FUNDAMENTALS OF FLUID FLOW

Principles Involved:
a) the principle of conservation of mass;
b) the energy principle (kinetic and potential energies)
c) the principle of momentum

Definition of Terms:
Discharge or Flow Rate, Q
- the amount of fluid passing through a section per unit of
time
Q = AV
Mass Flow Rate =  Q
Weight Flow Rate =  Q
 where:
Q = discharge in m3/s or ft3/s
A = cross-sectional area of flow in m2 or ft2
V = mean velocity of flow in m/s or ft/s
 = mass density in kg/m3 or slugs/ft3
 = weight density in N/m3 or lb/ft3

Steady Flow
- the type of flow that occurs