0.88 0.80 225 700 275 11.62 900
6 ND315M 987 188.0 10855 94.6 946 92.6 086 082 074 250 700 300 18.98 950
8 ND315L 740 216.0 144.76 94.3 94.3 92.3 0.75 0.72 0.68 250 700 300 29.85 1160
132 180 2 ND315M 2965 205.0 43.36 95.3 95.3 93.3 0.94 0.90 0.82 200 700 250 7.97 950
4 ND315M 1466 209.0 86.40 95.5 95.5 93.5 0.92 0.88 0.80 225 700 275 13.98 950
6 ND315L 985 225.0 13053 94.9 949 929 086 082 074 250 700 300 29.85 1160
8 ND315L 740 259.0 173.74 94.7 94.7 92.7 0.75 0.72 0.68 225 700 275 29.85 1160
160 215 2 ND315L 2975 2480 52.38 955 955 935 094 092 090 175 700 225 1637 1160
4 ND315L 1490 258.0 104.59 95.8 95.8 93.8 0.90 0.86 0.78 200 700 250 24.97 1160
fi NmiSI 990 272 0 157 41 95 1 CIS 1 931 0 86 0 8? 0 74 250 700 300 29 85 1160
NOTE:
∑
∑
LOAD.
∑
Simple payback
Ê 100 100 ˆ
¥ ¥ ¥ ¥C¥ Á -
Ë hstd hee ˜¯
C
h
hee
price premium - utility rebate

Annual rupees saving
motor price + istallation charges - utility rebate - salvage value of old motor
Annual rupees saving
EXAMPLE 11.4
`
motor is `9380. Calculate the simple payback for 4000 working hours per year at an electricity
cost of `5/kWh. Assume the motor runs on 80% of the rated capacity.
Solution
Ê 100 100 ˆ
` ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥C¥ Á -
Ë hstd hee ˜¯
¥ ÊÁ
100 100 ˆ
` ¥ ¥ ¥ -
Ë 85 88.3 ˜¯
`
`
Table 11.11 Efficiency comparison for different countries

Country USA Europe India
Standard EPACT CEMEP IS 12615
Rating of motor (kW) EPACT NEMA premium Eff1 Eff2 Eff1 Eff2
1.1 84 86.5 83.8 76.2 83.8 76.2
2.2 84 86.5 86.4 81 86.4 81
3.7 87.5 89.5 88.3 84.2 88.3 84
5.5 87.5 89.5 89.2 85.7 89.2 85.7
7.5 89.5 91.7 90.1 87 90.1 87
� 11.5 BEE STAR RATING AND LABELLING
2.
4.
THUMB RULES
� ABBREVIATIONS
IEC International Electrotechnical Commission

NEMA National Electrical Manufacturers Association
OEM Original Equipment Manufacturer
ASD Adjustable Speed Drives
MEPS Minimum Energy Performance Standard
HEM High-Energy Motor
TEFC Totally Enclosed Fan Cooled
SCR Silicon-Controlled Rectifier
BEE Bureau of Energy Efficiency
enclosures.
Justify the Following Statements
Fill in the Blanks
Slip
calculates
Synchronous speed - full load nameplate rpm
0.746 ¥ motor load ¥ name plate hp ¥ 100

Q-4 calculates
measured input in kW
th th
Answers
Fill in the Blanks
1. 7.
2. 8.
3. 9. 2
4. 10.
5. 11. Delta
6. 12.
Multiple Choice Questions
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 7.
Energy Audit of Pumps, Blowers,
12
and Cooling Towers
� PART A: PUMPS
Selecting a large pump and using a throttle is like pressing the brake and
acceleration pedals simultaneously in a car, which we never do. Pumps being
essential parts of industrial and commercial applications, most are selected
oversized, to meet variations in load as well as future load. The major part of energy saving is
associated in selecting the right pump and operating it on its best performance point.
Pumping systems consume as much as 20% of the world’s total energy, and manufacturing
Energy cost Maintenance cost

Initial cost Other cost
Figure 12.A.1 Lifecycle cost of pump (See color figure)
In the present chapter, different types of pumps, their selection procedures, governing laws, and
� 12.A.1 CENTRIFUGAL PUMP
It is the mostly used radial machine in the world because it is simple, safe, requires minimum
periphery of the rotating element known as the impeller. The impeller is a casting having vanes on
Direction of rotation
Outlet Impeller Impeller Inlet

blade Outlet Impeller Inlet
Figure 12.A.2 Centrifugal pump with flow direction Courtesy: Grundfos
� 12.A.2 POSITIVE-DISPLACEMENT PUMP
volume of the system. It can be reciprocating or rotary in nature. Such pumps are more suitable for
the following applications:
multistage centrifugal pumps. This pump can produce pressure up to 500 bar.
Energy Audit of Pumps, Blowers, and Cooling Towers 235
of energy.
to more moving parts and, hence, an inventory of spares is needed to be maintained to reduce
downtime.
Motion
Plunger
Suction Packing Discharge
pipe
pipe
Suction Discharge
check valve check
valve
Liquid cylinder
a. Piston-type or plunger-type b. Vane-type c. Lobe-type

Figure 12.A.3 Positive-displacement pumps
� 12.A.3 PUMP TERMS AND AFFINITY LAWS
The Q-H curve, or .

3
D p = rgH
1
Positive
Pressure or head
Pressure or head
Kinetic displacement
2
(rotodynamic)
Flow Flow
Figure 12.A.4 Flow vs head curve (pump curve) for centrifugal and positive-displacement curve
is the
location where the pump is mounted. Higher the head, more the pumping cost. It is the height at
is
system working on the same level will have only friction loss and it can be minimized by reducing
Pump curve Best efficiency

point
Pressure of head
Pressure of head
Operating
point
Static head or lift
Flow Flow
Figure 12.A.5 System curve and combined system and pump curves
power consumption increases and it operates with noise and vibration.

Temp rise, Increased power,
lower efficiency, lower efficiency,
noise, vibration noise, vibration
60
54
Performance curve
48
42
Efficiency (%)
EEP Efficiency
Head 36 70
(m) 30 60 12
24 50
9
40 bhp
18 6 (kW)
30
12 bhp
20
3
6 10
0 0 0
6.3 12.6 18.9
Flow (L/S)
Figure 12.A.6 Best efficiency point for centrifugal pump

Dptotal = Dpstatic + Dpdynamic

where Dpstatic is measured at the inlet and outlet of the pump by a differential pressure sensor. Thus,
Dpstatic = Dpstatic,out – Dpstatic,in
1 2 1 2
Dpdynamic =rVout - rVin
2 2
In practice, dynamic pressure drop is not measured, instead, it is calculated from the following
1 Ê Q ˆ2 Ê 1
- 4 ˆ˜
1
Dpdynamic = r Á
Ë ¯
2 p / 4 Ë Dout Din ¯
4
P1 stands for supply power and

P2 stands for shaft power. Phyd stands for hydraulic power which is transferred from the shaft to
Phyd = rgQH
Or
r gQH
Phyd
3600 ¥ 103
where r = density in kg/m3
= gravitational constant = 9.81 m/s2
3
= head in m
P[W] h[%]
hhyd
P1 htot
P2
Q[m3/h] Q[m3/h]
Figure 12.A.7 Power and efficiency curves
is the ratio between hydraulic power and shaft power and is given by the
following equation.
Phyd ¥ 100
hhyd =
P2
Phyd ¥ 100
htotal =
P1
The is a term describing the condition where vapour bubbles
generated due to low pressure result in cavitation in a pump. It generally occurs in centrifugal
pumps. The liquid vaporizes in tiny bubbles and when the surrounding pressure increases, these
surrounding surface, damages the impeller, and erodes the casing and pipe surfaces. It is harmful
because it reduces head and creates vibration in the pump. It also damages bearings and seals.
document provided by him/her.
NPSHavailable =
(Pabsolute, total - Pvapour )
rg
where Pabsolute, total is absolute pressure at the inlet of the pump and Pvapour is vapour pressure at the
available required, to avoid vaporization
1. Lowering the pump compared to water level in the open system.

2. Increasing system pressure in the closed system.
3. Reducing length and increasing diameter of the suction line to reduce friction and velocity
loss.
proportional to the speed, the head is directly proportional to the square of speed, and pumping
power is directly proportional to the cube of the speed.
100
% of flow or pressure or power
75
ow
Fl
50
re
su
es
Pr
er
25
w
Po
0
1 20 40 60 80 100
% maximum pump rotation speed
Figure 12.A.8 Graphical representation of affinity laws
Q2 N2
=
Q1 N1
2
H2 ÊN ˆ
= Á 2˜
H1 Ë N1 ¯
3
P2 ÊN ˆ
= Á 2˜
P1 Ë N1 ¯
where Q is head, N is pump speed, D is impeller diameter, and P is the pumping power. Similarly,
for a given pump with constant speed, the capacity of the pump is directly proportional to the
impeller diameter, the head is directly proportional to the square of the impeller diameter, and
pumping power is directly proportional to the cube of the impeller diameter. Interrelation of these
Q2 D2
=
Q1 D1
2
H2 ÊD ˆ
= Á 2˜
H1 Ë D1 ¯
3
P2 ÊD ˆ
= Á 2˜
P1 Ë D1 ¯
EXAMPLE 12.A.1
Solution
ÊN ˆ
Q2 = Q1 Á 2 ˜ = 1100 Ê
2900 ˆ
= 911.42 lit/m
Ë N1 ¯ Ë 3500 ¯
Revised head
2
ÊN ˆ 2900 ˆ 2
H2 = H1 Á 2 ˜ = 88 Ê = 60.41m
Ë N1 ¯ Ë 3500 ¯
Revised power consumption
3
ÊN ˆ 2900 ˆ 3
P2 = P1 Á 2 ˜ = 26.5 Ê = 15.07 kW
Ë N1 ¯ Ë 3500 ¯
of power.
Pressure of head
Operating
points
Flow
Figure 12.A.9 Change of pump speed on performance curve
Note
saving potential.
EXAMPLE 12.A.2
Solution
applied to get the revised working conditions.
ÊD ˆ
Q2 = Q1 Á 2 ˜ = 1135 Ê ˆ = 928.6 lit/m
9
Ë D1 ¯ Ë 11¯
Revised head
2
ÊD ˆ 9 2
H2 = H1 Á 2 ˜ = 34 Ê ˆ = 22.76 m
Ë D1 ¯ Ë 11¯
Revised power consumption
3
ÊD ˆ 9 3
P2 = P1 Á 2 ˜ = 10.5 Ê ˆ = 5.75 kW
Ë D1 ¯ Ë 11 ¯
� 12.A.4 FLOW CONTROL AND PUMP LOSSES
Pump performance is affected by mechanical and hydraulic losses, resulting in smaller head, lesser
or drive, which consists of bearings, gear, shaft seal, etc. Hydraulic loss is due to friction in the
following methods help achieve the same:

1. Use of throttle valve
3. Speed control
4. Use of multiple pumps
Pressure of head
System curve #2
with throttle valve
partially closed Wasted
System curve #1
with throttle valve energy
fully opened
Useful
energy
Flow
Required flow
Figure 12.A.10 Loss in energy due to throttling
� 12.A.5 SERIES AND PARALLEL ARRANGEMENT OF PUMPS

P1 + P2
Pressure of head
Pressure of head
Pressure of head
P1
Pump 1 Pump 2
+ ~
F1 F
Flow Flow Flow
Figure 12.A.11 Series arrangement of pump
Pressure of head
Pressure of head
Pressure of head
P1 P2 P
~
+ F1 + F 2
F1 F2
Flow Flow Flow
Figure 12.A.12 Parallel arrangement of pumps
� 12.A.6 SELECTION OF PUMP
temperature, initial cost, maintenance cost, pumping layout, etc., are required. The pump should be
3
etc.
4. Thermodynamic properties like gravity, viscosity, vapour pressure, etc., are necessary
for proper pump selection. Viscosity and gravity decides the pump capacity and vapour
pressure is required to know whether cavitation will occur or not.
upper range of pressure and head delivered by rotary, reciprocating, and centrifugal pumps.
Reciprocating pumps are more suitable for higher pressure range (up to 10,350 bar) and centrifugal
3
/h).
head. Once deciding on the type of pump, the pump capacity is decided from the resistance curve
and consume more power. It is economical to purchase a small pump to meet today’s requirement
and replace it with a large pump when demand increases in future or run a second pump in parallel
range on the system curve.

Capacity, m3/h
1 10 100 1000 10,000
100,000
1000
10,000 Reciprocating
Centrifugal
Rotary
Pressure, mp/m2
Pressure, bar
100
1000
10
100
1
10
1 10 100 1000 10,000 100,000
Figure 12.A.13 Approximate upper limits of different types of pumps
EXAMPLE 12.A.3
Solution
r¥ g ¥Q¥ HˆÊ 1 1ˆ
Power difference = Ê -
Ë 3600 ¥ 103 ¯ ÁË n A nB ˜¯
hours ` 7
Energy saving per year = 10.94 kW ¥ 4400 ¥ =`
year unit
Pump
Positive displacement Dynamic Pressure Drop (Kinetic)
Reciprocating Rotary
Centrifugal Turbine Jet

Piston Plunger Diaphragm Vane
Screw
Gear
Lobe Axial Mixed Radial
Chart 12.A.1 Classification of pumps
� 12.A.7 ENERGY-SAVING POTENTIAL IN A PUMP
Like other engineering equipment, energy saving is possible right at the design and selection
stage. However, if it is missed at the design stage, there are some other methods by which power
Table 12.A.1 Energy saving in pumps
Working condition Energy-saving potential

Oversized pump 1. Select a small pump which operates near BEP.
2. Change or trim impeller.
3. Use a multispeed pump.
4. Use pumps in parallel.
5. Use a variable-speed drive.
Flow throttle Same as above
Wear and tear Regular maintenance
Oversized motor Use small motor.
Inefficient motor Use energy-efficient motor.
Insufficient pipe diameter Use large pipe diameter.
12.A.7.1 Correct Sizing of Pumps
Uncertainty is also due to change in weather. Pumps are also oversized to meet gradual resistance
One or more of the following working conditions indicate oversizing of pump:
The remedy of an oversized pump is to downsize the same, but it is not always possible and, hence,
some other alternatives are suggested here:
12.A.7.2 Trim Impeller of an Oversized Pump
the impeller is removed by machining and, thereby, energy consumption is reduced. The pump
trimming.
not smaller than the minimum diameter shown on the pump curve. It is to be noted that a trimmed
EXAMPLE 12.A.4
Solution Using the equation,

2
ÊD ˆ
H2 = H1 Á 2 ˜
Ë D1 ¯
2
ÊD ˆ
50 Á 2 ˜
Ë 14 ¯
D2 = 12≤
Reduction in power consumption due to impeller trimming is calculated by the following equation:
3
ÊD ˆ
P2 = P1 Á 2 ˜
Ë D1 ¯
12 3
P2 = 120 Ê ˆ
Ë 14 ¯
P2
Energy saving per year =

(Pold - Pnew ) ¥ Annual operating hours
Motor efficiency
Energy saving per year = (

120 - 75.56) ¥ 8200
0.92
`
Impeller sizes Iso-efficiency lines
200 8¢¢
180 78%
76%
160 7¢¢ 74%
140 6¢¢
120 5¢¢
Head (ft)
100
80 4¢¢ Head/flow curves
60
40
20
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Flow (gpm)
Figure 12.A.14 Performance curves for various impeller diameters
12.A.7.3 Keeping the Pump Clean and Well Maintained
and gradually increases load on the system. Timely inspection and proper maintenance will ensure
pump remains working in clean conditions. Regular maintenance reduces losses and unscheduled
downtime. The main cause of wear and corrosion is high concentrations of particulates and low pH
values. Here are a few locations where pumps are likely to fail.
12.A.7.4 Select Right-Size Motor for a Pump

Usually, one size large motor is selected to meet requirements and actually this working condition
Table 12.A.2 Energy cost of pump driven by 100 kW motor at full capacity operating at 90% efficiency
Operating time Electricity cost in rupees

` 5 /unit ` 6 /unit ` 7 /unit
1 hour 5.60 6.70 7.80
24 hours 133.30 160 186.70
1 month 4000 4800 5600
1 year 48667 58400 68134
12.A.7.5 Review Flow-Control Methods
. Use of a
and
pumps operating near to full load. They are of either mechanical or electrical type. In a mechanical
12.A.7.6 Use of Multiple-Speed Pumps
compared to opting for parallel pumps with additional piping.

200
180 High speed System curve
160
140
120
Head
(ft) 100 Medium speed
80 4¢¢
60 Pump curves
Low speed
40
20
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Flow (gpm)
Figure 12.A.15 Multiple-speed pump
12.A.7.7 Check Pipe Layout
like:
1. Improper diameter of pipe. Small diameter causes frictional loss and big diameter will
reduce pressure.
� 12.A.8 STEPS TO DESIGN NEW PUMPING SYSTEM
Identify Requirement
pump performance is understanding pump requirements. Identify peak demand, average demand,
∑
∑
these applications.
∑
∑
Design the Pumping System

Design the pumping system which consumes minimum energy. Consider the following design
aspects:
∑ Consider present energy price to select motor, pump, and other devices.
∑
∑
speed pumps. Do not buy an oversized pump or motor for ‘safety margin’.
∑ Ensure that performance measurement and monitoring is possible in the system.
that losses are minimized. Some design guidelines are given below:
∑
to the process.
∑ Use less number of bends and turns in the piping layout. Use shallow bends instead of deep
ones.
∑
resistance and steel pipes are smoother than galvanized iron pipes.
Thumb Rules
� PART B: FANS AND BLOWERS
Ventilation and industrial processes use fans and blowers to circulate air in plants. They generate
pressure to move air or gases against the resistance created by friction while passing in ducts,
energy from it.

Difference Between Fan, Blower, and Compressor
Table 12.B.1 Pressure ratios of fans, blowers, and compressors
Pressure ratio Rise in pressure (bar)

Fan Up to 1.11 0.11
Blower 1.11 to 1.20 0.2
Compressor More than 1.20 0.2 onwards
� 12.B.1 CLASSIFICATION OF FANS
are like propellers,

increase the speed of the
air stream with the rotating impeller. The speed increases as it reaches the end of the blades and then
it is converted to pressure energy. In a centrifugal fan, air direction changes twice. Though having
temperature, tolerance for corrosion and dust particles, cost, availability, etc.
Fan
Centrifugal flow Axial flow
Forward Backward Propeller Tube Vane

Inclined Radial
curved curved axial axial
Chart 12.B.1 Classification of fans
12.B.1.1 Centrifugal Fans
has blades that curve in the direction of rotation. These fans operate
of air at relatively low pressure. Their low speed and noise level makes them suitable for heating
and ventilation applications of lower capacity. They are used for clean applications.
R V2 R R
V2 V2
V1 V1 V1
Figure 12.B.1 Wheel-vector diagram for forward, backward, and radial fans
R
R
is used for high air volumes.
Housing
Fan wheel
Gas out
Gas
in
(a) Forward curved (b) Backward curved (c) Radial
Figure 12.B.2 Centrifugal fans
12.B.1.2 Axial Fans
pressurizes the air. Compared to centrifugal fans, they are compact and of low cost and, hence, are
Figure 12.B.3 Images of centrifugal and axial fans
force produces kinetic energy with a small increase in potential energy.
� 12.B.2 FAN LAWS AND CURVES
curve.
Table 12.B.2 Fan laws
Variable speed (n) Variable impeller diameter (d) Variable density (ρ)
2 2
p•n p•d p•r
3
Q•n Q•d Q is fix
P • n3 P • d5 P•r
n = rotational speed
= impeller diameter
r = air density
= power consumption
Q = Qi ÊÁ ˆ
nf
Ë ni ˜¯
2
p = pi ÊÁ ˆ
nf
Ë ni ˜¯
3
p = pi ÊÁ f n ˆ˜
n
Ë i¯
Static Static
pressure pressure
20 20
18 18
16 16
SP
14 14
12 12
10 10 110% of
SP speed
8 8 90% of
speed
6 6
4 4
2 2
5 10 15 5 10 15
CFM in 1000's CFM in 1000's
Figure 12.B.4 Fan curve of a centrifugal fan

Table 12.B.3 Centrifugal fan
Type of centrifugal fan Advantage Disadvantage Application

Forward-curved fans Handle low to medium Low pressure ratio; HVAC application
volume at low pressure and Suitable for clean
low speed; applications;
Small size; Low efficiency (55 to 65%);
Lower noise level; Power increases with
Low cost airflow
Backward-curved fan Efficiency is higher than Suitable for clean HVAC applications;
forward-curved fans (85%); applications; Process industry
Can handle change in Blades are thin and erode
pressure; at long run
Suitable for forced-draft
applications;
Robust blades
Radial blades Handle low to medium Lowest efficiency Material-handling;

volume at high pressure; High-pressure
Simplest in construction; applications;
High strength; Handles high-
Easy to repair; particulate
Can operate without airstream
vibration at low flow rate;
Can handle dust-laden flow
Airfoil Highest efficiency. Suitable for clean HVAC applications

Airfoil contour of blades; applications
Saves power
Table 12.B.4 Axial fan
Type of axial fan Advantage Disadvantage Application

Propeller Low cost due to simple construction; Low pressure and Air circulation;
Can handle high volume of air at low efficiency; Rooftop ventilations
pressure; Noisy operation
Installed without duct;
Can produce flow in reverse
direction which is useful in rooftop
ventilation;
Directly connected to motor shaft
Tube-axial More efficient than propeller fans; Costly and less Ducted HVAC;
Can handle medium-and high- efficient compared to Drying ovens;
pressure range and airflow rate; propeller fans; Paint-spray booths;
Quick acceleration; Mostly belt driven; Fume exhaust system
Can produce flow in reverse direction Less noisy compared
to propeller fans
Vane-axial Solid blades permit medium-to Costly compared to HVAC;

high-pressure capacity. propeller fans Induced draft fans
High efficiency (up to 85%); Drying ovens;
Compact in size (compared to Paint-spray booths;
centrifugal fans); Fume exhaust system
Can produce flow in reverse
direction;
Directly connected to motor shaft
Static Brake
pressure horsepower
20 10 Resistance curve
18 9
16 8
SP
14 7 Design
pressure Design point
12 6
10 5
8 bhp 4
6 3 Fan curve
4 2
2 1
5 10 15
CFM 1000's Design flow ratio
Figure 12.B.5 Fan curve with BHP and resistance curve for centrifugal fan
all pressure losses through a duct, passages, elbows, dampers, regulators, etc. The fan will operate
Increased resistance
Design system
Deceased resistance
Design
pressure
Design flow rate
Figure 12.B.6 Fan curve for change in system resistance
100
90
Percent of flow static pressure
horsepower and efficiency
80
To
70 ta
l pr
e ss
60 u
Tota re
50 l effic
St ienc
at y
40 ic
St
eff
at
r icien
30 owe
ic
sep cy
pr
Hor
es
20
su
re
10
10
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Percent of free delivery
Figure 12.B.7 (a) Fan curve for forward-curve centrifugal fan

100
er
ow
90 ep
ors

H

80
To
70 ta
lp
60 St re
at To ss
ic ur
eff tal e
50 ici ef
en fic
40 cy ien
cy
St
ati
30
cp
re
20
ss
ur
10
e
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Figure 12.B.7 (b) Fan curve for backward-curve centrifugal fan
Ho
100 rse
po
90 w er
80
70
To
t
al Tota tic p
60
ef
fic l pre essu
ie
Sta
50
nc ssur e
y
40 St
at
ic
r
30 eff
e
ici
en
r
20 c y
10
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Figure 12.B.7 (c) Fan curve for radial-blade centrifugal fan
� 12.B.3 POWER CONSUMPTION BY A FAN
The following three methods are used to calculate power consumption by a fan:
1. Using nameplate data
2. Direct measurement of power
3. Using performance curve
gives quick measurement of power consumption by a fan. It is necessary to know
the percentage load at which the fan works to calculate actual power consumption as in most
equation, power consumption of a fan is calculated.

Fan motor capacity in kW ¥ Operating hours
¥ Electricity cost in rupees per kWh ¥ Load factor
Efficiency
third method of power consumption, the pressure of the air stream is measured. Once knowing
pressure, power consumption is obtained from the performance curve.
� 12.B.4 ENERGY-SAVING POTENTIAL IN FANS
12.B.4.1 Fan Selection
noise, and vibration. Like other engineering systems, selection of the right fan is also a key decision
in energy consumption.
Sometimes, the fan is selected to meet present as well as future requirements and is selected
in high operating cost, poor performance, high noise, high vibration, and frequent maintenance.
Ultimately, it is costlier to operate an oversized fan rather than installing an additional fan to meet
The best alternative to an oversized fan is replacing it with a fan of suitable size, or else follow
any one of these guidelines:
1. Decrease fan speed using a smaller motor.
3.
12.B.4.2 Maintenance of a Fan
per hour. This annually will cost around 33,000 rupees.

inclined airfoil blades are more susceptible to dust and moisture deposition.
Check bearing lubrication and grease quality periodically to ensure frictionless and noiseless
always saves cost and time compared to reactive maintenance.
12.B.4.3 Identify and Rectify Leakage
Multi vane dampers
Figure 12.B.8 Multivane dampers
measuring device. The tighter the ductwork, the lesser the air needed from the fan to create change
amount of air leakage in the ductwork.
hours, and effectiveness of control.
increases air pressure. Thus, reduced air output is achieved at the cost of additional unwanted
performance curve).
reduce the angle of attachment between the incoming air and fan blades and, thereby, reduces
variations occur.
used with contaminated air.
12.B.4.5 Use of Variable-Frequency Driven Fans
maintenance cost, and no mechanical linkage for speed change. Due to a long list of advantages
applicable in a speed range where fans become unstable as it may lead the fan to run at a resonant
frequency causing high vibration level and damaging the fan.
12.B.4.6 Reduce Pressure Loss in the Duct by Proper Duct Design
D
(0.109136 q1.9 )
d e5.02
where Dp = frictional pressure drop in air (inches water gauge/100 ft of duct)
e = equivalent duct diameter (inches)
In case of a rectangular duct, the equivalent diameter is calculated as per the given equation:
Ê (a ¥ b )0.625 ˆ
e = 1.30 ¥ Á
Ë (a + b )0.25 ˜¯
12.B.4.7 Fans in Series and Parallel Arrangements
option. Series installation is used for long ducts or large pressure ratio; and parallel installation is
and installed
C, where the resistance curve intersects the combined characteristics

C. In series installation, air
a b
Q D a Qa
Qc
b Qb
pa pb
Combined fans pc
fan a fan b
Fan pressure p
Fan pressure p
A B
p C
fan b C pc = pa + pb
Combined
fans
fan a pb
B
E
A pa
Effective
resistance curve
Qa Qb Q c = Q a + Qb
Q
Airflow Q Airflow Q
Figure 12.B.9 Fans in series and parallel arrangements
Table 12.B.5 Suggestions in fan installation for ductwork
Mount the fan in the direction of air flow and

provide straighter flow.
Keep L = 3D for entry of fan after a bend in

ductwork.
D
L
If not possible to maintain L = 3D, use a gradual

bend instead of a sharp one.
Or provide smoother flow in a sharp bend.
A tee joint located very near to the fan may create

swirl in flow, to avoid it, maintain some distance
between the fan and tee.
D L
Change in direction of airflow will create pressure

loss.
The flow is in the direction of fan delivery, which

is advisable compared to the previous case.
� PART C: COOLING TOWER
capacity of a cooling tower is stated in . Cooling load is decided by the amount
capacity in all weather conditions and under variation of load.
with the atmospheric air by evaporative cooling phenomenon. Some amount of hot water evaporates,
absorbing latent heat of vaporization from the remaining water and as heat is removed from the
remaining water, its temperature reduces. The end result is air temperature and humidity increase
while water temperature decreases.
� 12.C.1 CLASSIFICATION OF COOLING TOWERS
, due to direct contact between hot water and atmospheric air, evaporation of some
amount of water takes place. Evaporation absorbs latent heat of vaporization from the surrounding
tower, hot water is circulated inside the coils, which are cooled by water circulated on their outer
side. The difference in open and closed cooling towers is shown in Chart 12.C.1.
Cooling Towers
Evaporative/Wet/Open Non evaporative/Close
Natural Draft Artificial Draft
Counter flow Cross flow Induced draft Forced draft Balanced draft
Chart 12.C.1 Types of cooling towers
to be regularly inspected, else it may cause capacity reduction in the cooling tower.
Hot water Hot water
Fill
Centrifugal Centrifugal
fan fan
Cold water
Cold water
Figure 12.C.1 Open and closed cooling towers
(also known as ) uses the buoyancy effect of
air causing a current of air through the cooling tower. This type of cooling tower does not require
fans, motors, etc., but uses a large space and is generally installed by utility power station. They
Figure 12.C.2 Natural-draft and artificial-draft cooling towers
is more disposed to recirculation of moist air due to its low velocity and as fans are to be mounted
� 12.C.2 PERFORMANCE OF A COOLING TOWER
∑ Range
indicates effective heat removal.
Range = (Cooling water inlet temperature,°C – Cooling water outlet
temperature,°C) (12.C.1)
∑ Approach
of cold water leaving the cooling tower. The lower the approach, the better the performance.
inlet air, °C) (12.C.2)

∑ Effectiveness evaluates the performance of cooling tower and is given as the following ratio.
(Cooling water outlet temperature,°C - Cooling water outlet temperature °C)
= ¥ 100
(Cooling water outlet temperature,°C - Wet bulb temperature of inlet air °C)
Range
= ¥ 100 (12.C.3)
Range + Approach
∑ Cooling capacity
following:
V¥r¥C ¥D (12.C.4)
3
where V /s
r = density of water in kg/m3
p
= temperature difference of inlet and outlet water
∑ Evaporation loss represents loss of cooling water. The general rule is 0.43 m3 of water is
∑ Cycle of concentration is the ratio of dissolved solids in circulating water to the dissolved
solids in makeup water.
Total dissolved solids in the makeup water
Cycle of concentration = (12.C.5)
Total dissolved solids in the bled off water
∑ Blowdown loss is the amount of water loss due to periodic blowdown process and is given
by the following equation.
Evaporation loss
(COC - 1)
∑ Drift
cooling tower.
� 12.C.3 COMPONENTS OF A COOLING TOWER
12.C.3.1 Packing Materials
slats are arranged in a staggered pattern. Hot water falls on this distribution deck and then it is
plastic sheets joined in a honeycombed shape. are suitable for pure water and are more
.
Figure 12.C.3 Images of packing material
12.C.3.2 Hot-Water Distribution System
12.C.3.3 Cooled Water Basin
in litres per minute.
12.C.3.4 Fans and Controllers
cooling towers.
capable to save power over the large range of load variation. Thermostatically operated dampers
control air volume by opening or closing the air inlet.
12.C.3.5 Louvers and Drift Eliminators
and prevent water from coming out of the tower structure. Drift eliminators are labyrinth passages
with the help of drift eliminators.
12.C.3.6 Tower Material of a Cooling Tower

resist corrosion. Stainless steel is costlier than galvanized steel but can withstand corrosion. The
galvanized steel. In a highly corrosive environment, SS 304 is used. Special coating on the tower
lightweight, chemically resistant, and able to handle variation in pH value.
� 12.C.4 METHODS TO IMPROVE EFFICIENCY OF COOLING TOWER
There is very little scope to reduce energy consumption after installing a cooling tower. It is very
much important to select the right size of cooling tower to achieve the best of its performance.
12.C.4.1 Sizing of the Cooling Tower

Like other systems, the sizing of cooling tower has direct impact on energy consumption. Heat
load, range, approach, and ambient wet bulb are key parameters to decide the size of the cooling
tower. Certain effects of these parameters on size of the cooling tower are described here:
1. Size of cooling tower • heat load
2. Size of cooling tower • 1 / range
3. Size of cooling tower • 1 / approach
4. Size of cooling tower • 1 / wet bulb temperature
have similar effects. The basic four parameters are necessary to size a cooling tower: (i) heat load
temperature of ambient air.
EXAMPLE 12.C.1
Solution
V¥r¥C ¥D
3
where V /s
= density of water in kg/m3

p
D = temperature difference of inlet and outlet water
150
¥ 1000 ¥ 4.18 ¥ 5
3600
12.C.4.2 Reduce Water Loss
12.C.4.3 Reduce Blowdown

Due to evaporation of water from a cooling tower, the concentration of water increases due to
increased amount of contaminants, salts, minerals, etc. If not removed, these may cause biological
growth, scale, and corrosion, and ultimately reduce heat transfer and cause tower damage.
blowdown process and equivalent fresh makeup water is added. The amount of water to blowdown
is judged by the quality of water, ultimately measured by the conductivity of water. To optimize
water blowdown, periodical measurement and comparison of water quality is required.
Contaminants and quality of water are measured in terms of of
Total dissolved solids is the concentration of minerals in water and is measured in milligrams
per litre or parts per million. Higher COC is advisable as it reduces the number and volume of
blowdown. Its recommended value is more than 5.
Total dissolved solids in the recirculation water
Cycle of concentration =
Total dissolved solids in the makeup water
irrigation, cleaning, etc.
12.C.4.4 Maintenance, Monitoring, and Optimization

Regular maintenance, continuous monitoring, and optimization of a cooling tower will improve its
maintain cooling tower.

media, etc.
3. Use conductivity probe to reduce unnecessary blowdown and recalibrate if required.
12.C.4.5 Minimizing Corrosion and Scale

Complete elimination of corrosion is a nearly impossible task in the aqueous environment.
be added to reduce biological growth.
and condenser. It creates a coat on the surface which reduces heat transfer and, ultimately, heat duty
of the system. Calcium, magnesium, and silica are primary sources of scale formation. The pH of
scaling additives, pH control, removal of calcium and magnesium ions, etc.
12.C.4.6 Variable Frequency Drive for Fans
power varies proportionally with the cube of its speed, a small speed reduction will result in large
THUMB RULES
CHECKLIST FOR PUMPS, FANS, AND COOLING TOWERS

Numerical Problem
Fill in the Blanks

Justify the Following Statements
Answers
Fill in the Blanks
1. 9.
2. 10. 10%
3. 11.
4. 12.
5. 13.
6. 14.
7. 15.
8. 16.
Multiple Choice Questions
1. 2. 3.
Energy Audit of Lighting Systems
13
� 13.1 FUNDAMENTALS OF LIGHTING
Lighting quantity and quality is basically expressed in watts, lumens, and illuminance.
∑ Watt
the rate of energy consumption by the lighting system.
∑ Lumen is the most common measure of light output. Light sources are labelled with an
lumen depreciation occurs). Thus, the number of lumens describes how much light is being
produced by the lighting system.
∑ illuminance, which is
measured in foot-candles—workplane lumens per square foot. Foot-candles are the end result
Figure 13.1.
Power Input
watts
Light output
lumens
Light level (Illuminance) Brightness (Luminance)

Footcandles (Lumens/SF) Footlamberts (candelas/m2)
Workplane
Figure 13.1 The concept of watt, lumens, and illuminance
usually in all engineering systems and it
∑ Thus,
produce 50 to 90 lumens per watt, and high-pressure sodium lamps produce as much as 140
lumens per watt.
uniformity of illuminance, colour rendition, colour rendering index, colour temperature, etc., are
described below.
∑ Glare
keyword is
∑ Contrast
and increase annoyance.

∑ The
∑ The
areas, and bright and dark spots which cause discomfort to occupants.
∑ The ability to see colours properly is another aspect of lighting quality. In simple terms, the
Colour Rendering Index
the occupants to distinguish colours. For example, a room with a colour printing press requires
illumination with excellent colour rendition. In comparison, outdoor security lighting for a building
∑ Colour temperature
� 13.2 DIFFERENT LIGHTING SYSTEMS
In general, there are four types of lamps commonly used.

1. Incandescent lamp
2. Fluorescent lamp
3. High-intensity discharge lamp
4. Light-emitting diodes
13.2.1 Incandescent Lamp

The oldest electric lighting technology is the incandescent lamp. Incandescent lamps are also the
shapes are shown in Figure 13.2.

Bulb
Filament
Gas
Base
Tubular Candle Flame A-lamp Globe (G-lamp)
Figure 13.2 Construction of a typical incandescent lamp and common shapes
13.2.2 Compact Fluorescent Lamps (CFLs)
lamps. They are made of two parts, the lamp and the ballast. The short tubular lamps can last longer
and sizes as shown in Figure 13.3.
Modular
twin tube
Self-ballasted Self-ballasted
Modular circular twin tube triple tubes
Modular
quad tube
Figure 13.3 Different types of compact fluorescent lamps

13.2.3 Fluorescent Lamps

electricity to excite mercury
light which causes a phosphor
to , producing . The most common light sources used for building interiors are
13.2.4 High-Intensity Discharge (HID) Lamps
called high-intensity discharge. Normally, HIDs are used for outdoor and industrial applications;
3. High-pressure sodium
4. Low-pressure sodium
Mercury Vapour
Metal Halide
industrial facilities, sports arenas, and other spaces where good colour rendition is required. Figure
Nitrogen fill gas

BaO2 getter Outer bulb
Quartz tube Main electrode
Outer bulb Shroud

Argon fill gas
and mercury Arc tube
Starting Main electrode

electrode
SAES getter
UV enhancer
Starting resistor
Mogul base
Figure 13.4 Construction of a high-pressure mercury-vapour lamp and a metal halide lamp
Source: , 9th Edition
High-Pressure Sodium (HPS)

as shown in Figure 13.5, are an economical choice for most outdoor and some industrial applications
and metal halide lamps in that they do not contain starting electrodes; the ballast circuit includes
colour rendition.
Low-Pressure Sodium (LPS)
limited to security or street-lighting.
and controlling a light beam, compared with point sources like high-pressure sodium and metal
Amalgam reservoir
with sodium and mercury
Main electrode
Xenon fill gas, sodium

and mercury vapor
Vacuum
Ceramic arc tube
Arc tube Main electrode

mount structure
Hard glass bulb
Mogul base
Figure 13.5 Construction of a high-pressure sodium lamp
Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs)
story, particularly with regard to directional light sources. Due to the directional nature of their light
intended location. Typical LED shapes are shown in Figure 13.6.

Chip LED Subminiature T-1 3/4 Lamp High flux Very high flux
LED T-1 3/4 Oval emitter emitter
Figure 13.6 Typical LED shapes
Table 13.1 General information on different types of lamps
Incandescent Fluorescent HID

Standard Halogen Full–size or Compact Metal halide High–pressure
U–Bent sodium
Wattage 3–1500 10–1500 4–215 5–58 32–2000 35–1000
Lamp efficiency 6–24 8–35 26–105 28–84 50–110 50–120
Average rated 750–2000 2000–4000 7500–24, 000 10, 000–20, 000 6000–20, 000 16, 000–24, 000
life (hours)
Cri (%) 99 99 49–96 82–86 65–96 21–65
Start–to–full Immediate Immediate 0–5 seconds 0–5 minutes 1–15 minutes 4–6 minutes
brightness
Re–strike time Immediate Immediate Immediate Immediate 2–20 minutes 1 minutes
Lumen Very good Excellent Very good Good Fair/Good Very good
maintenance
� 13.3 BALLASTS
the lamp impedance decreases. As ballasts are an integral component of the lighting system, they
Magnetic Ballast
1. Standard core-and-coil
Standard Core-and-Coil Such magnetic ballasts are essentially core-and-coil transformers
the aluminium wiring and lower grade steel of the standard ballast with copper wiring and enhanced
that cut off power to the lamp cathodes after the lamps are operating, resulting in an additional
Electronic Ballasts
to a higher frequency, usually 25,000 to 40,000 Hz. Lamps operating at these higher frequencies
capabilities. An electronic ballast is designed to operate up to four lamps at a time. In addition,

parallel wiring is another feature that allows all companion lamps in the ballast circuit to continue
failed. Thus, the electronically ballasted system will reduce time to diagnose problems. Due to a
HID Ballast
� 13.4 FIXTURES (LUMINARIES)
types of luminaries. The following is a list of some of the common luminary types.
¥ 4, 2 ¥ 2, and 1 ¥ 4
2. Fluorescent for direct lighting
3. Indirect lighting
4. Spotlights or accent lighting
5. Task lighting
� 13.5 REFLECTORS
� 13.6 LENSES AND LOUVRES

computer screens.
� 13.7 LIGHTING CONTROL SYSTEMS
in the reduction of energy consumption of the lighting without impeding comfort goals. Hence,
Different parameters are to be studied before deciding the type of lighting control system like
control systems are discussed in the following section.
13.7.1 Timers (Time-Scheduling Control System)

The time-scheduling control system is used to reduce the operating hours of the lighting installation
according to building occupancy. Different schedules can be programmed for different areas of the
building based on the occupant needs. The time-scheduling control strategy enables switching on or
off automatically based on-time schedules and occupancy patterns for different zones. Twenty-four
hour timers allow the occupants to set certain times for lighting.
13.7.2 Dimmer
that allows ballasts from different manufacturers to be used with compatible systems.
is a way to control the light output of the luminaires based on a limited
13.7.3 Photocell
For most outdoor lighting applications, photocells which turn lights on when it gets dark, and
sources. Sensors are often used in large areas, each controlling a separate group of lights in order to
illuminance strategy.
13.7.4 Infrared Presence Sensors
most common sensors used in the building sector are that react to
control units.
13.7.5 Ultrasonic Presence Sensor
There are products combining the two technologies, called They see
greater control
working hours, except when other sensors indicate that a space is occupied.
� 13.8 LIGHTING SYSTEM AUDIT
Energy audit of a lighting system depends on the end user, and, hence, has to be tailor-made. The
Step 1 Observation
condition, etc.
D. Find the type of control used for the lighting system.

E. Identify the task/operation performed by the occupant/resident.

Step 2 Output Measurement
D. Estimate electrical consumption.

rate
Annual lighting cost = Annual working hours ¥ number of lamps ¥ watts per lamp ¥
kWh
If lamps are of different capacities then calculate accordingly.
Average luminance on the working plane

Circuit watt
Step 3 Input Measurement
with a power analyzer. If total power is not measurable, try to measure power consumption of at
least one or two lamps and calculate the total power consumption.
Step 4 Compilation of Results
Step 5 ILER Analysis
L ¥W
Hm ¥ (L + W )
where L, W, and m
Installed load efficacy

Target Installed Load Efficacy
Table 13.2 Target installed load efficacy
Room index Commercial and clean industrial Industrial lighting with Industrial lighting with
areas with CRI = 40–85 CRI = 40–85 CRI = 20–40
1 36 33 52
1.25 40 36 55
1.5 43 39 58
2 46 42 61
2.5 48 44 64
3 50 46 65
4 52 48 66
5 53 49 67
Table 13.3 ILER range
ILER Assessment
0.75 or above Satisfactory to good
0.51 to 0.74 Review suggested
0.5 or less Urgent action required
� 13.9 ENERGY-SAVING OPPORTUNITIES
frequent, and if occupancy is infrequent, use suitable lighting controls.
life and lead to an increased need for lamp/e-choke replacements and, hence, higher operation and
13.9.1 Daylighting
as much light as a dozen or more lightbulbs, and the light quality is unsurpassed. Exposure to
A new way to add daylighting to a room is with a as shown in Figure 13.7. These
¢¢ to 20¢¢
tubes bring daylight into the house with much less disruption of roof and ceiling construction
Figure 13.7 A typical skylight tube
13.9.2 Task Lighting
13.9.3 Solar-Powered Lighting

Another way to power lighting, particularly for outdoor lights, is to use solar energy. A
panel uses the solar energy of the sun to generate electricity, which is stored in a battery. The
13.9.4 Group Re-lamping

The largest cost of a lighting system to a commercial user is not the initial cost of lamps and
installation, but energy and maintenance costs. The largest lighting maintenance cost is relamping—
use a practice called .

In a typical non-group relamping procedure, when a lamp burns out in the workplace, it is
installation procedure. Hours or days later, another lamp burns out somewhere else and the process
is repeated. This can take a lot of time, disrupt worker or customer operations, and introduce safety
concerns.
regular basis. This allows trained maintenance-staff members to schedule access to an area, bring
group relamping.
13.9.5 De-lamping
luminaries, and reducing the number of lamps has ensured that the illuminance is marginally
a useful concept.
13.9.6 Daylight Saving
on residential lighting use. In-depth research is required to analyze the possibility of splitting the
than three years.
2. Lighting technology older than 10 years.

3. Lighting system has crossed its useful life and is poorly maintained.
5. High electricity charges.
Use of Metal Halide Lamps Installation of metal halide lamps in place of mercury/sodium-
line, inspection areas, painting shops, etc.
Use of High-Pressure Sodium-Vapour Lamps
Use of Light Emitting Diode (LED) Lamps Installation of LED panel indicator lamps in place
lesser power consumption and longer life.
Use of Electronic Ballast
from about 20,000 Hz to 30,000 Hz. The losses in electronic ballasts for tubelights are only about 1
Table 13.4 Effect of electronic ballast
Type of lamp With conventional electromagnetic With electronic Power savings, watts
ballast ballast
40 W Tubelight 51 35 16
35 W low-pressure sodium 48 32 16
70 W high-pressure sodium 81 75 6
Select T5 Fluorescent Tubelights
glass and the phosphors. This drastically reduces the need for mercury from about 15 milligrams to
Streetlights contribute to peak power consumption of
make an area safer and secure.
potentially reduce energy consumption.
glowing hours.
Bachat Lamp Yojana As per the
The aims at the large-scale replacement of incandescent bulbs in households
The
CHECKLIST
Bachat Lamp Yojana.
lumen illuminance
Numerical Problem
¢ ¢
¢
Fill in the Blanks
Answers
1. 5.
2. 6.
3. 7.
4. 8.
9. 13.
10. 14.
11. 15.
12. 16.
Energy Audit Applied to Buildings
14
It is very surprising that when buying a new car, people are very much concerned
about economy, but when buying a new home or making a new building (whose
of energy and its impact on environment is almost equal in both cases.
Green buildings
LEED (Leadership in Environmental and Energy Design)

assesses buildings against a set of established environmental performance criteria of energy, water
Table 14.1 Some LEED rated buildings in India
Project name
Pune
Chennai Gold
Gurgaon
this chapter.
Air conditioning Lighting

Other equipment Ventilation fans
Chart 14.1 Energy consumption in a commercial building (See color figure)
� 14.1 ENERGY-SAVING MEASURES IN NEW BUILDINGS
As we know, conduction, convection, and radiation are three modes by which heat is transferred
from high-temperature atmospheric air to the building envelop. Chart 14.1 shows approximate
heat gain by a building by different heat sources. As shown in the chart, the highest amount of heat
is poured through glazed walls followed by internal-heat gain and roof-heat gain. Some energy-
saving aspects to reduce heat gain and, thereby to reduce energy consumption, are discussed here.
14.1.1 Maximize Use of Natural Energy Flow

HVAC need of the building is directly related to difference between inside and outside temperatures.
trapping and storing solar radiation in winter—minimizing the burden of the HVAC system and
geographical location and surrounding climate of the building. This is also known as passive design
of the building. Key elements describing passive design are discussed here:
1. Orientation of Building Orienting a building in the proper direction will have passive
heating and cooling in all weather and helps reduce energy bills. A building should have
minimum exposure in south and west directions to reduce direct heat load from sunrays for
Indian latitudes and longitudes falling in hot regions.
2. Insulation
Insulation is selected based on several criteria like lifespan, cost, applicable temperature
range, weather effect, etc. Some building materials like concrete, brick, etc., serve the
purpose of insulation. They also average day and night temperature difference, and thereby
increase comfort at reduced energy cost.
Energy Audit Applied to Buildings 297
3. As shown in Chart 14.2, maximum heat gain in a building is through glazing and windows.
Thus, they are designed and located to maximize cool breeze to enter the building in
summer and minimize winter winds to enter the building in winter.
4. Skylights As mentioned in Chapter 13, use of daylight is the ideal source in terms of quality
Some skylight options are shown in Figure 14.1.
Figure 14.1 Different fixtures for skylights (See color figure)
Conduction through Internal heat gain

glazed walls
Roof conduction Wall conduction
Chart 14.2 Approximate heat gain in a building premises (See color figure)
14.1.2 Envelop Heat Gain

The location of a building decides heat gain by its envelop. As our country spreads over a wide
geographical span, different states have variations in average atmospheric temperature. Figure 14.2
shows the general atmosphere of a particular location. A summary of advisable indoor conditions
are given in Table 14.2. To reduce heat gain through building envelops, some suggestions are given
here:
1. Select high-performance glazing with low U

light transmittance.
bricks to reduce heat ingress.

3. Select and use proper insulation material on sun-facing walls and roofs.
4. Consider window shades, venetian blinds (window blinds), or tree plantations outside the
building to reduce direct heat gain.
Leh
Delhi
Ahmedabad
Kolkata
Hyderabad
Legends
Bengaluru Hot and dry
Hot humid
Composite
Gold
Moderate
Map of India showing different climatic zones

(map not to scale)
Figure 14.2 Different climate zones of India (See color figure)

14.1.3 Equipment Selection
equipment/system consider the following aspects:
high star ratings.

2. Use variable-frequency drives for ventilation fans, pumps, etc.
3. Select and locate the cooling tower to perform at its best.
4. Use heat-recovery wheels, heat-pipe-based heat-recovery systems, and economizers in
HVAC units.
5. Take maximum advantage of time of day tariff (pumping of water during night hours to
reduce daytime electricity consumption).
6. Install wind curtains on all openings.
7. Install occupancy sensors on escalators to avoid continuous running.
8. Adopt building-management system for effective control of equipment.
9. Select and use CFC-free refrigerant in HVAC equipment, which has minimum ozone-
depletion potential.
Table 14.2 Recommendations for different types of weather
Climate zone Recommended building conditions

Hot and dry Reduce heat gain by proper orientation.
Decrease exposed surface area.
Increase thermal mass and resistance.
Decrease ventilation during daytime and increase during night time.
Increase use of shades with fins and trees.
Use light colours on wall exteriors.
Use reflective tiles on the roof.
Use open-water surfaces, i.e., ponds, fountains, etc., to increase evaporative
cooling.
Hot and humid Reduce heat gain by proper orientation.
Increase ventilation during day and night.
Use dehumidifiers and desiccant-based cooling systems to reduce humidity.
(Contd.)
(Contd.)
Climate zone Recommended building conditions
Composite Reduce heat gain in summer and loss in winter.
Increase ventilation in summer and monsoon and decrease in winter.
Increase humidity in summer and decrease in monsoon.
Cold Reduce heat loss.
Decrease ventilation.
Decrease use of shades with fins and trees.
Use dark colours on wall exteriors and glass to absorb more solar radiation.
Moderate Reduce heat gain.
Increase ventilation.
Increase humidity in summer and decrease in monsoon.
14.1.4 Insulation
After selecting appropriate insulating material, it is necessary to install it without any cavity or air
gap. They need to be protected from sunlight, moisture, wind, and other weather effects.
14.1.5 Cool Roof

Maximum solar radiation is received by the roof of the building as it is continuously exposed to the
sun. Heat received by the roof surface is partly absorbed and transmitted to the building and partly
decides the amount of solar radiation received by building.

cool roofs
that temperature is 10 to 15ºC lesser than conventional buildings in peak summer. Use of white-
coloured china mosaic tiles or white cement tiles also reduces solar radiation received by buildings.
14.1.6 Improving Air-tightness
1. Installing continuous vapour retarders on walls and ceilings.

2. Blocking holes, cracks, and open surfaces.
3. Proper sealing around windows and doors.
4. Proper sealing around pipeworks and ductworks.
of green buildings are summarized in Table 14.3.

Table 14.3 Benefits of green buildings
Benefits of green buildings Builder/Developer Employee Owner

Different identification and image √ √ √
Saleability of building √ √
Higher rents √ √
Higher return on investment √ √
Higher re sale value √ √
More work satisfaction and productivity √ √
Reduction in water consumption √
Reduction in energy consumption √
14.1.8 Co-ordination Between Designer and Developer

Lack of coordination has been observed in the Indian construction industry, which ultimately results
in fast and nasty designs. Instead of technical designs and software, developers still use rules of
thumb in many cases. Awareness and building code mandates may help increase the number of
green buildings.
14.1.9 HVAC Sizing and Number of Lightings

It is observed that most buildings have oversized air-conditioning plants installed and same is the
case in lighting. It is also observed that highest or lowest temperatures just exist for 2 to 5% of the
than future expansion plans or thumb rules. Similarly, excessive lighting should be discouraged, as
it adds load on the HVAC system and energy bill.
As per IGBC codes, installed chillers and air conditioners of a building should meet the following
performance values to meet requirements of a green building.
Table 14.4 Minimum power consumption of chiller units as per IGBC codes
Type of chiller Capacity (ton) Minimum COP Minimum IPLV

Air-cooled chiller Less than 150 2.90 3.16
Air-cooled chiller More than 150 3.05 3.32
Centrifugal water-cooled Less than 150 5.80 6.09
Centrifugal water-cooled 150 ton to 300 tons 5.80 6.17
Centrifugal water-cooled More than 300 6.3 6.61
Reciprocating, water-cooled All sizes 4.2 5.05
Rotary, screw, and scroll compressor, water-cooled More than 150 4.7 5.49
Table 14.5 Minimum power consumption of AC units as per IGBC codes
Maximum power consumption (kW)

Cooling capacity (kW) Package AC
Unitary AC Split AC
Water-cooled Air-cooled
1.7 1.1 3.75 4.75 –
2.6 1.4 6.00 7.00 –
3.5 1.6 9.00 10.0 1.7
4.4 2.0 11.5 13.5 –
5.2 2.4 17.0 20.0 2.6
7.0 3.2 – – 3.4
8.7 4.25 – – 4.5
10.5 5.2 – – 5.4
Reduced use of water has direct impact on the environment and indirect impact on energy saving. A
building design should utilize the groundwater table and reduce municipal-water demand through
effective management of rainwater. Providing a rainwater harvesting system will capture run-off
water from the roof area.
water-treatment system to treat wastewater generated in the building. Treated wastewater or
14.1.11 Adopt Solar Water Heating

A solar water-heating system has a collector area and storage tank. The collector is made of an
insulated box having an array of water pipes attached to black-painted metal sheets. The collector
box might have a glass or plastic cover to retain solar energy. Solar water heating can be of passive
or active type. In passive systems, circulation of water is gravity-assisted and, hence, does not
require pump. A tank connected with a collector stores hot water. The schematic of passive and
active solar water-heating systems are shown in Figure 14.3. In an active solar water-heating
system, a pump circulates water from the storage tank. Up to 90% of energy saving is possible with
building. Calculate total hot water requirement of the building at the design stage and install solar
panels at the initial stage of the building.
Tank Collector
Pump
Controller
Tank
Collector (A) (B)
Figure 14.3 Passive and active solar water-heating systems
14.1.12 Promote Use of Decentralized Power Plants

Distributed generation, or decentralized power plants, are small-capacity generators using many
sources of energy. These plants have excellent economics of scale and if run with green fuel, they
have positive impact on the environment. A biofuel-based or non-edible-oil-based decentralized
power plant is an option of utility power and reduces dependence on fossil fuels.
14.1.13 Energy-saving Measures in Existing Buildings

Fear of rapid depletion of exhaustible energy sources, global warming, climate change, and
mushroom growth in the construction industry are reasons for conducting energy audits of existing
data collection, analysis, identifying opportunities, planning, and then implementing. The list of
information to be collected by an audit team is listed below:
1. Building plan and HVAC layout.
2. Energy cost and tariff data.
3. Type of chiller, capacity, and operating pattern.
4. Details of fan, pump, pipework, ductwork, etc.
5. Occupancy with respect to time and day.

6. Various equipment and systems installed.
7. Type and numbers of luminaries and their control mechanisms.
8. Power distribution and transformer details.
9. Details of lift, escalators, and their operating hours.
10. Other sources of energy if used like gas, diesel, etc.
After obtaining the above data, the energy-audit team will compare the same with design and
historical data. Major deviations in current data, design data, and historical data for a particular
system or equipment are an indication of abnormality. The following parameters can be assessed
to compare data:
1. COP or IPLV of the HVAC system.
3. Piping-system frictional losses.
5. Heat loss from hot water or steam lines.
Follow this principle for data collection: “Do not estimate what you can calculate and do not
calculate what you can measure.” It is also critical to decide the points of data collection. Follow
technical guidance given in respective chapters to collect the data of an HVAC system, lightings,
pumps, motors, etc., to have accurate data. The next task after data collection is analyzing. At
this junction of time, the audit team will screen and spot the parameters for which qualitative and
quantitative deviations in trends are observed. These points are sources of energy-management
opportunities, now onward noted as EMO.
present-value calculations, etc., for suggested changes. If required, lifecycle cost assessment will be
carried out for a particular EMO. It should be noted that the EMO should not downgrade the quality
of service or working environment, e.g., increasing room temperature will save energy but creates
uncomfortable working conditions for residents or employees. The EMO should also consider
previous audit recommendation or due maintenance, if any, which is followed by implementation.
The Energy Utilization Factor (EUI) is a platform to compare energy consumptions of different
buildings of similar nature.
Annual energy consumption
EUI = (14.1)
Gross floor area
Collect the energy-consumption data in the following format.
Table 14.6 Data sheet
Month kWh KVA PF kW Energy charges Demand charges Total cost Diesel or gas charges
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
If a building uses gas or diesel as a secondary form of energy, add their monthly consumptions.
area is taken in m2 2
.
� 14.2 WATER AUDIT
water consumption by various activities. Like energy audit, water audit is also a part of energy
assessment of an existing building. It is an assessment of the capacity of total water produced by
the governing authority and actual quantity of water distributed throughout the assessment area
(e.g., town, municipal corporation area, township, etc.) The difference between the two is known
as nonrevenue water or unaccounted water. A water audit also gives qualitative and quantitative
analyses of water consumption. Advantages of a water audit are listed below:
1. It encourages social responsibility by identifying wasteful use of water.
2. It promotes water conservation and thereby reduces cost of water distribution and pumping.
Water-audit Methodology
Like an energy audit, the method to carry out a water audit depends upon many parameters like
water source, population, type of use, climatic condition, source of wastewater generation, legal
requirements, distribution network, etc., and, hence, an audit method is a tailor-made method
applicable to a particular end user. However, general guidelines are given here for carrying out a
water audit.
Part A: Planning and Preparation It includes data collection and preparation of site sketch.
Verify the mapped water-distribution system with the existing water-

supply system for piping layout, valves, connections, etc. Verify that water meters are available or
can be installed at major supply points, tube-well supply to the main line, reservoir supply line, etc.
density, number of operating hours and per capita consumption or per ton consumption, raw water
plant, demineralization plant, reverse osmosis plant, wastewater plant, etc. Collect the data of
operating details of various pumps in each stream and operating hours. Also, collect water-quality
details at all key points. In case of any breakdown or scheduled maintenance occurring in history,
collect the data for the same.
Part D: Analysis The information collected will be consolidated and used to prepare overall
1. Locations that need immediate action to repair leak.

2. Locations that need water losses closely monitored.
taking advantage of time of day tariff.
� 14.3 HOW TO AUDIT YOUR HOME?
Audit of a single-family a residence is fairly simple. It starts with gathering information of the
building envelop, and past electricity and gas bills. List the number of plugged equipment at your
home. In an air-conditioned house, inspect insulation and seals for windows and doors, and the
integrity of ducts.
From past energy bills, analyze the consumption and identify patterns or anomalies.
Ceiling Drafts
40% 10%
Walls Windows
25% 15%
10%
Floors
Figure 14.4 Energy saving from different parts of a building
Identify potential energy-saving opportunities from the analysis, e.g., performance deviation in
the air-conditioning system, adding insulation, service requirement of hot-water system, adding
analysis.
� 14.4 GENERAL ENERGY-SAVING TIPS APPLICABLE TO NEW AS WELL AS EXISTING

BUILDINGS
1. Use solar control glass to restrict solar radiation to pour through glazing. They permit light
and restrict radiation from entering the building and, thereby keep the building-temperature
low.
2. Keep high-heat-generation processes away from the building or use exhaust/ventilation
fans for them.
3. Some locations have a big difference in day and night temperatures. It is advisable to use
high thermal mass material (concrete, bricks, tiles, etc.) in such locations, as they are able
to keep the building warm during winter nights and cold during summer days.
4. Replace outdated thermostats with programmable ones.
5. Rather than using an air conditioner, install ceiling fans, as in many cases, air movement is
replace them.
7. Maintain and clean lamps for best performance.
8. Reduce the number of lamps in nonworking areas or use low-wattage bulbs.
10. Avoid acrylic paints or wallpaper, instead use natural paints or low Volatile Organic
Compound (VOC) paints.
11. Use indoor plants as they add oxygen to the atmosphere and eliminate harmful volatile
organic compounds.
12. Use on-demand hot-water heaters instead of storage-type hot-water heaters.
gain from window glass. An SHGC of 0.3 indicates that the window allows 30% of solar
radiation to pass across the window glass.
14. Encourage the use of electric vehicles in township, campus, etc., and provide electric-
vehicle-charging facility.
15. Promote use of solar, wind, biogas, and biomass energy to reduce burden on the utility.
16. Encourage continuous monitoring of energy performance. Use different meters for external
data are available.

17. In case of residential and hospital buildings, segregate waste (dry, wet, paper, plastic,
and e-waste separately. Identify the scope of recycling green waste in the campus.
18. Encourage use of salvaged building materials and products instead of virgin material.
Fill in the Blanks
summer.
Answers
Fill in the Blanks
1. Leadership in environment and energy design
2.
3. Cool roof
4.
1. (d) 2. (d)
Thermal Insulation and Refractory Materials
15
� 15.1 BENEFITS OF THERMAL INSULATIONS
∑ Energy Saving
∑ Protection
∑ Maintain Process Temperature
∑ Minimize Temperature Variation and Fluctuation
∑ Prevent Condensation
∑ Fire Protection
∑ Freezing Protection
∑ Reduced Level of Vibration and Noise
� 15.2 HEAT TRANSFER MECHANISM IN THERMAL INSULATION

Thermal Insulation and Refractory Materials 311
thermal conductivity
15.2.1 Conduction
dT
Q� = -k A
dx
dT/dx k A
2
15.2.2 Convection
forced convection
free convection
Q� = h A Ts – T
2
h
Ts – T
2
A
15.2.3 Radiation
T
Ts4 – T 4
Q� = e s A (T 4s - T •4 )
2
e A
e ¥ –8 2
K 4
15.2.4 Thermal Conductivity
Table 15.1 Thermal conductivity values of some common materials
Material Thermal conductivity, W / m ºC
Silver 429
Copper 401
Aluminium 237
Iron 80.2
Mercury 8.54
Glass 0.78
Brick 0.72
Water 0.613
Wood 0.17
Soft rubber 0.13
Glass fibre 0.043
Air 0.026
Urethane foam 0.026
Table 15.2 Required properties of insulating materials
Property of material Condition required

Thermal conductivity As low as possible.
Mechanical stability Able to withstand vibration, expansion, and contraction.
Durability Able to withstand extreme operating temperature.
Weight As less as possible or else additional support is required.
Thickness As small as possible for compactness.
Water absorption Water increases thermal conductivity of insulation and reduces its effectiveness;
hence, it should be less.
Effect of chemicals Able to resist chemicals/fumes used in the surrounding environment.
Effect of microbes Able to resist vermin and fungal growth, especially in food storage and factory
applications.
Emissivity Low surface emittance is required.
Health hazards It should be asbestos-free to reduce danger of inhalation of fine particles.
Fire hazards The material itself should be noncombustible in case of fire-prone or smoke-
involved applications.
Corrosion In case of wetted insulation (due to leak or internal condensation), the
insulation-soluble compounds should not promote corrosion.
15.2.5 R-value of Insulation

R
L
R
k
L k
r2 r2
R ln
k r1
r r2
R
DT
Q� = ¥ Area
R-value
R
Table 15.3 R-values of common insulating materials
Material R-value (m2 K/ W)

Silica aerogel 1.76
Polyurethane rigid panel 1.3
Urea foam 0.92
Fibreglass rigid panel 0.44
� 15.3 CLASSIFICATION OF THERMAL INSULATION
resistive insulation
Capacitive insulation
Thermal Insulation
Capacitive Reflective Resistive
Fibrous Cellular Granular Based on shape
Organic Inorganic Loose fill Rigid Blankets Insulation

and batts cement
Animal Ceramic
Wood fibre Cloth fibre Cotton fibre Glass fibre Mineral fibre
hair fibre
Chart 15.1 Classification of thermal insulation

15.3.1 Fibrous Insulation
Table 15.4 Properties of rock mineral wool
Rock mineral wool

Density 60 to 160 kg/m3
Thermal conductivity, W/mº C
Mean temperature, Density, 80 kg/m3
10 0.033
Service temperature, ºC –200 to 900
Fire characteristics Noncombustible
Water-vapour transmission Nonpermeable
Compressive strength 10.5 kN/m2 for 80 kg/m3 density
Shapes available Loose fill, mats, pipe section, rolls, slabs
Thickness available 20 to 120 mm
Applications Used as a thermal and acoustic insulation and fire protection
of plant, equipment, marine, offshore, HVAC, industry,
commercial, domestic sectors
Table 15.5 Properties of glass mineral wool
Glass mineral wool
Mean temperature, ºC Density, 48 kg/m3 Density, 80 kg/m3
–20 0.028 0.028
10 0.030 0.031
20 0.032 0.032
50 0.035 0.035
100 0.044 0.042
Contd.
Glass mineral wool

Compressive strength 1 to 8 kN/m2 at 5% deformation
Shapes available Blown fibre, pipe section, rolls, slabs
Applications Widely used for thermal and acoustic insulation in HVAC applications,
transport, shipping, building, etc.
Table 15.6 Properties of ceramic fibres
Ceramic fibre (blanket)

100 0.041 0.03
300 0.079 0.06
600 0.14 0.12
800 0.22 0.18
1000 0.36 0.28
Maximum temperature, ºC 1250
Water-vapour transmission Permeable
Compressive strength 2.5 kN/m2 at 10% deformation
Shapes available Logs, sections, slabs
Applications Thermal and acoustic insulation for motor, petrochemical and
power generation, fire protection of commercial buildings and
offshore structures
15.3.2 Cellular Insulation
Table 15.7 Properties of cellular glass
Cellular glass
–100 0.034 –
0 0.038 0.044
10 0.04 0.046
100 0.081 –
Temperature range. ºC –260 to 430
Compressive strength 700 kN/m2
Shapes available Board, pipe shells, slabs
Applications Cold storage and marine applications, tank and vessel bases, buildings.
etc.
15.3.3 Granular Insulation
Vermiculite
expanded perlites
Table 15.8 Properties of calcium silicate
Calcium silicate
Thermal conductivity, W/mºC
Mean Temperature, ºC Thermal Conductivity
100 0.054
150 0.058
200 0.063
250 0.068
300 0.074
350 0.082
Maximum temperature, ºC 1000
Compressive strength 600 kN/m2 at 1.5% deformation
Shapes available Logs, sections, slabs
Applications Steam pipes and vessels, ovens, petrochemical, furnace, general
heating, process insulation, and-food processing plants
Figure 15.1 Images of different insulating materials
Table 15.9 Properties of vermiculite
Vermiculite
Thermal conductivity 0.067 W/m °C for a density of 104 kg/m3
Service temperature, ºC 0 to 1300
Water-vapour transmission Permeable
Compressive strength 10.5 kN/m2 for a density of 80 kg/m3
Shapes available Depends upon type of application
Applications Loose-fill granular insulations are used in loft insulation, steel
works, foundries, packing, plasters, building boards, etc.
Table 15.10 Properties of expanded perlite
Expanded perlite
Thermal conductivity 0.057 W/m °C for a density of 80 kg/m3
Shapes available Loose-fill granular material
Applications Used as a structural insulation for domestic and commercial
buildings; also used for low-temperature applications
� 15.4 DIFFERENT FORMS OF INSULATION MATERIALS AVAILABLE IN THE MARKET
Table 15.11 Shapes available for different insulating materials
Insulating material Board Block Sheet Pipe fitting

Calcium silicate √ √ √
Cellular glass √ √
Fibre glass √ √ √
Mineral wool √ √ √ √
Polystyrene and polyurethane √ √ √
Perlite √ √
� 15.5 SELECTION OF INSULATING MATERIAL
∑ Purpose/Application
∑ Type of Surface
∑ Surrounding Condition
∑ Ease of Applying/Frequent Removal
∑ Cost
� 15.6 CALCULATION OF INSULATION THICKNESS
1
U=
ÊD ˆ ÊD ˆ
D3 ln Á 2 ˜ D3 ln Á 3 ˜
D3 Ë D1 ¯ Ë D2 ¯ 1
+ + +
D1 hi 2 kw 2 ki ho
D D2 D D
D2 D
hi ho
kw ki
1
U=
ÊD ˆ
D3 ln Á 3 ˜
Ë D2 ¯ 1
+
2 ki ho
Q
= p D3 U (Tin - Tout )
L
T T
EXAMPLE 15.1
Compare heat loss and calculate annual saving due to application of insulation in the following
case:
Outer diameter of pipe = 4.5≤ (114.3 mm) and thickness = 3.05 mm
2 2
Insulation thickness is 32 mm and cost of insulation is `500 /m.

Operating hours are 8760 hours per year.
1
U=
ÊD ˆ
D2 ln Á 2 ˜
D2 Ë D1 ¯ 1
+ +
D1 hi 2 kw ho
Solution
1 W
U= = 9.89 W
ÊD ˆ m2 K
D2 ln Á 2 ˜
D2 Ë D1 ¯ 1
+ +
D1 hi 2 kw ho
1 W
U= = 1.314 2
ÊD ˆ m K
D3 ln Á 3 ˜
Ë D2 ¯ 1
+
2 ki ho
Q
= p D3 U (Tin - Tout )
L
Q
L
Q
L
Q DQ¥ ¥
DQ DQ
= = 3668 kWh
hboiler 0.8
¥ `
`
� 15.7 ECONOMIC THICKNESS OF INSULATION
Simple payback
H+1
Cost
economic
MC
thickness of insulation H
I H M
H+I M
Insulation thickness
M
Figure 15.2 Critical thickness of insulation
EXAMPLE 15.2
Calculate economic thickness of insulation for Example 15.1.

Additional data:
Table 15.12 Cost of insulation for different thicknesses
Insulation thickness in mm Cost of insulation per metre in `

0.5≤ 450
1≤ 500
1.5≤ 565
2≤ 635
2.5≤ 715
3≤ 810
3.5≤ 915
4≤ 1030
U Q/L
Table 15.13 Result table
Insulation Pipe diameter Overall heat trans- Heat loss Cost of heat Cost of Total cost,
thickness, mm after addition of fer co-efficient, Q/L, W/m loss, ` insulation, ` `
insulation, mm W/m2 ºC
0.5≤ 139.7 4.26 222.5 267 450 717.00
1≤ 165.1 1.972 121.00 145.20 500 645.20
1.5≤ 190.5 1.230 87.59 105.11 565 670.11
2≤ 215.9 0.873 70.46 84.65 635 719.65
2.5≤ 241.3 0.665 59.90 71.88 715 786.44
3≤ 266.7 0.530 52.80 63.38 810 873.33
3.5≤ 292.1 0.437 47.72 57.26 915 972.26
4≤ 317.5 0.369 43.79 52.54 1030 1082.54
≤
≤
� 15.8 REFRACTORY MATERIAL
Refractory
material
Chemical
Type of shape Type of use
composition
Neutral
Unsapped Acid Basic Non
Shapped (Alumina,
refractory (silica, (magnesia Metallurgical metallurgical
refractory carnon
zirconia) Dolomite)
graphite)
Chart 15.2 Classification of refractory materials
metallurgy industry
nonmetallurgy industry
� 15.9 PROPERTIES OF REFRACTORY MATERIALS
Melting Point
Table 15.14 Melting temperature of different constituents of refractory materials
Constituents of refractory materials Melting temperature, ºC

Graphite 3500
Magnesia 2800
Lime 2570
Magnesia 2200
Alumina 2050
Fireclay 1870
Silica 1715
Porosity
Bulk Density
Pyrometric Cone Equivalent (PCE)
Figure 15.3 Pyrometric-cone preparation

Thermal Expansion
creep
Thermal Conductivity
Cold Crushing Strength

2
� 15.10 COMMONLY USED REFRACTORY MATERIALS
Fireclay Bricks
2 2O
High-Alumina Refractory
Silica Bricks
Figure 15.4 A sample of fireclay brick
2
Magnesite Refractory
Dolomite, Chromite, Zirconia, and

Monolithic Refractory Dolomite
Chrome
magnesite refractory
Zirconia
refractory
Figure 15.5 Monolithic refractory casted in required shape

Monolithic refractory
Ceramic Fibre—An Insulating Refractory
� 15.11 SELECTION OF REFRACTORY MATERIAL
� 15.12 HOW TO IMPROVE LIFE OF A REFRACTORY MATERIAL

CHECKLIST
Fill in the Blanks
Answers
Fill in the Blanks
1. 4.
2. 5.
3.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Energy Audit of Heat Exchangers,
16
Waste-Heat Recovery, and Co-generation
� 16.1 BASICS OF A HEAT EXCHANGER
As discussed in the earlier chapter (Chapter 15), there are three modes of heat transfer which
decide the heat exchange in any process or system: chemical, mechanical, or nuclear. Conduction,
convection, and radiation—all three modes of heat transfer are involved in a heat exchanger. A heat
recuperative heat exchanger) or there exists direct contact

regenerative heat exchanger).
multitube-pass heat exchangers, while multiple shells connected in

multi-shell heat exchangers.
Tube Shell
outlet inlet Baffles
Shell Tube
outlet inlet
Figure 16.1 Different views of a shell-and-tube heat exchanger

Figure 16.2 Different views of a plate heat exchanger
Shell-side fluid out

Baffle Shell Tube sheet
Outlet plenum
Out
In
Tube-side fluid
Inlet plenum
Shell side Baffle
Tube bundle
Shell-side
with U-tubes
fluid out
Shell-side
Tube bundle
fluid in
Tube sheet with straight Shell Tube sheet
tubes
Inlet plenum
Shell-side Baffle
Tube-side fluid out Tube-side fluid out
fluid in
Energy Audit of Heat Exchangers, Waste-Heat Recovery, and Co-generation 333
Tube bundle Shell-side Tube-side

with straight fluid in fluid in
Tube sheet tubes Shell
plenum
Inlet
plenum
Outlet
Tube-sheet
Shell-side fluid out Baffle
Tube-side
fluid out
Figure 16.3 Different types of shell-and-tube heat exchangers:
(a) U-tube heat exchanger (b) One-pass heat exchanger (c) Two-pass heat exchanger
Latest developments in plate heat exchangers and compactness have now made them compatible
compact heat exchanger
3 3
1000 m
3 3
15,000 m .
t1 t1 t2 t1
T1 T2 T1 T2
Parallel flow Counter flow
T1 T1
Temperature
Temperature
T2
T2
t1 t2 t2
t1
Position Position
Figure 16.4 Parallel and counter-flow heat exchangers with temperature and flow profiles
heat exchangers.
� 16.2 HEAT-EXCHANGER APPLICATIONS
Chemical, mechanical, petrochemical, paper, jute, and textile industries use one or the other type of
evaporator or condenser when used in
HVAC, radiator superheater, air preheater, condenser,
reheater or economizer when used in a power plant, intercooler when used in a compressor, etc.
exchangers are discussed here.

Preheater
In case of thermal power plants, live steam is trapped off and is used to preheat the condensate.
plant, exhaust gas is used to preheat air.

Radiator
atmosphere. Air being a poor conductor needs more surface area and, hence, the radiator tubes are
Evaporator and Condenser
rejecting heat to the surrounding air or water.
Figure 16.5 Images of evaporator, air preheater, and steam condenser
Steam Condenser It is a major component of thermal power plants. In this heat exchanger,
steam gives up its latent heat of condensation to the cooling water. After the steam condenses,
the condensate temperature reduces and is subcooled and collected in the bottom or condenser
hot well
pump is used.
� 16.3 PERFORMANCE OF A HEAT EXCHANGER
16.3.1 Log Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD)
q 2 - q1 DT2 - DT1
= Dq = =
q2 DT
where ln ln 2
q1 DT1
2= 2 = Th2 – Tc2
and 1= 1 = Th1 – Tc1
Th and Tc
considering overall heat transfer by conduction and convection.

Q� = UADTm
where, Q
Q� = (mC p DT )h = (mC p DT ) c
U K.
T1 - T2
Q= = UA DToverall
1 Dx 1
+ +
h1 A kA h2 A
T1 - T2
= UA DToverall
( )
Q=
r
D ln o r
1 1
+ i
+
hi Ai 2p kL ho Ao
T2, h2
T1, h1
T1, h1
r2
r1
T2, h2
x1 x2
Figure 16.6 Heat transfer in plane wall and cylinder
T1 - T2
( )
Q=
ro
1 R fi D ln ri R 1
+ + + o +
hi Ai Ai 2p kL Aio ho Ao
(r r ) + R
U=
A D ln o
1 1
+ R fi + i
fo +
hi 2p kL ho
where R and Rfo
Table 16.1 Fouling factors for different types of waters
Type of water Fouling factor (m2K/W); Fouling factor (m2K/W)

Cooling-water temperature < 50ºC; Cooling-water temperature > 50ºC;
Cooled fluid < 120ºC Cooled fluid >120ºC
Velocity < 1 m/s >1 m/s < 1 m/s > 1 m/s
Sea 0.00009 0.00009 0.00018 0.00018
Brackish 0.00035 0.00035 0.00053 0.00053
City grid 0.00018 0.00018 0.00035 0.00035
River 0.00018 0.00018 0.00035 0.00035
Engine jacket 0.00018 0.00018 0.00018 0.00018
Demineralized or distilled 0.00009 0.00009 0.00009 0.00009
Treated feedwater 0.00018 0.00009 0.00018 0.00018
Boiler blowdown 0.00035 0.00035 0.00035 0.00035
Table 16.2 Fouling factors for other fluids
Type of fluid Fouling factor (m2K/W)

Gas oil 0.00009
Transformer oil 0.00018
Lubrication oil 0.00018
Hydraulic oil 0.00018
Engine exhaust 0.00176
Steam 0.00009
Compressed air 0.00035
Natural gas 0.00018
Cooling fluid 0.00018
Organic heat transfer fluid 0.00018
Salt 0.00009
LPG and LNG 0.00018
Caustics 0.00035
Vegetable oil 0.00053
EXAMPLE 16.1
Th1 Th1
Hot fluid Hot

DT1 fluid
Th2 dTh
DT1 DT2
Tc1 dQ Th2
Tc2
Cold fluid DT2
dTc
Tc1
Tc2
End 1 End 2 End 1 End 2

Figure 16.7 Hot and cold fluid temperatures for parallel- and counter-flow heat exchangers
Solution
DT2 - DT1 (110 - 70) - (75 - 30)
LMTD = = = 37.44∞C
DT (110 - 70)
ln 2 ln
DT1 (75 - 30)
Q� = mC p DT = UA DTm
70
¥ 4.18 ¥ 103 ¥ (75 - 30) ¥A¥
60
A
Q� = UAF Tm
F
EXAMPLE 16.2
Solution P and R factors. From Figure
t2 - t1
P=
T1 - t1
T1 - T2
and R=
t2 - t1
where T t
P = 0.5 and R
F
Corrected LMTD ¥ LMTDD
16.3.2 Effectiveness — NTU Method

Log mean temperature method is useful when the inlet and exit temperatures of heat exchangers are
effectiveness
ratio of actual heat transfer to maximum possible heat transfer.
Actual heat tr ansfer

Effectiveness = Œ =
Maximum possible heat tr ansfer
ÈÊ -UA ˆ Ê Cmin ˆ ˘
1 - exp ÍÁ ˜ Á1 + ˜˙
Œparallel = ÎË Cmin ¯ Ë Cmax ¯ ˚
C
1 + min
Cmax
1 - exp ÍÁ 1-
Î Ë Cmin ˜¯ ÁË Cmax ˜¯ ˙˚
Œ =
ÊC ˆ ÈÊ -UA ˆ Ê Cmin ˆ ˘
1 - Á min ˜ exp ÍÁ ˜ Á1 - ˜˙
Ë Cmax ¯ ÎË Cmin ¯ Ë Cmax ¯ ˚
-UA
Œboiler or condenser = 1- exp
Cmin
where U
A = area of heat exchanger
= p ¥
min p value
max p value
min = number of transfer units
LMTD Correction Factor Charts
1.0
Correction factor, F
0.9
T1
0.8
R = 4.0 3.0 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2
0.7
T2
0.6 T1 - T 2
R=
t2 - t1
0.5
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
t2 - t1
P=
T2 - T 1
1.0
T1
0.9
t2
0.8
R = 4.0 3.0 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2
0.7 t1
0.6 T1 - T2 T2
R=
t2 - t1
0.5
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
t2 - t 1
P=
T2 - T1
1.0
T1
0.9
0.8
R = 4.0 3.0 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2
t1 t2
0.7
T1 - T2
0.6 R=
t2 - t1
T2
0.5
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
t2 - t1
P=
T1 - t1
Figure 16.8 Correction factors for different heat exchangers (Reference, Kays and London)
EXAMPLE 16.3
Solution
h= mh ph
c = mc pc
min = h
and max = c
Capacity ratio, = min

= 0.76
max
UA
NTU = = 0.9
Cmin
Case 1
1 - exp ÍÁ 1+
Œparallel = = 0.452
C
1 + min
Cmax
min
Th1 - Th 2
Œ=
Th1 - Tc1
T = 110°C
T is obtained from energy balance
h (Th1 – Th ) = c (Tc – Tc1)
Tc
Case 2
ÈÊ - UA ˆ Ê Cmin ˆ ˘
1 - exp ÍÁ 1-
Œ = = 0.501
Ê Cmin ˆ ÈÊ - UA ˆ Ê Cmin ˆ ˘
1- Á exp ÍÁ ˜ Á1 -
Ë Cmax ˜¯ ÎË Cmin ¯ Ë Cmax ¯ ˚
˜˙
min
Th1 - Th 2
Œ=
Th1 - Tc1
T
T is obtained from energy balance
h (Th1 – Th ) = c (Tc – Tc1)
Tc
16.3.3 Pinch Analysis
consumption in a process. is a simple methodology applicable to all processes
written for enthalpy changes in a heat exchanger. It is a fact for a heat exchanger that neither a
to a temperature more than the inlet temperature of hot stream. In practice, the temperature up to
pinch point in a heat exchanger.

An example of pinch analysis for a process is given below.
Stream = A
Feed Reactor Product

1 200°C 2
80°C 90°C
CW = B
1 Hot stream = product
1 Cold stream = feed
T Stream = A
200
100
90
80
CW = B H
(a)
Figure 16.9 Example of a process
X amount of
pinch,
case with lower pinch. It is easy to perform pinch analysis on a single stream compared to a process
which involves multiple streams and has complex nature.
Stream = A-X
Feed Reactor Product

1 200°C 2
80°C 90°C
CW = B-X
3
T
X Stream = A-X
200 1 Hot stream = product

1 Cold stream = freed
100
90 Recovered heat = X
Curves are
"shifted" 80 H
horizontally6
toward each other CW = B-X
till they are vertically
apart by 20°C (b)
Figure 16.10 Pinch analysis applied to a sample process
� 16.4 FOULING
is termed fouling
fouling, heat transfer in a heat exchanger reduces and, ultimately, heat capacity of the heat exchanger
overloads the pump. While designing and selecting a heat exchanger, fouling is considered and an
oversized heat exchanger is selected. Various types of foulings are discussed here.
Sedimentation Fouling
Inverse Solubility Fouling
remove this type of fouling.

Chemical Reaction Fouling
Corrosion-Product Fouling
necessary to prevent corrosion.

Biological Fouling
and grow on solid surfaces of the heat exchanger. Apart from reducing heat transfer, they may
reduce biological fouling.
or more mechanisms resulting in fouling. As a result of fouling, a solid layer is deposited on the
surface which results in increase of conductive thermal resistance. Fouling cannot be predicted
and, hence, fouling factors are used for additional resistance in designing heat exchangers. Fouling
Fouled bundle Clean bundle
Figure 16.11 Images of fouled surfaces
Prevention and Removal of Fouling
disassembly of the unit.
� 16.5 TUBULAR EXCHANGER MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION
is for
petroleum and related processes, is for general commercial applications, and is
Front-End Stationary Shell Types Rear-End Head Types

Head Types
E L
A Fixed Tubesheet
One-Pass Shell Like-“A” Stationary Head
Channel and Removable

Cover M
F Fixed Tubesheet
Two-Pass Shell Like-“B” Stationary Head
with Longitudinal Baffle
B
N
Fixed Tubesheet
G Like-“N” Stationary Head
Bonnet (Integral Cover)
Split Flow
P
Outside Packed
C H Floating Head
Channel Integral with Tube- Double Split Flow S

sheet and Removable Cover
Floating Head with Backing
J Device
Divided Flow T
N
Pull-through Floating Head
Channel Integral with Tube-
sheet and Removable Cover K U
U-Tube Bundle
Kettle Type Reboiler
D
X W
Externally Sealed
Special High-Pressure
Crossflow Floating Tubesheet
Closure
Figure 16.12 Shell-and-tube heat-exchanger classifications as per TEMA
� 16.6 SELECTION OF A HEAT EXCHANGER
involved, a spiral plate heat exchanger is a good solution. For HVAC applications, plate and frame as
1. Application (to cool, to heat, or to exchange heat)
5. Location and plan
� 16.7 METHODS TO IMPROVE EFFICIENCY OF HEAT EXCHANGERS
Heat-Exchanger Tube Inserts
complex relationship, no general correlations are available to predict

Figure 16.13 Tube insert for
a heat exchanger
material deposits on the tube wall.
Use of Fins
tube.
Figure 16.14 Finned tube
Use of Deformed Tubes
of pressure drop. Deformed tubes increase turbulence and enhance boiling.
Figure 16.15 Corrugated tube
is more effective compared to conventional ones.
Figure 16.16 Spiral baffles and conventional baffles for a shell-and-tube heat exchanger
performance and size over a period of its use. Fouling, its effect, and removal methods are
transfer surface, and slag
∑ Visual Inspection
∑ Chemical-Reagent Test
∑ Pressure-change Method (Vacuum Method)
∑ Overpressure or Bubble Test
∑ Dye-penetration Method
∑ Acoustic Leak Detection It uses sonic or ultrasonic signals generated by the gas, as it
∑ Mass Spectrometer
∑ Radiotracer
and corrosion.
� 16.8 WASTE-HEAT-RECOVERY EQUIPMENT
the environment or water. Recovering this waste heat has the largest potential in energy saving,
Table 16.3 Different examples of waste-heat recovery
Waste fluid (rejecting heat) Source fluid (gaining heat)

Exhaust of gas turbine Air preheating
Exhaust of furnace (glass melting, cement kiln, Water preheating
incinerator, metal furnace, arc furnace) Load preheating (material supplied to process)
Exhaust of boiler Steam generation
Exhaust of diesel engine Power generation
Heat from end product (ingot, casting, etc.) Space heating
Heat from hot surfaces
Waste fluid (gaining heat) Source fluid (rejecting heat)
Air conditioning return air at low temperature Fresh air supplied to air-conditioning system
Source of waste heat

3. Chemical composition. (exhasut from turbine,
furnace, oven etc. or
low temperature air in
case of HVAC
temperature and pressure can be increased. Recovery technology

(regenerator,
recuperator, boiler,
process). economizer etc.)
End use of recovered

heat (preheating source
fluid or precooling of air
here. in case of HVAC)
16.8.1 Recuperator (Gas-to-Gas or Gas-to-Air Heat Exchanger) Electericity production

from waste heat (HRSG
to produce electricity)
Gases Gases
outlet outlet
Air outlet Gases
Air outlet inlet
Air outlet
Air Air Air

inlet inlet inlet
Gases outlet
Gases inlet Gases inlet
(a) Double shell (b) Cage type (e) Vertical-tube, bundle-type
Air Air
outlet inlet
Gases
inlet
Gases
outlet
(d) Horizontal-tube, bundle-type

Gases
Gases Gases
outlet
outlet outlet Air
outlet
Water outlet
Air Water inlet

inlet
Air
inlet Air
outlet
Air
inlet Air
outlet
Gases Gases Gases

inlet inlet inlet
(e) Combined type (f)Double-shell and tube-type (g) Multifluid heating
Figure 16.17 Type of recuperators

radiation recuperators
construction, this arrangement offers minimum pressure loss and is widely used in the steel industry,
16.8.2 Rotary Wheel (Heat Wheel)
combustion chamber and has a better control of combustion process. In an HVAC heat recovery
wheel, chilled outgoing air reduces temperature of hot incoming air and, thereby reduces load of
wheel is mounted is divided into two parts.
Outside air
-10°C< t < 30°C
Exhaust air
31°C< t < 37°C
Make up air
25°C
Figure 16.18 Rotary wheel

of stainless steel, brass or aluminium wire mesh, or a ceramic honeycomb for higher temperature or
Flue gas carries latent heat of water vapour because as a part of combustion, moisture present in
the same, rotary wheels are coated with hygroscopic material.
16.8.3 Heat-Pipe Heat Exchanger
A heat pipe
thermal conductivity may be several orders of magnitude higher than that of good solid conductors.
and the condensate returns to the evaporator by means of capillary action. A heat pipe consists of a
Heat input Wick Heat output

Vapor flow
Liquid return
Evaporator Condenser
Figure 16.19 Single heat pipe and heat-pipe heat exchanger

16.8.4 Waste-heat Boiler
produce just dry saturated steam.

Steam out Cooled waste
gas out
Steam dram
Feedwater in
Water tubes
Hot waste gas

(waste heat stream)
Figure 16.20 Waste-heat recovery boiler
16.8.5 Thermoelectric Generator
3. Heat pump
5. Vapour recompression
16.8.6 Heat-Recovery Steam Generator (HRSG)
are operated either as a cogeneration plant (steam produced is used for heating in process) or
Fuel
HP
CC
ST ST G
C GT G
Combustion
LP
Air CW
gas
Water
Gas to stack
HRSG
cw = cooling water CC = combustion chamber

ST = steam turbine G = electrical generator
GT = gas turbine = condenser and pump
C = compressor
HP = high pressure steam
LP = low pressure steam
Figure 16.21 Heat-Recovery Steam Generator (HRSG)
� 16.9 HURDLES IN THE WASTE-HEAT-RECOVERY PROCESS
is thermally and economically less viable.
economically viable.
material and coating which is uneconomical.
� 16.10 CO-GENERATION
, is the simultaneous generation of useful heat

and electricity from a single source of fuel or energy, near to the point of use. It is a thermodynamically
transmission. When electricity, heat, and cooling—three outputs are there from a single plant, it
trigeneration or
generation plant are:
emission
Steam or hot water Cooling/Heating
Heat recovery
Water
unit
Hot exhaust
gases
Building
or
Engine Electricity
facility
Fuel or Generator
turbine
Grid
Figure 16.22 Concept of cogeneration
is used to produce power. A diesel power plant producing electricity and hot water is an example
Fuel
Very high
temperature gases Low temperature
Combustor
gases (exhaust)
Electricity
Process
Heat steam
recovery
Generator Compressor Gas turbine
steam
generator
Water
Air
High temperature
gases
Figure 16.23 Gas-turbine topping cycle
Low temperature
gases (exhaust)
High pressure
Electricity
steam
Very high High
Fuel temperature temperature Heat Steam
gases gases recovery Generator
turbine
Furnace Process steam
Air
generator
Low pressure
Pump steam
Condenser
Water
Figure 16.24 Furnace bottoming cycle
Table 16.4 Types of prime movers based on plant capacity
Capacity Type of prime mover Features

Less than 5 MW Reciprocating internal combustion Suitable where heat is required in the form of
engine hot water and low-pressure steam
More than 4 MW Gas turbine Suitable where heat is required in the form of
high-pressure steam
Less than 200 kW Micro turbine Compact and flexible, suitable where heat is
required in the form of hot water
Less than 250 kW Fuel cells Quiet, clean but expensive option
Large capacity Condensing steam turbine Most popular in industry
� 16.11 TYPES OF CO-GENERATION
16.11.1 Internal-Combustion-Engine Based Co-generation

the engine is cooled by force circulation of the coolant through a passage around it which is later
Customer heat
exchanger
Exhaust
Engine
Heat
recovery Gear
Excess heat box
exchanger
T
Oil cooler
Jacket water
Figure 16.25 Internal-combustion-engine-based CHP plant
16.11.2 Steam-Turbine-Based Co-generation
while in an extraction turbine, steam is extracted from the casing of the turbine before condenser
Generator
Fuel Boiler
G W
Steam turbine
Steam to process
Q
Condenser Cooling water
Condensate
from process
Pump
Condensate tank
Figure 16.26 Steam-turbine-based CHP plant
16.11.3 Gas-Turbine-Based Co-generation
Stack loss
heat Condensate
return
Heat recovery
generator
Fuel
turbine
Steam
Power
Air Generator
Combustion
chamber
Compressor
Turbine
Power To condenser
Generator
Figure 16.27 Gas-turbine-based CHP plant
16.11.4 Microturbine-Based Co-generation
application. A microturbine is a good alternative for commercial and light industrial users as these
refrigeration, or as a prime mover to other systems.
16.11.5 Fuel-Cell-Based Cogeneration

of technology. A fuel cell is similar to batteries—due to electrochemical process, it produces direct
Exhaust
Recuperator
Air
inlet Fuel
Combustor
Generator
Compressor Turbine
Figure 16.28 Microturbine-based CHP plant
� 16.12 FEASIBILITY OF A COMBINED CYCLE
indicates how the capacity of a prime mover is utilized in a combined heat and
Actual energy consumption

Capacity factor =
Peak capacity of prime mover ¥ 8760
If the industry is consistently producing excess heat or steam from a process, it is a good
produce steam and it will drive a steam turbine to produce electricity. Alternatively, a steam turbine
can also be used to drive an air compressor, refrigeration compressor, or other rotating devices.
Energy-Saving Tips in Heat Exchangers
etc.
5. All process heat exchangers need air venting, because air being an insulator, if not
parameter, deciding the size and performance of the heat exchanger.
Numerical Problem
p p of
Fill in the Blanks
Answers
Numerical Problem
2 2
1.
Fill in the Blanks
1. 4.
2. 5. 3000
3. 6. 5 MW
1. 2.
Computer Software and
17
Formats for Energy Audit
� 17.1 NAME OF SOFTWARE: ENERGY LENS
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Size: 4.08 MB
Features: Energy Lens is an energy-management software and is a tool for charting and analyzing
energy consumption. Apart from Energy Lens, the group also offers BiZee Benchmark and Bizee
Pro software for energy audits. It helps identify:
When and where energy is wasted
How much energy is wasted
Progress made in reducing energy consumption
Outputs compatible with Excel
Free download available: For trial period only
Cost (if any): 495 USD for each licence
� 17.2 NAME OF SOFTWARE: TREAT (
Website: http://psdconsulting.com/software/treat/
Features: TREAT is an innovative solution for home-performance professionals looking for robust,
yet nimble energy-modelling software. Some special features are the following:
Computer Software and Formats for Energy Audit 363
1. It creates models quickly and easily by building component libraries.

2. It calculates energy usage and predicts energy saving.
3. It automatically calculates payback and saving to investment ratio.
4. It generates physical reports.
Free download available: Free trial available for 30 days
Cost (if any): 495 USD for each licence
� 17.3 NAME OF SOFTWARE: HEAT BY HANCOCK
Website: http://www.hancocksoftware.com
Features: iHEAT is an energy-modelling and design software with the following features:
1. It trends activity over time and pinpoints program bottlenecks.
2. It can manage multiple programs.
walkthroughs.
4. It establishes a budget, measures costs, and forecasts reimbursements.
5. It helps the user see behavioural and demographic trends.
Cost (if any): Price available on request
� 17.4 NAME OF SOFTWARE: MATRIX 4 UTILITY ACCOUNTING SYSTEM
Website: http://www.abraxasenergy.com
Features: Matrix 4 normalizes energy usage for weather and other variables like production, etc.,
and presents true energy saving. It has unique features like:
Benchmarking
Load-factor analysis
Rate analysis
Determining changes in energy usage pattern
Setting saving targets and tracking progress
Excel compatible
Cost (if any): Price available on request
� 17.5 NAME OF SOFTWARE: EFFICIENCY TRACK, VIRTUAL ENERGY ASSESSMENT,

AND AUTOMATED ENERGY AUDIT ARE THREE SOFTWARE AVAILABLE FROM
RETROFICIENCY
Website:
Features: The software transforms building assessment and audit from a static
Virtual Energy Assessment prioritizes buildings by

Automated Energy
Audit software enables users develop comprehensive, accurate energy audits and generates reports.
Cost: Free demo and cost available on request.
Website: http://www.pipeinsulation.org/
Features: 3E Plus is helpful in deciding economic thickness of insulation over pipes of different
diameters. Some key features are the following:
1. Determines economic thickness of insulations based on return on investment for chosen
fuel cost, installed cost, tax rates, maintenance, etc.
2. Calculates the amount of insulation needed for personnel protection for various design
conditions.
3. Calculates the thickness of insulation needed for condensation control.
4. Calculates greenhouse-gas emissions and reductions.
5. Determines surface temperature and heat loss/gain calculations of individual insulation
thicknesses up to 10 inches (250 mm).
6. Solves for outside insulated surface temperatures for all types of insulation applications at
pipe sizes from 1/2≤ to 48≤ (15–1200 mm).

9. Calculates heat loss/gain and outside insulated surface temperatures for any insulation
material provided the thermal conductivity, associated mean temperatures, and temperature
limit are entered by the user.
Free download available: Freeware
Website:
Features: PUMP-FLO helps size and select pumps from more than 80 suppliers. It offers quotations,
lead generation, pricing, and overall sales processes from worldwide leaders of pumps like Sulzur,
Goulds, Gorman-Rupp, Patterson, Crane, etc.
Cost (if any): Available on request
� 17.8 NAME OF SOFTWARE: ECO2.0 TO CALCULATE ENERGY SAVING DUE TO VARIABLE

SPEED DRIVE INSTEAD OF CONVENTIONAL DRIVES
Website: http://www.schneider-electric.com/
software/7589-eco20/
Features: ECO2.0 estimates energy saving on HVAC pumps and fan-motor applications up to 2.4
MW. It suggests alternative variable-speed-drive solutions instead of standard mechanical solutions.
Cost: Freeware
� 17.9 NAME OF SOFTWARE: HONEYWELL VFD, ENERGY-SAVING AND PAYBACK

CALCULATOR
Website: https://customer.honeywell.com/en-us/support/commercial/se/vfde/Pages/default.aspx
Features: Honeywell calculates the energy saving and payback period based on application demand
schedule and variable-frequency-drive horsepower. It is in an Excel worksheet form.
Cost: Freeware
� 17.10 NAME OF SOFTWARE: MOST—MOTOR SELECTION TOOL
Website: http://oee.nrcan.gc.ca/industrial/equipment/software/
Features: With CanMOST, the following calculations are made:
1. Compute the energy demand and savings associated with the purchase of a new energy-
2. Predict expected energy and cost savings from replacing a failed or operable standard-
point and annual operating hours.
Cost: Freeware/Registration is required to download the software.
� 17.11 NAME OF SOFTWARE: +
Website: https://www1.eere.energy.gov/manufacturing/tech_assistance/software_motormaster.
html
Features: MotorMaster+ is a software by NEMA (National Electrical Manufacturers Association)
List of motors and motor suppliers

Analysis of repair vs. replace cost
Technical data to help optimize drive system
Energy accounting, conservation, savings tracking, and greenhouse-gas-emission reduction

reports
Cost: Freeware
The following section includes some data sheets for conducting energy audits of different systems
or premises.
Sheet 17.1 Boiler-plant assessment
Date Type of insulation Leakage of steam General working condition
Repaired when required

Preventive maintenance
Makeup water meter
Economizer control
Automatic controls
Standard operating
Flange Insulated
Enrgy recovery
Steam meters
Many Leaks
Total points
Some Leaks
Fuel meter
procedure
No Leaks
Average
Good
Boiler number/
Poor
location
Points 2 1 0 2 2 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 3 2
Maximum points 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 2
Boiler 1
Boiler 2
Boiler 3
Total points
Rating of boiler plant = (100*Total points)/(Number of boilers* Maximum score)
Scorecard:
Score Action required

0-20 Immediate
20-40 Urgent
40-60 Corrective
60-80 Potential for energy saving
80 to 100 No action
Sheet 17.2 Sample boiler-plant assessment
Date 13/12/2013 Type of insulation Leakage of steam General working condition

Repaired when required
Makeup water meter
Economizer control
Automatic controls
Standard operating
Flange Insulated
Enrgy recovery
Steam meters
Many Leaks
Total points
Some Leaks
Fuel meter
procedure
No Leaks
Average
Good
Boiler number/
Poor
location
Points 2 1 0 2 2 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 3 2
Maximum points 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 2 17
(Contd.)
Date 13/12/2013 Type of insulation Leakage of steam General working condition

Boiler 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 3 2 14
Boiler 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 2 12
Boiler 3 0 0 2 2
Total points 28
Rating of boiler plant = (100*28)/(3*17) = 55 Action required : Potential for energy saving
Sheet 17.3 Lighting-system assessment
Date Details of Illumination

Excessive Illumination
Incandescent lighting
Proper Illumination
Fluorescent lighting
Luminaries clean
Luminaries dirty
Reflectors clean
Reflectors dirty
Manual Switch
Motion sensor
Total points
Rating
Area/Points 0 1 2 l 0 1 1 0 1 0 %
Maximum points 1 2 1 1 1 0 100
Area 1
Area 2
Area 3
Total points and overall rating =
Sheet 17.4 Sample lighting-system assessment
Date 14/12/2013 Details of Illumination

Excessive Illumination
Incandescent lighting
Proper Illumination
Fluorescent lighting
Luminaries clean
Luminaries dirty
Reflectors clean
Reflectors dirty
Manual Switch
Motion sensor
Total points
Rating
Area/Points 0 1 2 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 %
Maximum points 1 2 1 1 1 6 100
Shop floor 1 2 1 0 0 4 66.7
Office 0 2 1 1 0 4 66.7
Parking 1 1 0 0 0 2 33.3
Total points and overall rating = 10 67
Sheet 17.5 Sample cooling system
Date Type of insulation General working condition
Preventive measurement
Enthalpy control used

Power meter installed
Insulation condtion
Insulation condtion
Insulation condtion
Stadard Procedure
Flange Insulated
Outside air used

Energy recovery
Fix as required
Total points
followed
average
good
Location Poor
Points 2 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 3 2 1
Maximum points 2 1 1 1 1 3 2 1 12
Sheet 17.6 Sample ducting and cool-air distribution system
Date Type of insulation General working condition

Preventive measurement
Constant conditioning
Condition as required
Zone control average

Insulation condtion
Insulation condtion
Insulation condtion
Zone control good
Zone control poor

Stadard operation
Flange Insulated
Control average
Fix as required
Control good
Control poor
Total points
procedure
average
good
Poor
location
Points 2 1 0 2 1 2 1 0 1 0 1 0 2 1 0
Maximum 2 2 1 2 1 1 2 11
Criteria for Evaluation

Insulation condition good Insulation not breaked or missing, not wet or cracked
Insulation condition average Small section breaked or missing, not wet or cracekd
Insulation condition poor Section of insulation missing, broken, wet or crackex
Zone cotrol Certain area of the building can be cotrolled
Cotrol good Able to maintain rooom temperature near to thermostat setting
name
Points
Plant or
building
Date
Sheet 17.8
Sheet 17.7
Maximum
Points
Date
Maximum
2
2
Good insulation condition
2
2
Insulation
1
Average insulation condition Recording ammeter
1
1
Recording hourly usage pattern
0
Poor insulation condition
Hot-water distribution sheet

1
1
Coordination with power company
1
1
No leaks
Power-demand management sheet
Installation of peak power demand
1
1
alarm
0
Faucet leaks
1
1
Manage peak power demand
1
1
Following standard procedure
1
1
Following standard procedure
1
1
1
1
General working condition
0
Fix as required
0
Fix as required
General working condition
1
1
2
2
Supply water temp below 60 °C Maintaining more than 0.9 pf
Supply water temperature

10
2
2
Total points
regulated as per requirement
Computer Software and Formats for Energy Audit
8
Total points
369
370
name
Points
July
May
June
Plant or
April
building
March
Date
Sheet 17.9
August
Maximum
January
October
Sheet 17.10
February
Month
December
November
September
1
1
Total consumption
No leaks
KWh
0
Some leaks
1
1
kVA Compressor sized property
Total area of building/ plant in m2 =

Energy consumption and EPI
PF Run additional compressor on
1
1
Compressed-air assessment sheet
demand
kW
1
1 Following standard procedure
1
1
Energy charges Preventive maintenance

0
Fix as required
Demand charges
General working conditions
1
1
Supply pleasure minimized

Total cost
Air quality maintained as per
1
1
requirements
Actual EPI (Energy
perfomance index) Control preventive below off in
1
1
BEE recomended EPI case of centrifugal compressor

(Energy perfomance)
8
Total points
Total energy consumption (kWh)

EPI Energy Performance Index =
Area of the building or plant (m 2 )
Sheet 17.11 Details of transformers and motors
Location of Transformer Transformer 1 Transformer 2 Transformers 3

Make
Rated kVA
High side voltage
Low side voltage
Frequency
Type of cooling
Year of installation
Maintenance status
Remark
Location of motor
Power factor
drawn kW
Current
Voltage
Power
Motor at chilled water pump 1
Motor at condenser pump 1
Motor of cooling tower 1
Motor of cooling tower 2
Motor at AHU
Other motor 1
Other motor 2
Remark
Sheet 17.12 Details of transformers and motors
Actual flow (CFM)

Rated flow (CFM)
Actual head (m)

Rated head (m)
Efficiency (%)
Actual (kW)
Rated (KW)
Location of pump
Chiller pump 1
Chiller pump 2
Chiller pump 3
Condenser pump 1
Condenser pump 2
Condenser pump 3
Cooling tower pump 1
Cooling tower pump 2
Other pump 1
Other pump 2
Sheet 17.13 Details lighting and lighting levels
Annual lighting consumption

Recomended lighting level (lux)
Load (kW)
Deficiency or excess lighting
Average lighting level (lux)
Month
Name or type of building
Type of luminaries
Number of lamp
January
Total load (W)
Type of lamp
February
Area (m2)
Sr. No.
March
Floor
Area
April
1 May
June
2
July
3
August
4 September
5 October
6 November
December
7
Total area of building =
8 Total consumption =
Annexure
Electricity Act
I
MINISTRY OF LAW, JUSTICE AND COMPANY AFFAIRS
(Legislative Department)
New Delhi, the 1st October, 2001/Asvina 9, 1923 (Saka)
The following Act of Parliament received the assent of the President on the
29th September, 2001, and is hereby published for general information:--
THE ENERGY CONSERVATION ACT, 2001

No 52 of 2001
[29th September 2001]
matters connected therewith or incidental thereto.

Be it enacted by Parliament in the Fifty second Year of the Republic of India as follows:—
CHAPTER I
Preliminary
Short title, 1. (1) This Act may be called the Energy Conservation Act, 2001.
extent and (2) It extends to the whole of India except the state of Jammu and
commencement
Kashmir
(3) It shall come into force on such dates as the Central Government
dates may be appointed for different provisions of this Act and any
reference in any such provision to the commencement of this Act
shall be construed as a reference to the coming into force of that
provision.
2. In this Act, unless the context otherwise requires: —
(b) “ Appellate Tribunal” means Appellate Tribunal for Energy

(c) “building” means any structure or erection or part of a structure

or erection, after the rules relating to energy conservation building
(f) “designated agency” means any agency designated under clause (d)
(h) “energy” means any form of energy derived from fossil fuels, nuclear
substances or materials, hydro-electricity and includes electrical
energy or electricity generated from renewable sources of energy or
use of energy including submission of technical report containing
(j) “energy conservation building codes” means the norms and standards
of energy consumption expressed in terms of per square meter of the
21 of 1860 (l) “Energy Management Centre” means the Energy Management

Centre set up under the Resolution of the Government of India in the
erstwhile Ministry of Energy, Department of Power No. 7(2)/87-EP
(n) “ Governing Council” means the Governing Council referred to in
(o) “member” means the member of the Governing Council and includes
Annexure I : Electricity Act 375
14 of 1998 (t) “State Commission” means the State Electricity Regulatory

Commission established under sub-section (l) of section 17 of the
Electricity Regulatory Commissions Act,
9 of 1940
54 of 1948 in the Indian Electricity Act, 1910 or the Electricity (Supply) Act,
14 of 1998 1948 or the Electricity Regulatory Commissions Act, 1998 shall have
meanings respectively assigned to them in those Acts.
CHAPTER II
Bureau of Energy Efficiency
3. (1) With effect from such date as the Central Government may, by
incorporation of
appoint, there shall be established, for the purposes
Bureau of Energy
(2) The Bureau shall be a body corporate by the name aforesaid having
perpetual succession and a common seal, with power subject to the
provisions of this Act, to acquire, hold and dispose of property, both
movable and immovable, and to contract, and shall, by the said name,
sue or be sued.
Management of 4. (1) The general superintendence, direction and management of the

Bureau affairs of the Bureau shall vest in the Governing Council which
shall consists of not less than twenty, but not exceeding twenty-six
members to be appointed by the Central Government.
(2) The Governing Council shall consist of the following members,
namely:-
(a) the Minister in charge of the Ministry or Department of
the Central Government dealing with the Power Chairperson
(b) the Secretary to the Government of India, in charge of
the Ministry or Department of the Central Government member
dealing with the Power
(c) the Secretary to the Government of India, in charge of

dealing with the Petroleum and Natural Gas
(d) the Secretary to the Government of India, in charge of
dealing with the Coal
(e) the Secretary to the Government of India, in charge of
dealing with the Non-conventional Energy Sources
(f) the Secretary to the Government of India, in charge of
dealing with the Atomic Energy
(g) the Secretary to the Government of India, in charge of
dealing with the Consumer Affairs
54 of 1948 (h) Chairman of the Central Electricity Authority established
under the Electricity (Supply) Act, 1948 member
Karnataka Act (i) Director-General of the Central Power Research Institute
17 of 1960
member
XXI of 1860 (j) Executive Director of the Petroleum Conservation
Research Association, a society registered under the member
1 of 1956 ( Chairman-cum-Managing Director of the Central Mine

Planning and Design Institute Limited, a company member
63 of 1986 (l) Director-General of the Bureau of Indian Standards

established under the Bureau of Indian Standards Act, member
(m) Director-General of the National Test House, Department

member
1 of 1956 (n) Managing Director of the Indian Renewable Energy
Development Agency Limited, a company incorporated member
(o) members;
the States of the region to be appointed by the Central
Government
(p) such number of persons, not exceeding four as may be members
prescribed, to be appointed by the Central Government as
members from amongst persons who are in the opinion of
the Central Government capable of representing industry,
equipment and appliance manufacturers, architects and
consumers
(q) such number of persons, not exceeding two as may be members

nominated by the Governing Council as members
(r) Director-General of Bureau
member
– secretary;
(3) The Governing Council may exercise all powers and do all acts and
things which may be exercised or done by the Bureau.
(4) Every member referred to in clause (o), (p) and (q) of sub-section (2)
up of vacancies and the procedure to be followed in the discharge of

their functions shall be such as may be prescribed.
Governing Council shall observe such rules of procedure in regard to the transaction of
business as its meetings (including quorum of such meetings) as may
be provided by regulations.
(2) The Chairperson or, if for any reason, he is unable to attend a meeting
Governing Council
of the Governing Council, any other member chosen by the members
present from amongst themselves at the meeting shall preside at the
meeting.
(3) All questions which come up before any meeting of the Governing
Council shall be decided by a majority vote of the members present
and voting, and in the event of an equality of votes, the Chairperson
or his absence, the person presiding, shall have second or casting
vote.
not to invalidate Committee shall be invalid merely by reason of –

Bureau, Governing (a) any vacancy in, or any defect in the constitution of, the Bureau or the
Council or
Committee
(b) any defect in the appointment of a person acting as a Director-General
or Secretary of the Bureau or a member of the Governing Council or
(c) any irregularity in the procedure of the Bureau or the Governing

Council or the Committee not affecting the merits of the case.
Removal of 7. The Central Government shall remove a member referred to in clause (o),
(c) has been convicted of an offence which, in the opinion of the Central
(d) has, in the opinion of the Central Government, so abused his position
interest:
Provided that no member shall be removed under this clause
unless he has been given a reasonable opportunity of being heard in
the matter.
8. (1) Subject to any regulations made in this behalf, the Bureau shall, within
six months from the date of commencement of this Act, constitute
(2) Each Advisory Committee shall consist of a Chairperson and such

other members as may be determined by regulations.
Bureau may constitute, such number of technical committees of

experts for the formulation of energy consumption standards or
norms in respect of equipment or processes, as it considers necessary.
Director-General of
Bureau General from amongst persons of ability and standing, having
relating to energy production, supply and energy management
as Secretary of the Bureau
of sixty years, whichever is earlier

(4) The salary and allowances payable to the Director-General and other
terms and conditions of his service and other terms and conditions
of service of the Secretary of the Bureau shall be such as may be
prescribed
affairs by the Governing Council, the Director-General of the Bureau

shall be the Chief Executive Authority of the Bureau
powers and duties of the Bureau as may be determined by regulations
Bureau
discharge of its functions under this Act.
of the Bureau appointed under sub-section (1) shall be such as may

be prescribed.
Authentication 11. All orders and decisions of the Bureau shall be authenticated by the
Bureau
authorised by the Director-General in this behalf.
CHAPTER III
Transfer of Assets, Liabilities etc, of Energy
Management Centre to Bureau
(a) any reference to the Energy Management Centre in any law
of Energy other than this Act or in any contract or other instrument shall be
Management
Centre
(b) all properties and assets, movable and immovable of, or
belonging to, the Energy Management Centre shall vest in the
(c) all the rights and liabilities of the Energy Management Centre
shall be transferred to, and be the right and liabilities of, the
(d) without prejudice to the provisions of clause (c), all debts,

obligations and liabilities incurred, all contracts entered into and
all matters and things engaged to be done by, with or for the
Energy Management Centre immediately before that date for
or in connection with the purposes of the said Centre shall be
deemed to have been incurred, entered into, or engaged to be
(e) all sums of money due to the Energy Management Centre

immediately before that date shall be deemed to be due to the
(f) all suits and other legal proceedings instituted or which could
have been instituted by or against the Energy Management
Centre immediately before that date may be continued or may be
Management Centre immediately before that date shall hold
terms and conditions of service as respects remuneration, leave,
shall continue to do so as an employee of the Bureau or until the

expiry of six months from the date if such employee opts not to
be the employee of the Bureau within such period.
(2) Not withstanding anything contained in the Industrial Disputes Act,
14 of 1947
1947 or in any other law for the time being in force, the absorption of
any employees by the Bureau in its regular service under this section
shall not entitle such employees to any compensation under that Act
or other law and no such claim shall be entertained by any court,
tribunal or other authority.
CHAPTER IV
Powers and Functions of Bureau
13. (1) The Bureau shall, effectively co-ordinate with designated consumers,
designated agencies and other agencies, recognise and utilise the existing
resources and infrastructure, in performing the functions assigned to it by
or under this Act
(2) The Bureau may perform such functions and exercise such powers
as may be assigned to it by or under this Act and in particular, such
functions and powers include the function and power to -
(a) recommend to the Central Government the norms for processes
(b) recommend to the Central Government the particulars required

tobe displayed on label on equipment or on appliances and
(c) recommend to the Central Government for notifying any user or

class of users of energy as a designated consumer under clause
(j) formulate and facilitate implementation of pilot projects and
(n) levy fee, as may be determined by regulations, for services
(q) specify, by regulations, the manner and intervals of time in which
conservation for educational institutions, boards, universities or

autonomous bodies and coordinate with them for inclusion of
(t) implement international co-operation programmes relating to
(u) perform such other functions as may be prescribed.

CHAPTER V
Power of Central Government to Facilitate
and Enforce Efficient use of Energy and its
Conservation
Power of Central
Government to Bureau, —
(a) specify the norms for processes and energy consumption standards
for any equipment, appliances which consumes, generates, transmits
(b) specify equipment or appliance or class of equipments or appliances,
(c) prohibit manufacture or sale or purchase or import of equipment
purchase or import or equipment or appliance shall be issued within
(d) direct display of such particulars on label on equipment or on
(e) specify, having regarding to the intensity or quantity of energy

consumed and the amount of investment required for switching over
required by the industry, any user or class of users of energy as a
(g) establish and prescribe such energy consumption norms and standards
for designated consumers as it may consider necessary:
Provided that the Central Government may prescribe different
norms and standards for different designated consumers having
(h) direct, having regard to quantity of energy consumed or the norms

audit conducted by an accredited energy auditor in such manner and
conservation, any designated consumer to get energy audit conducted
(j) specify the matters to be included for the purposes of inspection
such form and manner and within such period, as may be prescribed,
(l) direct any designated consumer to designate or appoint energy manger
and submit a report, in the form and manner as may be prescribed,
(n) direct every designated consumer to comply with energy consumption
consumption norms and standards prescribed under clause (g), to
(q) amend the energy conservation building codes to suit the regional
(r) direct every owner or occupier of the building or building complex,

being a designated consumer to comply with the provisions of
(s) direct, any designated consumer referred to in clause (r), if considered
building to get energy audit conducted in respect of such building by

an accredited energy auditor in such manner and intervals of time as
(u) arrange and organise training of personnel and specialists in the
Provided that the powers under clauses (p) and (s) shall be
exercised in consultation with the concerned State.
CHAPTER VI
Power of State Government to Facilitate
and Enforce Efficient use of Energy and its
Conservation
Power of State
Government to Bureau –
enforce certain
(a) amend the energy conservation building codes to suit the regional
and local climatic conditions and may, by rules made by it, specify
and notify energy conservation building codes with respect to use of
(b) direct every owner or occupier of a building or building complex

being a designated consumer to comply with the provisions of the
conservation, any designated consumer referred to in clause (b)

to get energy audit conducted by an accredited energy auditor in
(d) designate any agency as designated agency to coordinate, regulate
(f) arrange and organise training of personnel and specialists in the
(h) direct, any designated consumer to furnish to the designated agency,

by rules made by it, information with regard to the energy consumed
(i) specify the matters to be included for the purposes of inspection
of Fund by State
Government
use of energy and its conservation within the State.
(2) To the Fund shall be credited all grants and loans that may be made
by the State Government or, Central Government or any other
(3) The Fund shall be applied for meeting the expenses incurred for
implementing the provisions of this Act.
(4) The Fund created under sub-section (l) shall be administered by such
the rules made by the State Government.

Power of
from the date of commencement of this Act, as many inspecting
section 14 or ensure display of particulars on label on equipment or
of performing such other functions as may be assigned to them.
have power to -
(a) inspect any operation carried on or in connection with the
14 or in respect of which energy standards under clause (a) of
(b) enter any place of designated consumer at which the energy is

used for any activity and may require any proprietor, employee,
director, manager or secretary or any other person who may be
attending in any manner to or helping in, carrying on any activity
with the help of energy -
(i) to afford him necessary facility to inspect –
(A) any equipment or appliance as he may require and
(B) any production process to ascertain the energy

(iii) to record the statement of any person which may be useful for,
under this Act.
open for production or conduct of business connected therewith.
remove or cause to be removed from the place wherein he has entered,
Power of Central 18. The Central Government or the State Government may, in the exercise of
Government or
State Government
use of energy and its conservation, issue such directions in writing as it
designated consumer shall be bound to comply with such directions.

Explanation – For the avoidance of doubts, it is hereby declared that
the power to issue directions under this section includes the power to
direct –
(a) regulation of norms for process and energy consumption
(b) regulation of the energy consumption standards for equipment

and appliances.
CHAPTER VII
Finance, Account s and Audit of Bureau
19. The Central Government may, after due appropriation made by Parliament
Government
grants and loans of such sums or money as the Central Government may
consider necessary.
20. (1) There shall be constituted a Fund to be called as the Central Energy
Fund by Central
Conservation Fund and there shall be credited thereto –
Government
(a) any grants and loans made to the Bureau by the Central
(c) all sums received by the Bureau from such other sources as may
be decided upon by the Central Government.
(2) The Fund shall be applied for meeting –

(a) the salary, allowances and other remuneration of Director-
(b) expenses of the Bureau in the discharge of its functions under
(c) fee and allowances to be paid to the members of the Governing
(d) expenses on objects and for purposes authorised by this Act

21. (1) The Bureau may, with the consent of the Central Government or in
of Bureau accordance with the terms of any general or special authority given
to it by the Central Government borrow money from any source as it
with respect to the loans borrowed by the Bureau under sub-section

(l).
Budget
the estimated receipts and expenditure of the Bureau and forward the
same to the Central Government.
Annual report
year as may be prescribed, its annual report, giving full account of its
the Central Government.

Annual report 24. The Central Government shall cause the annual report referred to in
tobe laid before section 23 to be laid, as soon as may be after it is received, before each
Parliament
House of Parliament.
and prepare an annual statement of accounts in such form as may

be prescribed by the Central Government in consultation with the
Comptroller and Auditor-General of India.
(2) The accounts of the Bureau shall be audited by the Comptroller and
and any expenditure incurred in connection with such audit shall be

payable by the Bureau to the Comptroller and Auditor-General.
(3) The Comptroller and Auditor-General of India and any other person
appointed by him in connection with the audit of the accounts of the
Bureau shall have the same rights and privileges and authority in
connection with such audit as the Comptroller and Auditor-General
generally has in connection with the audit of the Government accounts
and in particular, shall have the right to demand the production of
Auditor-General of India or any other person appointed by him in this

behalf together with the audit report thereon shall forward annually
to the Central Government and that Government shall cause the same
to be laid before each House of Parliament.
CHAPTER VIII
Penalties and Adjudication
Penalty
clause (n) or clause (r) or clause (s) of section 14 or clause (b) or
which shall not exceed ten thousand rupees for each such failures
and, in the case of continuing failures, with an additional penalty
which may extend to one thousand rupees for every day during which
such failures continues:
years from the date of commencement of this Act.

(2) Any amount payable under this section, if not paid, may be recovered
as if it were an arrear of land revenue.
Power to
adjudicate
holding an inquiry in such manner as may be prescribed by the

Central Government, after giving any person concerned a reasonable
opportunity of being heard for the purpose of imposing any penalty.
summon and enforce the attendance of any person acquainted with

the facts and circumstances of the case of give evidence or produce
be useful for or relevant to the subject-matter of the inquiry, and if,
with the provisions of any of those clauses of that section:

Provided that where a State Commission has not been established
State Commission on its establishment in that State:
all matters being adjudicated by him and thereafter the adjudicating
penalties on such matters.
into account by
namely:–
(a) the amount of disproportionate gain or unfair advantage, wherever
(b) the repetitive nature of the default.

Civil court not to 29. No civil court shall have jurisdiction to entertain any suit or proceeding
in respect of any
this Act or the Appellate Tribunal is empowered by or under this Act
to determine and no injunction shall be granted by any court or other
power conferred by or under this Act.
CHAPTER IX
Appellate Tribunal for Energy Conservation
Appellate Tribunal
Government or the State Government or any other authority under this

Act.
Appeal to Appellate
Tribunal or the Central Government or the State Government or any other
authority under this Act, may prefer an appeal to the Appellate
Tribunal for Energy Conservation:
Provided that any person appealing against the order of the
deposit the amount of such penalty:

Provided further that where in any particular case, the Appellate
Tribunal is of the opinion that the deposit of such penalty would
cause undue hardship to such person, the Appellate Tribunal may
dispense with such deposit subject to such conditions as it may deem
Government or any other authority is received by the aggrieved
accompanies by such fee as may be prescribed

Provided that the Appellate Tribunal may entertain an appeal after
may, after giving the parties to the appeal an opportunity of being
or setting aside the order appealed against

(4) The Appellate Tribunal shall send a copy of every order made by it
or the Central Government or the State Government or any other

authority.
shall be dealt with by it as expeditiously as possible and endeavour
and eighty days from the date of receipt of the appeal:

Provided that where an appeal could not be disposed of within the
said period of one hundred and eighty days, the Appellate Tribunal
shall record its reasons in writing for not disposing of the appeal
within the said period.
propriety or correctness of any order made by the adjudicating
other authority under this Act, as the case may be in relation to any
proceeding, on its own motion or otherwise, call for the records of
32. (1) The Appellate Tribunal shall consist of a Chairperson and such
Appellate Tribunal number of Members not exceeding four, as the Central Government
(2) Subject to the provisions of this Act, -

(a) the jurisdiction of the Appellate Tribunal maybe exercised by
(b) a Bench may be constituted by the Chairperson of the Appellate

Tribunal with two or more Members of the Appellate Tribunal as
Provided that every Bench constituted under this clause shall
(c) The Benches of the Appellate Tribunal shall ordinarily sit at

Delhi and such other places as the Central Government may,
in consultation with the Chairperson of the Appellate Tribunal,
(d) The Central Government shall notify the areas in relation to

which each Bench of the Appellate Tribunal may exercise
jurisdiction,
(3) Notwithstanding anything contained in sub-section (2), the
Chairperson of the Appellate Tribunal may transfer a Member of the
Appellate Tribunal from one Bench to another Bench
Explanation – For the purposes of this Chapter, –
(i) “Judicial Member” means a Member of the Appellate Tribunal
appointed as such under item (i) or item (ii) or clause (b) of sub-
section (1) of section 33, and includes the Chairperson of the
(ii) “Technical Member” means a Member of the Appellate Tribunal

appointed as such under item (iii) or item (iv) or item (v) or item
(vi) of clause (b) of sub-section (l) of section 33
for appointment the Appellate Tribunal or a Member of the Appellate Tribunal unless
he -
Appellate Tribunal (a) in the case of Chairperson of the Appellate Tribunal, is or has
been, a judge of the Supreme Court or the Chief Justice of a High
(b) in the case of a Member of the Appellate Tribunal,–
or
(ii) is, or has been, a Member of the Indian Legal Service and
has held a post in Grade I in that service for atleast three
(iii) is, or has been, a Secretary for at least one year in Ministry
or Department or the Central Government dealing with the
Power, or Coal, or Petroleum and Natural Gas, or Atomic
(iv) is, or has been Chairman of the Central Electricity Authority
(v) is, or has been, Director-General of Bureau or Director-

General of the Central Power Research Institute or Bureau
of Indian Standards for atleast three years or has held any
dealing with the matters relating to energy production and
use of energy and its conservation, and has shown capacity
commerce, economics, law or management

34. The Chairperson of the Appellate Tribunal and every Member of the
Provided that no Chairperson of the Appellate Tribunal or Member of
(a) in the case of the Chairperson of the Appellate Tribunal, the age of
(b) in the case of any Member of the Appellate Tribunal, the age of sixty-
of service of the Chairperson of the Appellate Tribunal, Members of the

Appellate Tribunal shall be such as may be prescribed:
Provided that neither the salary and allowances nor the other terms
and conditions of service of the Chairperson of the Appellate Tribunal or
a Member of the Appellate Tribunal shall be varied to his disadvantage
after appointment.
Appellate Tribunal, the Central Government shall appoint another person
proceedings may be continued before the Appellate Tribunal from the

37. (1) The Chairperson or a Member of the Appellate Tribunal may, by

removal notice in writing under his hand addressed to the Central Government,
Provided that the Chairperson of the Appellate Tribunal or a

Member of the Appellate Tribunal shall, unless he is permitted by
of such notice or until a person duly appointed as his successor enters
earliest.
(2) The Chairperson of the Appellate Tribunal or a Member of the
by an order by the Central Government on the ground of proved

misbehaviour or incapacity after an inquiry made by such persons as
the President may appoint for this purpose in which the Chairperson
or a Member of the Appellate Tribunal concerned has been informed
of the charges against him and given a reasonable opportunity of
being heard in respect of such charges.
Member to act
Chairperson of the Appellate Tribunal by reason of his death,
in certain
resignation or otherwise, the senior-most member of the Appellate
Tribunal shall act as the Chairperson of the Appellate Tribunal until
the date on which a new Chairperson appointed in accordance with
his functions owing to his absence, illness or any other cause, the
senior most Member of the Appellate Tribunal shall discharge the
functions of the Chairperson of the Appellate Tribunal until the date
on which the Chairperson of the Appellate Tribunal resumes his
duties.
Staff of Appellate 39. (1) The Central Government shall provide the Appellate Tribunal with
Tribunal
their functions under the general superintendence of the Chairperson

of the Appellate Tribunal as the case may be.
(3) The salaries and allowances and other conditions of service of the
may be prescribed.
5 of 1908 40. (1) The Appellate Tribunal shall not be bound by the procedure laid
down by the Code of civil Procedure, 1908 but shall be guided by
Procedure the principles of natural justice and subject to the other provisions of
Appellate Tribunal
this Act, the Appellate Tribunal shall have powers to regulate it own
procedure.
(2) The Appellate Tribunal shall have, for the purposes of discharging its
5 of 1908 functions under this Act, the same powers as are vested in the civil
court under the Code of Civil Procedure 1908, while trying to suit in
respect of the following matters, namely:-
(a) summoning and enforcing the attendance of any person and
1 of 1972 (d) subject to the provisions of section 123 and 124 of the Indian
Evidence Act, 1872, requisitioning any public record or
(e) issuing commissions for the examination of witnesses or
(h) setting aside any order of dismissal or any representation for
(i) any other matter which may be prescribed by the Central

Government.
(3) An order made by the Appellate Tribunal under this Act shall be
executable by the Appellate Tribunal as a decree of civil court and,
for this purpose, the Appellate Tribunal shall have all the powers of a
civil court.
(4) Not withstanding anything contained in sub-section (3), the Appellate
Tribunal may transmit any order made by it to a civil court having
local jurisdiction and such civil court shall execute the order as if it
were a decree made by the that court.
45 of 1860
judicial proceedings within the meaning of sections 193 and 228 of
2 of 1974 the Indian Penal Code and the Appellate Tribunal shall be deemed to
Criminal Procedure, 1973.

the distribution of the business of the Appellate Tribunal amongst the

Benches and also provide for the matters which may be dealt with by
each Bench.
Power of
after hearing such of them as he may desire to be heard, or on his own
motion without such notice, the Chairperson of the Appellate Tribunal
may transfer any case pending before one Bench for disposal, to any
other Bench.
43. If the Members of the Appellate Tribunal of a Bench consisting of two
majority Members differ in opinion on any point, they shall state the point or
the Appellate Tribunal who shall either hear the point or points himself
or refer the case for hearing on such point or points by one or more of the
other Members of the Appellate Tribunal and such point or points shall
be decided according to the opinion of the majority of the Members of
heard it.
Right to appellant 44. (1) A person preferring an appeal to the Appellate Tribunal under this Act
may either
of legal practitioner
or an accredited energy auditor of his choice to present his case
or accredited
auditor and of before the Appellate Tribunal, as the case may be.
Government to (2) The Central Government or the State Government may authorise one
or more legal
respect to any appeal before the Appellate Tribunal as the case may
be.
Appeal to Supreme
Court
of communication of the decision or order of the Appellate Tribunal to
5 of 1908
Code of Civil Procedure, 1908:
sixty days.
CHAPTER X
Miscellaneous
Power of Central
Government to shall, in exercise of its powers or the performance of its functions
Bureau under this Act, be bound by such directions on questions of policy as
the Central Government may give in writing to it from time to time:
Provided that the Bureau shall, as far as practicable, be given an
opportunity to express his views before any direction is given under
this sub-section.
(2) The decision of the Central Government, whether a question is one of
Power of Central 47. (1) If at any time the Central Government is of opinion –
Government to
(a) that on account of grave emergency, the Bureau is unable to
discharge the functions and duties imposed on it by or under the
(b) that the Bureau has persistently made default in complying with
any direction issued by the Central Government under this Act
or in discharge of the functions and duties imposed on it by or
under the provisions of this Act and as a result of such default,
(c) that circumstances exist which render it necessary in the public
supersede the Bureau for such period, not exceeding six months,
superseding the Bureau -

(a) all the members referred to in clauses (o), (p) and (q) of sub-
section (2) of section 4 shall, as from the date of supersession,
(b) all the powers, functions and duties which may, by or under
the provisions of this Act, be exercised or discharged by or on
behalf of the Bureau, shall until the Bureau is reconstituted under
sub-section (3), be exercised and discharged by such person or
(c) all property owned or controlled by the Bureau shall, until the
Bureau is reconstituted under sub-section (3), vest in the Central
Government.
may reconstitute the Bureau by a fresh appointment and in such case
Provided that the Central Government may, at any time, before
sub-section
section and the circumstances leading to such action to be laid

before each House of Parliament at the earliest.
Default by
clause (l) or clause (n) or clause (r) or clause (s) of section 14 or clause
time of such contravention was incharge of, and was responsible to

the company for the conduct of the business of the company, as well
as the company, shall be deemed to have acted in contravention of
the said provisions and shall be liable to be proceeded against and
Provided that nothing contained in this sub-section shall render any

such person liable for penalty provided in this Act if he proves that
the contravention of the aforesaid provisions was committed without
contravention of the aforesaid provision.

(2) Notwithstanding anything contained in sub-section (l), where any
contravention of the provisions of clause (c) or clause (d) or clause
or clause (s) of section 14 or clause (b) or clause (c) or clause (h) of
in attributable to, any neglect on the part of , any director, manager,
the said provisions and shall be liable to be proceeded for imposition

of penalty accordingly.
Explanation – For the purposes of this section, “company” means a
43 of 1961
other enactment for the time being in force relating to tax on income,
Exemption from tax
on income
(b) the existing Energy Management Centre from the date of its
constitution to the date of establishment of the Bureau, shall not be
liable to pay any income tax or any tax in respect of their income,
Protection of action
taken in good faith Government or Director-General or Secretary or State Government or
which is in good faith done or intended to be done under this Act or the
rules or regulations made thereunder.
Delegation
member, member of
such of its powers and functions under this Act (except the powers under
Power to obtain
information
information, and with such samples of any material or substance used in
relation to any equipment or appliance, as the Bureau may require.
Power to exempt
that it is necessary orexpedient so to do in the public interest, it may,
consumers from application of all or any of the provisions of this Act:

Provided that the Central Government or the State Government, as the
case may be, shall not grant exemption to any designated consumer or
Provided further that the Central Government or State Government,
granting such exemption.
Appellate Tribunal or
the members of the State Commission or the members, Director-General,
Appellate Tribunal,
when acting or purporting to act in pursuance of any of the provisions

General, Secretary, of the Act, to be public servants within the meaning of section 21 of the
Indian Penal Code. 45 of 1860
Power of Central
Government to the Bureau as to carrying out into execution of this Act in the State
Power of Central
Government to out the provisions of this Act.
(2) In particular, and without prejudice to the generality of the foregoing
power, such rules may provide for all or any of the following matters,
namely:-(a) such number of persons to be appointed as members by
the Central Government under clauses (o), (p) and (q) of sub-section
(b) the fee and allowances to be paid to the members under sub-
(c) the salary and allowances payable to the Director-General and

other terms and conditions of his service and other terms and
conditions of service of the Secretary of the Bureau under sub-
(e) performing such other functions by the Bureau, as may be
(f) the energy consumption norms and standards for designated
(g) prescribing the different norms and standards for different

designated consumers under the proviso to clause (g) of section
(h) the form and manner and the time within which information
recommendations of the accredited energy auditor be furnished
(i) the form and manner in which the status of energy consumption
(l) the energy conservation building codes under clause (p) of
(m) the matters relating to inspection under sub-section (2) of section

(n) the form in which, and the time at which, the Bureau shall prepare
(o) the form in which, and the time at which, the Bureau shall prepare
(p) the form in which the accounts of the Bureau shall be maintained
(q) the manner of holding inquiry under sub-section (l) of section
(s) the salary and allowances payable to and other terms and
conditions of service of the Chairperson of the Appellate Tribunal
(t) the salary and allowances and other conditions of service of the
(u) the additional matters in respect of which the Appellate Tribunal

may exercise the powers of a civil court under clause (i) of sub-
(v) any other matters which is to be, or may be, prescribed, or in

respect of which provision is to be made, or may be made by
rules.
Power of State
Government to out the provisions of this Act and not inconsistent with the rules, if
any, made by the Central Government.
power, such rules may provide for all or any of the following matters,
namely: -
(a) energy conservation building codes under clause (a) of section
(b) the form, the manner and the period within which information
with regard to energy consumption shall be furnished under
(c) the person or any authority who shall administer the Fund and
the manner in which the Fund shall be administered under sub-
(d) the matters to be included for the purposes of inspection under

sub-section (2) of section 17
(e) any other matter which is to be, or may be, prescribed, or in

respect of which provision is to be made, or may be made, by
rules.
Power of Bureau to
Government and subject to the condition of previous publication, by
this Act and the rules made thereunder to carry out the purposes of
this Act.
power, such regulations may provide for all or any of the following
matters, namely:-(a) the times and places of the meetings of the
Governing Council and the procedure to be followed at such meetings
(b) the members of advisory committees constituted under sub-
(c) the powers and duties that maybe exercised and discharged by
of energy and its conservation under clause (n) of sub-section (2)
(e) the list of accredited energy auditors under clause (o) of sub-
(g) the manner and the intervals or time in which the energy audit
shall be conducted under clause (q) of sub-section (2) of section
(i) particulars required to be displayed on label and the manner of
(j) the manner and the intervals of time for conduct of energy audit
9. (1) Every rule made by the Central Government and every regulation
made under this Act shall be laid, as soon as may be after it is made,
be laid before
Parliament and before each House of Parliament while it is in session, for a total
period of thirty days which may be comprised in one session or
in two or more successive session, and if, before the expiry of the
session immediately following the session or the successive sessions
or regulation, or both Houses agree that the rule or regulation should

not be made, the rule or regulation shall thereafter have effect only in
the validity of anything previously done under that rule or regulation.

(2) Every rule made by the State Government shall be laid, as soon as
may be after it is made, before each House of the State Legislature
where it consists of two Houses, or where such Legislature consists
of one House, before that House.
Application of other
the provisions of any other law for the time being in force.
not to apply in of the Central Government dealing with Defence, Atomic Energy or
institutions under the control of such Ministries or Departments as may
Power to remove
Provided that no such order shall be made under this section after
the expiry of two years from the date of commencement of this Act.
(2) Every order made under this section shall be laid, as soon as may be
after it is made, before each House of Parliament.
THE SCHEDULE
[See section 2 (s)]
List of Energy Intensive Industries and other

establishments specified as designated
consumers
14. Thermal Power Stations, hydel power stations, electricity transmission companies and
SUBHASH C.JAIN,
Secy. to the Govt. of India.
Annexure
Properties of Steam
II
Properties of Saturated Water and Steam (Temperature)
Temp. Pressure Volume, m3/kg Enthalpy, kJ/kg Entropy, kJ/(kg · K) Temp.

t (°C) MPa t (°C)
VL VV hL hV SL SV
0.01 0.0006117 0.0010002 20600 0.001 2500.9 0.0000 9.1555 0.01
5 0.0008726 0.0010001 14702 21.019 2510.1 0.0763 9.0249 5
10 0.001228 0.0010003 106.31 42.021 2519.2 0.1511 8.8998 10
15 0.001706 0.0010009 77.881 62.984 2528.4 0.2245 8.7804 15
20 0.002339 0.0010018 57.761 83.920 2537.5 0.2965 8.6661 20
25 0.003170 0.0010030 43.341 104.84 2546.5 0.3673 8.5568 25
30 0.004247 0.0010044 32.882 125.75 2555.6 0.4368 8.4521 30
35 0.005629 0.0010060 25.208 146.64 2564.6 0.5052 8.3518 35
40 0.007384 0.0010079 19.517 167.54 2573.5 0.5724 8.2557 40
45 0.009594 0.0010099 15.253 188.44 2582.5 0.6386 8.1634 45
50 0.012351 0.0010121 1.2028 209.34 2591.3 0.7038 8.0749 50
55 0.015761 0.0010145 9.5649 230.24 2600.1 0.7680 7.9899 55
60 0.019946 0.0010171 7.6677 251.15 2608.8 0.8312 7.9082 60
65 0.025041 0.0010199 6.1938 272.08 2617.5 0.8935 7.8296 65
70 0.031201 0.0010228 5.0397 293.02 2626.1 0.9550 7.7540 70
75 0.038595 0.0010258 4.1291 313.97 2634.6 1.0156 7.6812 75
80 0.047415 0.0010290 3.4053 334.95 2643.0 1.0754 7.6110 80
85 0.057867 0.0010324 2.8259 355.95 2651.3 1.1344 7.5434 85
90 0.070182 0.0010359 2.3591 376.97 2659.5 1.1927 7.4781 90
95 0.084609 0.0010396 1.9806 398.02 2667.6 1.2502 7.4150 95
(Contd.)
Annexure II : Properties of Steam 405

t (°C) MPa t (°C)
VL VV hL hV SL SV
100 0.10142 0.0010435 1.6719 419.10 2675.6 1.3070 7.3541 100
105 0.12090 0.0010474 1.4185 440.21 2683.4 1.3632 7.2951 105
110 0.14338 0.0010516 1.2094 461.36 2691.1 1.4187 7.2380 110
115 0.16918 0.0010559 1.0359 482.55 2698.6 1.4735 7.1827 115
120 0.19867 0.0010603 0.89130 503.78 2705.9 1.5278 7.1291 120
125 0.23222 0.0010649 0.77011 525.06 2713.1 1.5815 7.0770 125
130 0.27026 0.0010697 0.66808 546.39 2720.1 1.6346 7.0264 130
135 0.31320 0.0010747 0.58180 567.77 2726.9 1.6872 6.9772 135
140 0.36150 0.0010798 0.50852 589.20 2733.4 1.7393 6.9293 140
145 0.41563 0.0010850 0.44602 610.69 2739.8 1.7909 6.8826 145
150 0.47610 0.0010905 0.39250 632.25 2745.9 1.8420 6.8370 150
155 0.54342 0.0010962 0.34650 653.88 2751.8 1.8926 6.7926 155
160 0.61814 0.0011020 0.30682 675.57 2757.4 1.9428 6.7491 160
165 0.70082 0.0011080 0.27246 697.35 2762.8 1.9926 6.7066 165
170 0.79205 0.0011143 0.24262 719.21 2767.9 2.0419 6.6649 170
175 0.89245 0.0011207 0.21660 741.15 2772.7 2.0909 6.6241 175
180 1.0026 0.0011274 0.19386 763.19 2777.2 2.1395 6.5841 180
185 1.1233 0.0011343 0.17392 785.32 2781.4 2.1878 6.5447 185
190 1.2550 0.0011414 0.15638 807.57 2785.3 2.2358 6.5060 190
195 1.3986 0.0011488 0.14091 829.92 2788.9 2.2834 6.4679 195
200 1.5547 0.0011565 0.12722 852.39 2792.1 2.3308 6.4303 200
205 1.7240 0.0011645 0.11509 874.99 2794.9 2.3779 6.3932 205
210 1.9074 0.0011727 0.10430 897.73 2797.4 2.4248 6.3565 210
215 2.1055 0.0011813 0.094689 920.61 2799.4 2.4714 6.3202 215
220 2.3193 0.0011902 0.086101 943.64 2801.1 2.5178 6.2842 220
225 2.5494 0.001199 0.078411 966.84 2802.3 2.5641 6.2485 225
230 2.7968 0.001209 0.071510 990.21 2803.0 2.6102 6.2131 230
235 3.0622 0.001219 0.065304 1013.8 2803.3 2.6561 6.1777 235
240 3.3467 0.001229 0.059710 1037.5 2803.1 2.7019 6.1425 240
(Contd.)

t (°C) MPa t (°C)
VL VV hL hV SL SV
245 3.6509 0.001240 0.054658 1061.5 2802.3 2.7477 6.1074 245
250 3.9759 0.001252 0.050087 1085.7 2801.0 2.7934 6.0722 250
255 4.3227 0.001264 0.045941 1110.1 2799.1 2.8391 6.0370 255
260 4.6921 0.001276 0.042175 1134.8 2796.6 2.8847 6.0017 260
265 5.0851 0.001289 0.038748 1159.8 2793.5 2.9304 5.9662 265
270 5.5028 0.001303 0.035622 1185.1 2789.7 2.9762 5.9304 270
275 5.9463 0.001318 0.032767 1210.7 2785.1 3.0221 5.8943 275
280 6.4165 0.001333 0.030154 1236.7 2779.8 3.0681 5.8578 280
285 6.9145 0.001349 0.027758 1263.0 2773.7 3.1143 5.8208 285
290 7.4416 0.001366 0.025557 1289.8 2766.6 3.1608 5.7832 290
295 7.5990 0.001385 0.023531 1317.0 2758.6 3.2076 5.7449 295
300 8.5877 0.001404 0.021663 1344.8 2749.6 3.2547 5.7058 300
305 9.2092 0.001425 0.019937 1373.1 2739.4 3.3024 5.6656 305
310 9.8647 0.001448 0.018339 1402.0 2727.9 3.3506 5.6243 310
315 10.556 0.001472 0.016856 1431.6 2715.1 3.3994 5.5816 315
320 11.284 0.001499 0.015476 1462.1 2700.7 3.4491 5.5373 320
325 12.051 0.001528 0.014189 1493.4 2684.5 3.4997 5.4911 325
330 12.858 0.001561 0.012984 1525.7 2666.2 3.5516 5.4425 330
335 13.707 0.001597 0.011852 1559.3 2645.6 3.6048 5.3910 335
340 14.600 0001638 0.010784 1594.4 2622.1 3.6599 5.3359 340
345 15.540 0.001685 0.009770 1631.4 2595.0 3.7175 5.2763 345
350 16.529 0.001740 0.008801 1670.9 2563.6 3.7783 5.2109 350
355 17.570 0.001808 0.007866 1713.7 2526.4 3.8438 5.1377 355
360 18.666 0.001895 0.006945 17615 2481.0 3.9164 5.0527 360
365 19.822 0.002016 0.006004 1817.6 2422.0 4.0011 4.9482 365
370 21.043 0.002222 0.004946 1892.6 2333.5 4.1142 4.7996 370
TC 22.064 0.003106 0.003106 2087.5 2087.5 4.4120 4.4120 TC
TC = 373.946 °C
Properties of Saturated Water and Steam (Pressure)
Press. Temp. Volume, m3/kg Enthalpy, kJ/kg Entropy, kJ/(kg · K) Press.

MPa t (°C) MPa
VL VV hL hV SL SV
0.001 6.97 0.0010001 129.18 29.298 2513.7 0.1059 8.9749 0.001
0.002 17.50 0.0010014 66.990 73.435 2532.9 0.2606 8.7227 0.002
0.003 24.08 0.0010028 45.655 100.99 2544.9 0.3543 8.5766 0.003
0.004 28.96 0.0010041 34.792 121.40 2553.7 0.4224 8.4735 0.004
0.005 32.88 0.0010053 28.186 137.77 2560.8 0.4763 8.3939 0.005
0.006 36.16 0.0010064 23.734 151.49 2566.7 0.5209 8.3291 0.006
0.007 39.00 0.0010075 20.525 163.37 2571.8 0.5591 8.2746 0.007
0.008 41.51 0.0010085 18.099 173.85 2576.2 0.5925 8.2274 0.008
0.009 43.76 0.0010094 16.200 183.26 2580.3 0.6223 8.1859 0.009
0.010 45.81 0.0010103 14.671 191.81 2583.9 0.6492 8.1489 0.010
0.012 49.42 0.0010119 12.359 206.91 2590.3 0.6963 8.0850 0.012
0.014 52.55 0.0010133 10.691 219.99 2595.8 0.7366 8.0312 0.014
0.016 55.31 0.0010147 9.4309 231.55 2600.7 0.7720 7.9847 0.016
0.018 57.80 0.0010160 8.4433 241.95 2606.0 0.8035 7.9437 0.018
0.020 60.06 0.0010171 7.6482 251.40 2608.9 0.8320 7.9072 0.020
0.025 64.96 0.0010198 6.2034 271.93 2617.4 0.8931 7.8302 0.025
0.030 69.10 0.0010222 5.2286 289.23 2624.6 0.9439 7.7675 0.030
0.035 72.68 0.0010244 4.5252 304.25 2630.7 0.9876 7.7146 0.035
0.040 75.86 0.0010264 3.9931 317.57 2636.1 1.0259 7.6690 0.040
0.045 78.71 0.0010282 3.5761 329.55 2640.9 1.0601 7.6288 0.045
0.05 81.32 0.0010299 32401 340.48 2645.2 1.0910 7.5930 0.05
0.06 85.93 0.0010331 2.7318 359.84 2652.9 1.1452 7.5311 0.06
0.07 89.93 0.0010359 2.3649 376.68 2659.4 1.1919 7.4790 0.07
0.08 93.49 0.0010385 2.0872 391.64 2665.2 1.2328 7.4339 0.08
0.09 96.69 0.0010409 1.8695 405.13 2670.3 1.2694 7.3942 0.09
0.10 99.61 0.0010431 1.6940 417.44 2674.9 1.3026 7.3588 0.10
0.12 104.78 0.0010473 1.4284 439.30 2683.1 1.3608 7.2976 0.12
0.14 109.29 0.0010510 1.2366 458.37 2690.0 1.4109 7.2460 0.14
0.16 113.30 0.0010544 1.0914 475.34 2696.0 1,4549 7.2014 0.16
0.18 116.91 0.0010576 0.97753 490.67 2701.4 1.4944 7.1620 0.18
(contd.)

MPa t (°C) MPa
VL VV hL hV SL SV
0.20 120.21 0.0010605 0.88574 504.68 2706.2 1.5301 7.1269 0.20
0.25 127.41 0.0010672 0.71870 535.35 2716.5 1.6072 7.0524 0.25
0.30 133.53 0.0010732 0.60579 561.46 2724.9 1.6718 6.9916 0.30
0.35 138.86 0.0010786 0.52420 584.31 2732.0 1.7275 6.9401 0.35
0.40 143.61 0.0010836 0.46239 604.72 2738.1 1.7766 6.8954 0.40
0.45 147.91 0.0010882 0.41390 623.22 2743.4 1.8206 6.8560 0.45
0.50 151.84 0.0010926 0.37480 640.19 2748.1 1.8606 6.8206 0.50
0.55 155.46 0.0010967 0.34259 655.88 2752.3 1.8972 6.7885 0.55
0.60 158.83 0.0011006 0.31558 670.50 2756.1 1.9311 6.7592 0.60
0.65 161.99 0.0011044 0.29258 684.22 2759.6 1.9626 6.7321 0.65
0.70 164.95 0.0011080 0.27276 697.14 2762.7 1.9921 6.7070 0.70
0.80 170.41 0.0011148 0.24033 721.02 2768.3 2.0460 6.6615 0.80
0.90 175.36 0.0011212 0.21487 742.72 2773.0 2.0944 6.6212 0.90
1.00 179.89 0.0011272 0.19435 762.68 2777.1 2.1384 6.5850 1.00
1.10 184.07 0.0011330 0.17744 78120 2780.7 2.1789 6.5520 1.10
1.2 187.96 0.001139 0.16325 798.50 2783.8 2.2163 6.5217 1.2
1.3 191.61 0.001144 0.15117 814.76 2786.5 2.2512 6.4936 1.3
1.4 195.05 0.001149 0.14077 830.13 2788.9 2.2839 6.4675 1.4
1.5 198.30 0.001154 0.13170 844.72 2791.0 2.3147 6.4431 1.5
1.6 201.38 0.001159 0.12373 858.61 2792.9 2.3438 6.4200 1.6
1.8 207.12 0.001168 0.11036 884.61 2796.0 2.3978 6.3776 1.8
2.0 212.38 0.001177 0.099581 908.62 2798.4 2.4470 6.3392 2.0
2.2 217.26 0.001185 0.090695 930.98 2800.2 2.4924 6.3040 2.2
2.4 221.80 0001193 0.083242 951.95 2801.5 2.5344 6.2714 2.4
2.6 226.05 0.001201 0.076897 971.74 2802.5 2.5738 6.2411 2.6
2.8 230.06 0.001209 0.071428 990.50 2803.0 2.6107 6.2126 2.8
3.0 233.86 0.001217 0.066664 1008.4 2803.3 2.6456 6.1858 3.0
3.2 237.46 0.001224 0.062475 1025.5 2803.2 2.6787 6.1604 3.2
3.4 240.90 0.001231 0.058761 1041.8 2803.0 2.7102 6.1362 3.4
3.6 244.19 0.001239 0.055446 1057.6 2802.5 2.7403 6.1131 3.6
(contd.)

MPa t (°C) MPa
VL VV hL hV SL SV
3.8 247.33 0.001246 0.052468 1072.8 2801.8 2.7690 6.0910 3.8
4.0 250.36 0.001253 0.049777 1087.4 2800.9 2.7967 6.0697 4.0
4.2 253.27 0.001259 0.047333 1101.6 2799.9 2.8232 6.0492 4.2
4.4 256.07 0.001266 0.045103 1115.4 2798.7 2.8488 6.0294 4.4
4.6 258.78 0.001273 0.043060 1128.8 2797.3 2.8736 6.0103 4.6
4.8 26140 0.001280 0.041181 1141.8 2795.8 2.8975 5.9917 4.8
5.0 263.94 0.001286 0.039446 1154.5 2794.2 2.9207 5.9737 5.0
5.5 269.97 0.001303 0.035642 1184.9 2789.7 2.9759 5.9307 5.5
6.0 275.59 0.001319 0.032449 1213.7 2784.6 3.0274 5.8901 6.0
6.5 280.86 0.001336 0.029728 1241.2 2778.8 3.0760 5.8515 6.5
7.0 285.83 0.001352 0.027380 1267.4 2772.6 3.1220 5.8146 7.0
7.5 290.54 0.001368 0.025331 1292.7 2765.8 3.1658 5.7792 7.5
8.0 295.01 0.001385 0.023528 1317.1 2758.6 3.2077 5.7448 8.0
8.5 299.27 0.001401 0.021926 1340.7 2751.0 3.2478 5.7115 8.5
9.0 303.35 0.001418 0.020493 1363.7 2742.9 3.2866 5.6790 9.0
9.5 307.25 0.001435 0.019203 1386.0 2734.4 3.3240 5.6472 9.5
10.0 311.00 0.001453 0.018034 1407.9 2725.5 3.3603 5.6159 10.0
11.0 318.08 0.001489 0.015994 1450.3 2706.4 3.4300 5.5545 11.0
12.0 324.68 0.001526 0.014269 1491.3 2685.6 3.4965 5.4941 12.0
13.0 330.86 0.001566 0.012785 1531.4 2662.9 3.5606 5.4339 13.0
14.0 336.67 0.001610 0.011489 1570.9 2638.1 3.6230 5.3730 14.0
15.0 342.16 0.001657 0.010340 1610.2 2610.9 3.6844 5.3108 15.0
16.0 347.36 0.001710 0.009308 1649.7 2580.8 3.7457 5.2463 16.0
17.0 352.29 0.001769 0.008369 1690.0 2547.4 3.8077 5.1785 17.0
18.0 356.99 0.001839 0.007499 1732.0 2509.5 3.8717 5.1055 18.0
19.0 361.47 0.001925 0.006673 1776.9 2465.4 3.9396 5.0246 19.0
20.0 365.75 0.002039 0.005858 1827.1 2411.4 4.0154 4.9299 20.0
21.0 369.83 0.002212 0.004988 1889.4 2337.5 41093 4.8062 21.0
22.0 373.71 0.002750 0.003577 2021.9 2164.2 4.3109 4.5308 22.0
pc 373.946 0.003106 0.003106 2087.5 2087.5 4.4120 4.4120 pc
pc = 22.064 MPa
Superheated Steam – SI Units
Pressure
Temperature—Degrees Celsius
MPa
(Sat.T) 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 700
0.005 v 29.782 34.419 39.043 43.663 48.281 52.898 57.515 62.131 66.747 71.363 75.979 80.594 89.826
(32.88) h 2593.4 2688.0 2783.4 2879.8 2977.6 3076.9 3177.6 3280.0 3384.0 3489.7 3597.1 3706.3 3929.9
s 8.4976 8.7700 9.0097 9.2251 9.4216 9.6027 9.7713 9.9293 10.078 10.220 10.354 10.483 10.725
0.01 v 14.867 17.197 19.514 21.826 24.136 26.446 28.755 31.064 33.372 35.680 37.968 40.296 44.912
(45.81) h 2592.0 2687.4 2783.0 2879.6 2977.4 3076.7 3177.5 3279.9 3384.0 3480.7 3597.1 3706.3 3929.9
s 8.1741 8.4488 8.6892 8.9048 9.1014 9.2827 9.4513 9.6093 9.7584 9.8997 10.034 10.163 10.405
0.02 v 8.5857 9.7488 10.907 12.064 13.220 14.375 15.530 16.684 17.839 18.993 20.147 22.455
(60.06) h 2686.2 2782.3 2879.1 2977.1 3076.5 3177.4 3279.8 3383.8 3489.6 3597.0 3706.2 3929.8
s 8.1262 8.3680 8.5842 8.7811 8.9624 9.1311 9.2892 9.4383 9.5797 9.7143 9.8431 10.086
0.05 v 3.4188 3.8899 4.3563 4.8207 5.2841 5.7470 6.2095 6.6718 7.1339 7.5959 8.0578 8.9614
(81.32) h 2682.4 2780.2 2877.8 2976.2 3075.8 3176.8 3279.3 3383.2 3489.6 3596.7 3706.0 3929.7
s 7.6952 7.9412 8.1591 8.3568 8.5386 8.7076 8.8658 9.0150 91565 9.2912 9.4200 9.6625
0.10 v 1.6960 1.9367 2.1725 2.4062 2.6389 2.8710 3.1027 3.3342 3.5656 3.7968 4.0279 4.4900
(99.61) h 2675.8 2776.6 2875.5 2974.5 3074.5 3175.8 3278.5 3382.8 3488.7 3596.3 3705.6 3929.4
s 7.3610 7.6147 7.8356 8.0346 8.2171 8.3865 8.5451 8.6945 8.8361 8.9709 9.0998 9.3424
0.15 v 1.2856 1.4445 1.6013 1.7571 1.9123 2.0671 2.2217 2.3762 2.5305 2.6847 2.9929
(111.35) h 2772.9 2873.1 2972.9 3073.3 3174.9 3277.8 3382.2 3488.2 3595.8 3705.2 3929.1
s 7.4207 7.6447 7.8451 8.0284 8.1983 8.3571 8.5067 8.6484 8.7833 8.9123 9.1550
0.20 v 0.9599 1.0805 1.1989 1.3162 1.4330 1.5493 1.6655 1.7814 1.8973 2.0130 2.2444
(120.21) h 2769.1 2870.8 2971.3 3072.1 3173.9 3277.0 3381.5 3487.6 3595.4 3704.8 3928.8
s 7.2809 7.5081 7.7100 7.8940 8.0643 8.2235 8.3733 8.5151 8.6501 8.7792 9.0220
0.25 v 0.7644 0.8621 0.9574 1.0617 1.1454 1.2387 1.3317 1.4246 1.5174 1.6101 1.7952
(127.41) h 2765.2 2868.4 2969.6 3070.8 3172.9 3276.2 3380.9 3487.1 3594.9 3704.4 3928.5
s 7.1707 7.4013 7.6046 7.7895 7.9602 8.1196 8.2696 8.4116 8.5467 8.6759 8.9188
0.30 v 0.6340 0.7164 0.7965 0.8753 0.9536 1.0315 1.1092 1.1867 1.2641 1.3414 1.4958
(133.53) h 2761.2 2866.0 2967.9 3069.6 3172.0 3275.4 3380.2 3486.6 3594.5 3704.0 3928.2
s 7.0791 7.3132 7.5181 7.7037 7.8749 8.0346 8.1846 8.3269 8.4622 8.5914 8.8344
0.35 v 0.5408 0.6124 0.6815 0.7494 0.8167 0.8836 0.9503 1.0168 1.0632 1.1495 1.2819
(138.86) h 2757.1 2863.5 2966.3 3068.4 3171.0 3274.6 3379.6 3486.0 3594.0 3703.6 3927.9
s 7.0002 7.2381 7.4445 7.6310 7.8026 7.9626 8.1130 8.2553 8.3906 8.5199 8.7630
0.40 v 0.4709 0.5343 0.5952 0.6549 0.7139 0.7726 0.8311 0.8894 0.9475 1.0056 1.1215
(143.61) h 2752.8 2861.0 2964.6 3067.1 3170.0 3273.9 3379.0 348.55 35936 37032 3927.6
s 6.9305 7.1724 7.3805 7.5677 7.7398 7.9001 8.0507 8.1931 8.3286 8.4579 8.7012
(contd.)
Pressure
MPa
(Sat.T) 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 700
0.45 v 0.4164 0.4736 0.5281 0.5814 0.6341 0.6863 0.7384 0.7902 0.8420 0.8936 0.9968
(147.91) h 2748.3 2858.5 2962.8 3065.9 3169.0 3273.1 3378.3 3484.9 3593.1 3702.8 3927.3
s 6.8677 7.1139 7.3237 7.5117 7.6843 7.8449 7.9957 8.1383 8.2738 8.4032 8.6466
0.50 v 0.4250 0.4744 0.5226 0.5701 0.6173 0.6642 0.7109 0.7576 0.8041 0.8970
(151.84) h 2855.9 2961.1 3064.6 3168.1 3272.3 3377.7 3484.4 3592.6 3702.5 3927.0
s 7.0611 7.2726 7.4614 7.6345 7.7954 7.9464 8.0891 8.2247 8.3543 8.5977
0.55 v 0.3853 0.4305 0.4745 0.5178 0.5608 0.6035 0.6461 0.6885 0.7308 0.8153
(155.46) h 2853.3 2969.4 3063.3 3167.1 3271.5 3377.0 3483.9 3592.2 3702.1 3926.8
s 7.0128 7.2261 7.4158 7.5894 7.7505 7.9017 8.0446 8.1803 8.3099 8.5535
0.60 v 0.3521 0.3939 0.4344 0.4743 0.5137 0.5530 0.5920 0.6309 0.6698 0.7473
(158.43) h 2850.7 2957.7 3062.1 3166.1 3270.7 3376.4 3483.3 3591.7 3701.7 3926.5
s 6.9684 7.1834 7.3740 7.5480 7.7095 7.8609 8.0039 8.1398 8.2694 8.5131
v = specific volume m3/kg h = enthalpy, kJ/kg s = entropy, kJ/(kg·K)
Pressure Temperature—Degrees Celsius

MPa
(Sat.T) 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800
0.65 v 0.3241 0.3629 0.4005 0.4374 0.4739 0.5102 0.5463 0.5822 0.6181 0.6539 0.6897 0.7254 0.7611
(161.99) h 2848.0 2955.9 3060.8 3165.1 3269.9 3375.7 3482.8 3591.3 3701.3 3812.9 3926.2 4041.1 4157.7
s 6.9270 7.1439 7.3354 7.5099 7.6717 7.8233 7.9665 8.1024 8.2321 8.3564 8.4759 8.5911 8.7024
0.70 v 0.3000 0.3364 0.3714 0.4058 0.4398 0.4735 0.5070 0.5405 0.5738 0.6071 0.6403 0.6735 0.7067
(164.95) h 2845.3 2954.1 3059.5 3164.1 3269.1 3375.1 3482.3 3590.8 3700.9 3812.6 3925.9 4040.8 4157.5
s 6.8884 7.1071 7.2995 7.4745 7.6366 7.7884 7.9317 8.0678 8.1976 8.3220 8.4415 8.5567 8.6680
0.75 v 0.2791 0.3133 0.3462 0.3784 0.4102 0.4417 0.4731 0.5043 0.5354 0.5665 0.5975 0.6285 0.6595
(167.76) h 2842.5 2952.3 3058.2 3163.1 3267.4 3374.4 3481.7 3590.4 3700.5 3812.2 3925.6 4040.6 4157.3
s 6.8520 7.0727 7.2660 7.4415 7.6039 7.7559 7.8994 8.0355 8.1654 8.2898 8.4094 8.5246 8.6360
0.80 v 0.2609 0.2932 0.3242 0.3544 0.3843 0.4139 0.4433 0.4726 0.5019 0.5310 0.5601 0.5892 0.6182
(170.41) h 2839.8 2950.5 30569 31622 32676 3373.8 3481.2 3589.9 3700.1 3811.9 3925.3 4040.3 4157.1
s 6.8176 7.0403 7.2345 7.4106 7.5733 7.7255 7.8690 8.0053 8.1353 8.2598 8.3794 8.4947 8.6060
0.90 v 0.2304 0.2596 0.2874 0.3145 0.3411 0.3675 0.3938 0.4199 0.4459 0.4718 0.4977 0.5236 0.5494
(175.36) h 2834.1 2939.5 3054.3 3160.2 3266.0 3372.5 3480.1 3589.8 3699.3 3811.2 3924.7 4039.8 4156.6
s 6.7538 6.9806 7.1768 7.3538 7.5172 7.6698 7.8136 7.9501 8.0803 8.2049 8.3246 8.4399 8.5513
(contd.)

MPa
(Sat.T) 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800
1.0 v 0.2060 0.2327 0.2580 0.2825 0.3066 0.3304 0.3541 0.3777 0.4011 0.4245 0.4478 0.4711 0.4944
(179.89) h 2828.3 2943.2 3051.7 3158.2 3264.4 3371.2 3479.0 3588.1 3698.6 3810.5 3924.1 4039.3 4156.2
s 6.6955 6.9266 7.1247 7.3028 7.4668 7.6198 7.7640 7.9007 8.0309 8.1557 8.2755 8.3909 8.5024
1.1 v 0.1860 0.2107 0.2580 0.2563 0.2783 0.3001 0.3217 0.3431 0.3645 0.3858 0.4070 0.4282 0.4494
(184.07) h 2822.3 2939.5 3049.1 3156.2 3262.8 3369.9 3477.9 3587.2 3697.8 3809.9 3923.5 4038.8 4155.7
s 6.6414 6.8772 7.0773 7.2564 7.4210 7.5745 7.7189 7.8558 7.9863 8.1111 8.2310 8.3465 8.4580
1.2 v 0.1693 0.1924 0.2139 0.2345 0.2548 0.2748 0.2946 0.3143 0.3339 0.3535 0.3730 0.3924 0.4118
(187.96) h 2816.1 2935.7 3046.4 3154.1 3261.2 3368.6 3476.8 3586.2 3697.0 3809.2 3922.9 4038.3 4155.2
s 6.5908 6.8314 7.0336 7.2138 7.3791 7.5330 7.6777 7.8148 7.9454 8.0704 8.1904 8.3059 8.4175
1.3 v 0.1552 0.1769 0.1969 0.2161 0.2349 0.2534 0.2718 0.2900 0.3081 0.3262 0.3442 0.3621 0.3801
(191.61) h 2809.6 2931.8 3043.7 3152.1 3259.6 3367.3 3475.7 3585.3 3696.2 3908.5 3922.4 4037.8 4154.8
s 6.5430 6.7888 6.9931 7.1745 7.3404 7.4947 7.6397 7.7770 7.9078 8.0329 8.1530 8.2686 8.3803
1.4 v 0.1430 0.1635 0.1823 0.2003 0.2178 0.2351 0.2522 0.2691 0.2860 0.3028 0.3195 0.3362 0.3529
(195.05) h 2803.0 2927.9 3041.0 3150.1 3258.0 3366.0 3474.7 3584.4 3695.4 3807.8 3921.8 4037.2 4154.3
s 6.4975 6.7488 6.9553 7.1378 7.3044 7.4591 7.6045 7.7420 7.5729 7.9981 8.1183 8.2340 8.3457
1.5 v 0.1324 0.1520 0.1697 0.1866 0.2030 0.2192 0.2352 0.2510 0.2668 0.2825 0.2981 0.3137 0.3293
(196.30) h 2796.0 2924.0 3038.3 3148.0 3256.4 3364.7 3473.6 3583.5 3694.6 38072 39212 40367 4153.9
s 6.4537 6.7111 6.9199 7.1035 7.2708 7.4259 7.5716 7.7093 7.8404 7.9657 8.0860 8.2018 8.3135
1.6 v 0.1419 0.1587 0.1746 0.1901 0.2053 0.2203 0.2352 0.2500 0.2647 0.2794 0.2940 0.3087
(201.38) h 2919.9 3035.5 3146.0 3254.7 3363.3 3472.5 3582.6 3693.9 3806.5 3920.6 4036.2 4153.4
s 6.6754 68865 7.0713 7.2392 7.3948 7.5407 7.6787 7.8099 7.9354 8.0557 8.1716 82834
1.7 v 0.1330 0.1489 0.1640 0.1786 0.1930 0.2072 0.2212 0.2352 0.2491 0.2629 0.2767 0.2904
(204.31) h 2915.9 3032.7 3143.9 3253.1 3362.0 3471.4 3581.6 3693.1 3805.8 3920.0 4035.7 4153.0
s 6.6413 6.8548 7.0406 7.2094 7.3654 7.5117 7.6499 7.7813 7.9068 8.0273 8.1432 8.2551
1.8 v 0.1250 0.1402 0.1546 0.1685 0.1821 0.1955 0.2088 0.2220 0.2351 0.2482 0.2612 0.2743
(207.12) h 2911.7 3029.9 3141.8 3251.5 3360.7 3470.3 3580.7 3692.3 3805.1 3919.4 4035.2 4152.5
s 6.6087 6.8247 7.0119 7.1812 7.3377 7.4842 7.6226 7.7542 7.8799 8.0004 8.1164 8.2284
2.0 v 0.1115 0.1255 0.1386 0.1512 0.1635 0.1757 0.1877 0.1996 0.2115 0.2233 0.2350 0.2467
(212.38) h 2903.2 3024.3 3137.6 3248.2 3358.1 3468..1 3578.9 3690.7 3803.8 3918.2 4034.2 4151.6
s 6.5474 6.7685 6.9582 7.1290 7.2863 7.4335 7.5723 7.7042 7.8301 7.9509 8.0670 8.1791

MPa
(Sat.T) 225 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800
2.2 v 0.0931 0.1004 0.1134 0.1255 0.1371 0.1484 0.1595 0.1704 0.1813 0.1921 0.2028 0.2136 0.2242
(217.26) h 2824.5 3894.5 3018.5 3133.4 3244.9 3355.4 3465.9 3577.0 3689.1 3802.4 3917.1 4033.1 4150.7
s 6.3531 6.4903 6.7168 6.5091 7.0813 7.2396 7.3873 7.5266 7.6588 7.7850 7.9069 8.0222 8.1344
2.4 v 0.0842 0.0911 0.1034 0.1146 0.1253 0.1357 0.1459 0.1560 0.1660 0.1760 0.1858 0.1957 0.2055
(221.80) h 2812.1 2885.5 3012.6 3129.1 3241.6 3352.7 3463.7 3575.2 3687.6 3801.1 3915.5 4032.1 4149.8
s 6.2926 6.4365 6.6688 6.8638 7.0375 7.1967 7.3450 7.4848 7.6173 7.7437 7.8648 7.9813 8.0936
2.6 v 0.0833 0.0948 0.1053 0.1153 0.1250 0.1345 0.1439 0.1531 0.1623 0.1714 0.1805 0.1896
(226.05) h 2876.2 3006.6 3124.8 3238.3 3350.0 3461.5 3573.3 3686.9 1799.7 3914.7 4031.1 4148.9
s 6.3854 6.6238 6.8216 6.9968 7.1570 7.3060 7.4461 7.5790 7.7056 7.8265 7.5435 8.0559
2.8 v 0.0765 0.0875 0.0974 0.1068 0.1158 0.1247 0.1334 0.1420 0.1506 0.1591 0.1676 0.1760
(230.06) h 2866.5 3000.5 3120.5 3234.9 3347.4 3459.3 3571.5 1684.4 3798.4 3913.5 4030.0 4148.0
s 6.5814 6.7821 6.9589 7.1200 7.2696 7.4102 7.5434 7.6703 7.7918 7.5085 8.0210
3.0 v 0.0706 0.0812 0.0906 0.0994 0.1079 0.1162 0.1244 0.1324 0.1406 0.1484 0.1563 0.1642
(233.86) h 2856.5 2994.3 3116.1 3231.6 3344.7 3457.0 3569.5 9382.8 3797.0 3912.3 4029.0 4147.0
s 6.2893 6.5412 6.7449 6.9233 7.0853 7.2356 7.3767 7.5102 7.6373 7.7590 7.8759 7.9885
3.2 v 0.0655 0.0756 0.0845 0.0929 0.1009 0.1068 0.1165 0.1240 0.1316 0.1390 0.1465 0.1539
(237.46) h 2846.2 2988.0 3111.6 3282.8 3341.9 3454.8 3567.7 3861.2 3796.6 3911.2 4028.0 4146.1
s 6.2434 6.5029 6.7097 6.8897 7.0527 7.2036 7.3451 7.4790 7.6064 7.7283 7.8453 7.9581
3.4 v 0.0609 0.0707 0.0792 0.0872 0.0948 0.1022 0.1095 0.1166 0.1237 0.1308 0.1378 0.1448
(240.90) h 2835.3 2981.6 3107.1 3224.8 3339.2 3452.6 3565.9 3679.6 3794.3 3910.0 4026.9 4145.2
s 6.1986 6.4662 6.6762 6.8579 7.0219 7.1735 7.3154 7.4496 7.5773 7.6993 7.8165 7.9294
3.6 v 0.0668 0.0663 0.0745 0.0821 0.0893 0.0964 0.1033 0.1101 0.1168 0.1234 0.1301 0.1367
(244.19) h 2824.0 2975.1 3102.6 3221.3 3336.5 3450.3 3564.0 3678.0 3792.9 3908.8 4025.9 4144.3
s 6.1545 6.4309 6.6443 6.8276 6.9927 7.1449 7.2873 7.4219 7.5498 7.6720 7.7893 7.9023
3.8 v 0.0531 0.0624 0.0703 0.0775 0.0844 0.0911 0.0977 0.1042 0.1105 0.1165 0.1232 0.1294
(247.33) h 2812.1 2968.4 3098.0 32175 3333.7 3448.1 3562.1 3676.4 3791.5 3907.6 4024.8 4143.4
s 6.1107 6.3968 6.6137 6.7988 6.9649 7.1178 7.2607 7.3955 7.5237 7.6461 7.7636 7.8767
4.0 v 0.0589 0.0665 0.0734 0.0800 0.0864 0.0927 0.0989 0.1049 0.1110 0.1170 0.1229
(250.36) h 2961.7 3093.3 3214.4 3331.0 3445.8 3560.2 3674.8 3790.2 3906.4 4023.8 4142.5
s 6.3638 6.5843 6.7712 6.9383 7.0919 7.2353 7.3704 7.4989 7.6215 7.7391 7.8523
4.5 v 0.0514 0.0684 0.0648 0.0708 0.0765 0.0821 0.0677 0.0931 0.0985 0.1038 0.1092
(257.44) h 2944.1 3081.5 3205.6 3324.0 3440.2 3555.5 3670.8 3786.7 3903.4 4021.2 4140.2
s 6.2852 6.5153 6.7069 6.8767 7.0320 7.1765 7.3126 7.4416 7.5647 7.6827 7.7962
(contd.)

MPa
(Sat.T) 225 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800
5.0 v 0.0453 0.0520 0.0578 0.0633 0.0686 0.0737 0.0787 0.0836 0.0885 0.0933 0.0982
(263.94) h 2925.6 3069.3 3196.6 3317.0 3434.5 3550.8 3666.8 3783.3 3900.5 4018.6 4137.9
s 6.2109 6.4515 6.6481 6.8208 6.9778 7.1235 7.2604 7.3901 7.5137 7.6321 7.7459
5.5 v 0.0404 0.0467 0.0522 0.0572 0.0621 0.0668 0.0714 0.0759 0.0603 0.0848 0.0691
(269.97) h 2906.2 3056.8 3187.5 3309.9 3428.7 3546.0 3662.8 3779.8 3897.5 4016.0 4135.6
s 6.1396 6.3919 6.5938 6.7693 6.9282 7.0751 7.2129 7.3432 7.4673 7.5861 7.7002
6.0 v 0.0362 0.0423 0.0474 0.0522 0.0567 0.0610 0.0653 0.0694 0.0735 0.0776 0.0816
(275.59) h 2885.5 3043.9 3178.2 3302.8 3422.9 3541.2 3656.8 3776.4 3691.9 4013.4 4133.3
s 6.0702 6.3356 6.5431 6.7216 6.8824 7.0306 7.1652 7.3002 7.4248 7.5439 7.6583
6.5 v 0.0326 0.0385 0.0434 0.0479 0.0521 0.0561 0.0601 0.0640 0.0678 0.0716 0.0753
(280.86) h 2863.5 3030.6 3168.7 3295.5 3417.1 3638.4 3654.7 3772.9 3891.5 4010.7 4131.0
s 6.0018 6.2819 6.4953 6.6771 6.8397 6.5892 7.1287 7.2603 7.3854 7.5050 7.6196

MPa
(Sat.T) 300 325 350 375 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800
7.0 v 0.0295 0.0326 0.0353 0.0377 0.0400 0.0442 0.0482 0.0520 0.0557 0.0593 0.0628 0.0664 0.0698
(285.83) h 2839.8 2935.5 3016.8 3090.4 3159.1 3288.2 3411.3 3531.5 3650.6 3769.4 3888.5 4008.1 4128.6
s 5.9335 6.0970 6.2303 6.3460 6.4501 6.6351 6.7997 6.9505 7.0909 7.2232 7.3488 7.4687 7.5837
7.5 v 0.0267 0.0298 0.0325 0.0348 0.0370 0.0410 0.0448 0.0483 0.0518 0.0552 0.0586 0.0619 0.0651
(290.54) h 2814.3 2917.4 3002.7 3078.8 3149.3 3280.7 3405.3 3526.7 3646.5 3765.9 3885.4 4005.5 4126.3
s 5.8644 6.0407 6.1805 6.3002 6.4070 6.5954 6.7620 6.9141 7.0555 7.1885 7.3145 7.4348 7.5501
8.0 v 0.0243 0.0274 0.0300 0.0323 0.0343 0.0382 0.0418 0.0452 0.0485 0.0517 0.0548 0.0679 0.0610
(295.01) h 2786.4 2898.3 2968.1 3065.9 3139.3 3273.2 3399.4 3521.8 3542.4 3762.4 3882.4 4000.2 4124.0
s 5.7935 5.9849 6.1319 6.2560 6.3657 6.5677 6.7264 6.8798 7.0221 7.1557 7.2823 7.4030 7.5186
8.5 v 0.0220 0.0252 0.0278 0.0300 0.0320 0.0357 0.0391 0.0424 0.0455 0.0485 0.0515 0.0545 0.0674
(29927) h 2755.4 2878.3 2972.9 3054.7 3129.1 3265.6 3393.4 3516.9 3638.3 3758.9 3879.4 4000.2 4121.7
s 5.7193 5.9294 6.0845 6.2132 6.3259 6.5216 6.6925 6.8473 6.9905 7.1248 7.2519 7.3730 7.4889
9.0 v 0.0233 0.0258 0.0280 0.0300 0.0335 0.0368 0.0399 0.0429 0.0458 0.0486 0.0514 0.0541
(303.35) h 2857.0 2957.2 3042.2 3118.8 3257.9 3387.3 3511.9 3634.2 3755.4 3876.4 3997.6 4119.4
s 5.8736 6.0378 6.1716 6.2875 6.4871 6.6601 6.8163 6.9605 7.0955 7.2231 7.3446 7.4608
(contd.)

MPa
(Sat.T) 300 325 350 375 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800
9.5 v 0.0215 0.0240 0.0262 0.0281 0.0316 0.0347 0.0377 0.0405 0.0433 0.0460 0.0486 0.0612
(30725) h 2834.4 2940.9 3029.4 3108.2 3250.2 3381.2 3505.9 3630.0 3751.9 3873.3 3994.9 4117.0
s 5.8170 5.9917 6.1309 6.2502 6.4538 6.6291 6.7867 6.9319 7.0676 71957 7.3176 7.4341
10.0 v 0.0199 0.0224 0.0246 0.0264 0.0298 0.0328 0.0357 0.0384 0.0410 0.0436 0.0461 0.0486
(311.00) h 5759.3 2924.0 3016.2 3097.4 3242.3 3375.1 3501.9 3625.4 3748.3 3870.3 3992.3 4114.7
s 5.9458 6.0910 6.2139 6.4217 6.5993 6.7584 6.9045 7.0409 7.1696 7.2918 7.4086
11.0 v 0.0170 0.0196 0.0217 0.0235 0.0267 0.0295 0.0322 0.0347 0.0371 0.0395 0.0418 0.0441
(318.08) h 2755.6 2887.8 2988.7 3075.1 3226.2 3362.6 3491.9 3617.5 3741.2 3864.2 3987.0 4110.1
s 5.6373 5.8541 6.0129 6.1438 6.3605 6.5430 6.7050 6.8531 6.9910 7.1207 7.2437 7.3612
12.0 v 0.0143 0.0172 0.0193 0.0211 0.0242 0.0268 0.0293 0.0317 0.0339 0.0361 0.0383 0.0404
(324.68) h 2688.4 2848.0 2959.5 3051.9 3209.8 3350.0 3481.7 3609.0 3734.1 3858.1 3981.6 4105.4
s 5.4988 5.7607 5.5362 6.0762 6.3027 6.4902 6.6553 6.8055 6.9448 7.0756 7.1994 7.3175
13.0 v 0.0151 0.0173 0.0190 0.0220 0.0245 0.0269 0.0291 0.0312 0.0332 0.0352 0.0372
(330.86) h 2803.6 2928.3 3027.6 3192.9 3337.1 3471.4 3600.5 3726.9 3851.9 3976.3 4100.7
s 5.6635 5.8600 6.0104 6.2475 6.4404 6.6087 6.7610 6.9018 7.0336 71583 7.2771
14.0 v 0.0132 0.0155 0.0172 0.0201 0.0225 0.0248 0.0268 0.0288 0.0308 0.0326 0.0345
(336.67) h 2752.9 2894.9 3002.2 3175.6 3324.1 3461.0 3591.9 3719.7 3845.7 3970.9 4096.0
s 5.5595 5.7832 5.9457 6.1945 6.3931 6.5548 6.7192 5.8615 6.9944 7.1200 7.2393
15.0 v 0.0115 0.0139 0.0157 0.0185 0.0208 0.0229 0.0249 0.0268 0.0286 0.0304 0.0321
(342.16) h 2693.0 2858.9 2975.5 3157.8 3310.8 3450.5 3583.3 3712.4 3839.5 3965.6 4091.3
s 5.4435 5.7049 5.8817 6.1433 6.3479 6.5230 6.6797 6.8235 6.9576 7.0839 7.2039
16.0 v 0.0098 0.0125 0.0143 0.0170 0.0193 0.0214 0.0232 0.0250 0.0267 0.0284 0.0301
(34736) h 2617.0 2819.5 2947.5 3139.6 3297.3 3439.8 3574.6 3705.1 3833.3 3960.2 4086.6
s 5.3045 5.6238 5.8177 6.0935 6.3045 6.4832 6.6422 6.7876 6.9228 7.0499 7.1706
17.0 v 0.0112 0.0130 0.0158 0.0180 0.0199 0.0218 0.0235 0.0251 0.0267 0.0282
(35229) h 2775.9 2917.8 3120.9 3283.6 3429.1 3565.9 3697.8 3827.0 3954.8 4081.9
s 5.5384 5.7533 6.0449 6.2627 6.4451 6.6064 6.7534 6.8897 7.0178 7.1391
18.0 v 0.0100 0.0119 0.0147 0.0168 0.0187 0.0204 0.0221 0.0236 0.0251 0.0266
(356.99) h 2726.9 2886.3 3101.7 3269.7 3418.3 3557.0 3690.4 3820.7 3949.4 4077.2
s 5.4465 5.6881 5.9973 6.2222 6.4085 6.5722 6.7208 6.8583 6.9872 7.1091
Pressure
MPa
(Sat.T) 375 400 425 450 475 500 550 600 650 700 750 800
20 v 0.00768 0.00995 0.0115 0.0127 0.0138 0.0148 0.0166 0.0182 0.0197 0.0211 0.0225 0.0239
(365.75) h 2602.4 2816.8 2952.9 3061.5 3155.8 3241.2 3396.2 3539.2 3675.6 3806.2 3938.5 4067.7
s 5.2272 5.5525 5.7510 5.9041 6.0322 6.1445 6.3390 6.5077 6.6596 6.7994 6.9301 7.0534
22 v 0.00490 0.00826 0.00987 0.0111 0.0122 0.0131 0.0148 0.0163 0.0178 0.0191 0.0204 0.0216
(373.71) h 2354.0 2735.8 2897.8 3019.0 3121.0 3211.8 3373.8 3521.2 3660.6 3795.5 3927.6 4058.2
s 4.8240 5.4050 5.6417 5.8124 5.9611 6.0704 6.2736 6.4475 6.6029 6.7451 6.8776 7.0022
24 v 0.00206 0.00673 0.00850 0.00977 0.0108 0.0118 0.0134 0.0148 0.0161 0.0174 0.0186 0.0197
h 1872.5 2637.4 2837.4 2974.0 3084.8 3181.4 3350.9 3502.9 3645.6 3782.8 3916.7 4048.8
s 4.0731 5.2366 5.5289 5.7212 5.8720 5.9991 6.2116 6.3910 6.5499 6.6946 6.8289 6.9549
26 v 0.00192 0.00529 0.00731 0.00662 0.00967 0.0106 0.0121 0.0135 0.0148 0.0160 0.0171 0.0182
h 1832.8 2510.6 2770.6 2926.1 3047.0 3150.2 3327.6 3484.4 3630.4 3770.0 3905.8 4039.3
s 4.0059 50304 5.4106 5.6296 5.7942 5.9298 6.1523 6.3374 6.5000 6.6473 6.7833 6.9107
28 v 0.00185 0.00385 0.00625 0.00762 0.00867 0.00957 0.0111 0.0124 0.0136 0.0147 0.0158 0.0168
h 1809.1 2334.4 2695.8 2875.1 3007.7 3117.9 3303.9 3465.7 3615.1 3757.1 3894.8 4029.7
s 3.9535 4.7552 5.2841 5.5367 5.7170 5.8621 6.0953 6.2863 6.4527 6.6026 6.7405 6.8693
30 v 0.00179 0.00280 0.00530 0.00674 0.00780 0.00869 0.0102 0.0114 0.0126 0.0137 0.0147 0.0156
h 1792.0 2152.4 2611.9 2820.9 2966.7 3084.8 3279.8 3446.9 3599.7 3744.2 3883.8 4020.2
s 3.9314 4.4750 5.1473 5.4419 5.6402 5.7956 6.0403 6.2374 6.4077 6.5602 6.7000 6.8303
35 v 0.00170 0.00211 0.00344 0.00496 0.00606 0.00693 0.00835 0.00952 0.0106 0.0115 0.0124 0.0133
h 1762.5 1968.4 2373.5 2671.0 2857.3 2998.0 3218.1 3399.0 3560.9 3711.9 3856.3 3996.5
s 3.8725 4.2140 4.7752 5.1945 5.4480 5.6331 5.9093 6.1229 6.3032 6.4625 6.6072 6.7411
40 v 0.00164 0.00191 0.00254 0.00369 0.00476 0.00562 0.00699 0.00809 0.00905 0.00993 0.0107 0.0115
h 1742.7 1931.1 2198.6 2511.8 2740.1 2906.7 3154.6 3350.4 3521.8 3679.4 3828.8 3972.8
s 3.8290 4.1141 4.5037 4.9447 5.2555 5.4746 5.7859 6.0170 6.2079 6.3743 6.5239 6.6614
45 v 0.00160 0.00180 0.00219 0.00292 0.00382 0.00463 0.00594 0.00698 000788 0.00870 0.00945 0.0102
h 1728.0 1897.6 2110.8 2377.3 2623.4 2813.4 3090.2 3301.5 3482.5 3647.0 3801.3 3949.3
s 3.7939 4.0505 4.3612 4.7362 5.0710 5.3209 5.6685 5.9179 6.1197 6.2932 6.4479 6.5891
50 v 0.00156 0.00173 0.00201 0.00249 0.00317 0.00389 0.00512 0.00611 0.00696 0.00772 0.00842 0.00907
h 1716.6 1874.3 2060.2 2284.4 2520.0 2722.5 3025.7 3252.6 3443.5 3614.8 3774.1 3926.0
s 3.7642 4.0028 4.2738 4.5892 4.9096 5.1759 5.5566 5.8245 6.0372 6.2180 6.3777 6.5226
60 v 0.00150 0.00163 0.00182 0.00208 0.00247 0.00295 0.00395 0.00483 0.00559 0.00627 0.00688 0.00746
h 1699.9 1843.1 2001.6 2179.8 2375.2 2570.4 2902.1 3157.0 3366.8 3551.4 3720.6 3880.2
s 3.7148 3.9316 4.1626 4.4134 4.6790 4.9356 5.3519 5.6528 5.8867 6.0815 6.2512 6.4034
(contd.)
Pressure
MPa
(Sat.T) 375 400 425 450 475 500 550 600 650 700 750 800
70 v 0.00146 0.00157 0.00171 0.00189 0.00214 0.00246 0.00322 0.00397 0.00465 0.00525 0.00880 0.00632
h 1688.4 1822.9 1967.1 2123.4 2291.7 2466.2 2795.0 3067.5 3293.6 3490.5 3669.0 3835.8
s 3.6743 3.8778 4.0880 4.3080 4.5368 4.7662 5.1786 5.5003 5.7522 5.9600 6.1390 6.2982
80 v 0.00143 0.00152 0.00163 0.00177 0.00196 0.00219 0.00276 0.00338 0.00398 0.00452 0.00501 0.00548
h 1680.4 1808.8 1944.0 2087.6 2239.6 2397.6 2709.9 2988.1 3225.7 3432.9 3619.7 3793.3
s 3.6395 3.8339 4.0311 4.2331 4.4398 4.6474 5.0391 5.3674 5.6321 5.8509 6.0382 6.2039
90 v 0.00140 0.00148 0.00157 0.00169 0.00184 0.00201 0.00246 0.00297 0.00348 0.00397 0.00442 0.00484
h 1674.6 1798.6 1927.6 2062.7 2204.0 2350.3 2645.2 2920.8 3164.4 3379.5 3573.5 3753.0
s 3.6089 3.7965 3.4847 4.1747 4.3669 4.5593 4.9288 5.2540 5.5255 5.7526 5.9470 6.1184
100 v 0.00137 0.00144 0.00153 0.00163 0.00175 0.00189 0.00225 0.00267 0.00311 0.00355 0.00395 0.00434
h 1670.7 1791.1 1915.5 2044.5 2178.3 2316.2 2596.1 2865.1 3110.6 3330.8 3.5307 3715.2
s 3.5815 3.7638 3.9452 4.1267 4.3086 4.4899 4.8407 5.1580 5.4316 5.6640 5.8644 6.0405
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and Numerical 2. T Sreenivasulu
Simulation 1. M Kannan
19. A Programming Design King-Leung Wong, IMECS, Hong Kong 2008
for Calculating Suitable Wen-Lih Chen,
Insulation Thickness and Tsung-Lieh Hsien,
Heat Transfer Characteristics Hsueh-Chieh Yu
of an Insulated Rectangular
Duct with One to Three
Insulated Layers
20. Optimum Insulation M S Soè Ylemez, Energy Conversion and 1999
Thickness for Refrigeration M UÈ Nsal Management, 40
Applications
21. Energy Auditing and Tahsin Engin, Energy Conversion and 2005
Recovery for Dry Type Vedat Ari Management, 46
Cement Rotary Kiln
Systems—A Case Study
References 423

Publication
22. Heat Exchanger Efficiency Ahmad Fakheri
Website Data Collected

1. www.dgvcl.com Tariff Data
2. www.pal.com Improving Coal Pulveriser Performance and Reliability
3. www.eptq.com Optimizing Steam System
4. www.abb.com Power Factor Correction and Harmonic Filtering In Electrical Plants
5. www.amca.org Fan Efficiency Standards
6. www.igbc.com Green Building Rating System
Index
1. Global and Indian Energy Scenario Global Environmental Concerns

2. Types of Energy Audit and Energy Audit Methodology
3. Survey Instrumentation
4. Energy Audit of Boilers
5. Energy Audit of Furnaces
6. Energy Audit of Power Plants
7. Energy Audit of Steam Distribution Systems
8. Energy Audit of Compressed Air Network
9. Energy Audit of HVAC System
10. Electrical Load Management
11. Energy Audit of Motor
12. Energy Audit of Pumps, Fan and Cooling Towers
13. Energy Audit of Lighting System
14. Energy Audit Applied to Building
15. Thermal Insulation and Refractory Material
16. Energy Audit of Chemical Plants and Heat Exchangers
17. Computer Software and Case Studies
Color Plate 1
Major coal field

TAJIKISTAN
Main coal-fired power plant
Main steel plant

AFGHANISTAN Jammu and
Kashmir Coal-importing port
Himachal CHINA
Pradesh
Punjab Uttarakhand Arunachal
Pradesh
PAKISTAN
Haryana
Delhi NEPALSikkim BHUTAN
Assam Nagaland
Uttar Pradesh Meghalaya
Rajasthan Bihar Manipur
INDIA 3 2 BANGLADESH
Tripura
1 Mizoram
4 West
Jharkhand Bengal Kolkata
Madhya Pradesh
Gujarat 5 MYANMAR
Haldia
Chhattisgarh
6 Paradip
Odisha
7
Maharashtra
Mumbai
8 Visakhapatnam
Hyderabad
Andhra
Pradesh
Bay of Bengal
Goa
Arabian Karnataka
sea Ennore
Neyvoli
(lignite) Chennai
Tamil
Nadu
Kerala
Tuticorin Major coal fields
1. Raniganj
SRI LANKA
2. Jharia
3. East Bokaro & west Bokaro
4. Singrauli
5. Pench-Kanhan, Tawa Valley
Indian Ocean
6. Talcher
Km 7. Chanda-wardha
0 250 500 8. Godavari Valley
Figure 1.1 Indian coal map

Color Plate 2
CO2 SO2 + NO2

30000 t/day 680 t/day
COAL
12000 t/day 1000 MW POWER STATION
FURNACE OIL
101 m3/day 920 MW
WATER GT
98000 m3/day
UAT
ELECTRICITY
80 MW 80 MW
5000 Crores
ASH
4200 t/day
Figure 1.2 Energy balance for a 1000 MW thermal power plant

Andhra Pradesh,
Tamil Nadu, 1% 3%
Eastern offshore Tamil Nadu, Tripura, 3%
3% Andhra Pradesh, 1% 3% Rajasthan, 1%
Rajasthan, Gujarat,
9% 6%
Eastern
CBM, 7%
offshore,
35%
Gujarat, Western
18% offshore,
45%
Assam, 10%
Assam, 23%
Western offshore,
32%
Chart 1.3 Geographical distribution of crude oil and natural gas in India
250
Electricity (MW) thousands
200 Installed renewable energy

Solar
150 4%
Biomass 13%
100
50 Hydro 13%
Wind
0 70%
1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Year
Thermal Hydro Nuclear Other Total
Chart 1.4 Energy distribution of total
Figure 1.3 Total electricity production installed capacity of 25410 MW (as on
August 2012)
Color Plate 3
Figure 1.4 Map of gas pipelines in India

Color Plate 4
Others, Traction and

5% Railway, 2%
Commercial,
9%
Industy, 45%
Agricultural,
17%
Domestic,
22%
Chart 1.5 Sector-wise distribution of present energy consumption
Energy intensity of GDP at constant purchasing power parities
Unit: koe/$05p
Less than 0.15
koe/$05p
0.15 to 0.20 koe/$05p
0.20 to 0.30 koe/$05p
0.30 to 0.70 koe/$05p
More than 0.70 koe/$05p
No data
Source Enerdata
Figure 1.5 World map of energy intensity
Cleaning cost
4%
Maintenance
cost
16%
Energy Cost
54%
Operating
cost
26%
Figure 2.6 Pie chart of annual building-operating cost

Color Plate 5
Figure 3.1 Multimeter, power-factor meter, and power analyzer
Bandwidth
filter Emissivity
Lens
Energy
Detector Amp
radiance
Output
Irradiance signal
reflected energy
Linearization
Figure 3.2 Infrared thermometer and its working
Figure 3.3 Thermographic image of a building Figure 3.4 Psychrometer and

hygrometer
Process pressure
P2
h
P1
Figure 3.5 U-tube manometer, Bourdon gauge, piezoelectric pressure sensor,

and digital manometer
Color Plate 6
Figure 3.6 Ultrasonic flowmeter Figure 3.7 Anemometer to measure

air velocity
Figure 3.8 Combustion-gas analyzer

Figure 3.9 Lux meter
Figure 3.10 Tachometer and stroboscope

Color Plate 7
Fully trimmed with all safety

controls and piping
Exhaust
stack High temp.
Davited hinged
access doors refractory lined
(tubes) rear door
UL. listed
burner
Flame
sight port
All A.S.M.E. code

piping to second
Extra heavy skids valve
Fully automated Gas, oil or combination and supports
processor forced draft burners
Figure 4.3 Internal construction of a packaged boiler
Exhaust pipe
Pressure spring
Raw coal feed pipe

Air intake
Grinding roll
Ring or bowl
Bearing
Worm gear Worm drive
Bearing
Figure 4.9 Ring pulverizer

Color Plate 8
Gasifier Gas stream cleanup/component separation Fuels

Syngas
CO/H2 Chemicals
H2
H2 Transportation fuels
Gaseous
constituents
Coal
Particulates
Electric power
Combined
Biomass Combustion Turbine
Sulfur/ cycle
Feedstock sulfuric acid Generator
Petroleum Solids Air
coke/resid Electric power
Oxygen ASU Air Exhaust
Water
Waste
Exhaust Stack
Heat recovery
Steam steam generator CO2 for sequestration
Marketable solid by-products Generator
Electric power
Steam turbine
Figure 4.11 Integrated gasification combined cycle
Electrodes
Charging Arc
Slag Spout
door
Molten steel
Figure 5.2 Conveyer and rotary-kiln furnace Figure 5.4 Arc furnace
Color Plate 9
168 Kg/cm2 Reheated steam Main steam

Main steam
320°C 150 Kglcm2, 540°C 35 Kgicm2, 540° C
Reheated steam
IP SV & CV Bled steam
210 MW, KWU design,
3 cylinder turbine
HP SV & CV 247 MVA
Generator
HPT IPT LPT GEN.

Boiler
drum
Deaerator
120°C
Condenser
0.91 Kg/cm2
Super reheater
vacuum
Bled steam
heater
B.F.P. Warm water
Economizer
1300°C
Evaporator
Cooled water
30°C
FRS C.W. pump Cooling tower
Flue
gases 244°C Condensate
180 45°C
Kg/cm2 Feed water
HP heaters LP heaters
Air Coal Boiler C.E.pump Condenser
Feed water cooling water
Figure 6.9 Steam and water circuits of thermal power plant
Shaft seals
Timing grars
Cooling jackets
Asymmetric rotors
Anti-friction and
roller bearings
Figure 8.4 Rotary screw compressor

Color Plate 10
Stator
Fan cover
(Windings)
(hood) Fan
Frame Bearings
Bracket
(end bell)
Rotor
Motor shaft Seal
Conduit box Conduit box
cover
Figure 10.7 Image of illegal tapping of Figure 11.1 Internal view of a motor
electricity
Compressor 42%
RAC 5%
Fans 13%
Pumps 42%
Others 35%
Figure 11.2 Industrial uses of motors Figure 11.6 Image of a soft starter
More copper
wiring in stator
Higher slot fill
Lower loss premium

steel core
Longer stator steel stack

with thinner laminations
Figure 11.7 IE3 Premium-efficiency motor

Color Plate 11
Energy cost Maintenance cost

Initial cost Other cost
Figure 12.A.1 Lifecycle cost of pump
Conduction through Internal heat gain

Air conditioning Lighting glazed walls
Other equipment Ventilation fans Roof conduction Wall conduction
Chart 14.1 Energy consumption in a Chart 14.2 Approximate heat gain
commercial building in a building premises
Figure 14.1 Different fixtures for skylights

Color Plate 12
Leh
Delhi
Ahmedabad
Kolkata
Hyderabad
Legends
Bengaluru Hot and dry

Hot humid
Composite
Gold
Moderate
Map of India showing different climatic zones

(map not to scale)
Figure 14.2 Different climate zones of India

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Handbook of Energy Audit

Handbook of Energy Audit

McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited

3. Industry/Building owners getting their premises audited

My Best Wishes for the Success of this Book!

1. Global and Indian Energy Scenarios 1–21

1.7.4 The electricity act, 2003 17

2. Types of Energy Audits and Energy-Audit Methodology 22–47

2.2 Company/Building Where Energy Audit is Performed 23

Step 2: Scope of audit 25

Phase III Reporting 33

2.6.3 Equity and bonds 41

3. Survey Instrumentation 48–59

4.1.1 Fire-tube boiler 61

4.1.5 Pulverized coal boiler 66

4.2 Parts of a Boiler 69

4.3.1 Direct method 69

4.4.1 How to measure excess air 76

4.5 Energy-Saving Methods 77

4.5.4 Effective boiler loading 79

4.5.7 Make-up water and feedwater management 80

4.5.9 Heat loss in de-aeration 82

5.3.7 Use of advanced technology 93

Energy saving in an arc furnace 93

Use of pulverized coal instead of coking coal 95

6.4.5 Sootblowing optimization 114

7.8.3 Use steam-turbine drive instead of electric motor 134

7.8.6 Use steam at lowest possible pressure 135

8.2 Types of Compressors 145

8.2.3 Reciprocating air compressors (1 CFM to 6300 CFM) 145

8.4.7 Regular maintenance 154

All-air induction systems with perimeter reheat 171

9.8.13 Use of a vapour-absorption refrigeration system 180

Advantages of a VRF system 186

10.3 Variable-Frequency Drive 198

11.2 Parameters Related to Motors 211

11.4 Energy Conservation in Motors 214

11.4.4 Optimization of the complete system 220

11.5 BEE Star Rating and Labelling 229

12.A.4 Flow Control and Pump Losses 240

12.A.7.6 Use of multiple-speed pumps 247

12.A.8 Steps to Design New Pumping System 248

Thumb Rules 249

12.B.1.1 Centrifugal fans 250

12.B.4.5 Use of variable-frequency driven fans 259

12.C.2 Performance of a Cooling Tower 263

12.C.4.1 Sizing of the cooling tower 266

Short-answer questions 270

13.2.3 Fluorescent lamps 277

13.6 Lenses and Louvres 282

13.9.2 Task lighting 287

Use of metal halide lamps 289

Bachat lamp yojana 290

14.1.2 Envelop heat gain 297

14.1.8 Co-ordination between designer and developer 301

14.1.11 Adopt solar water heating 302

Part C: Data collection 306

15.2 Heat Transfer Mechanism in Thermal Insulation 310

15.3.1 Fibrous insulation 315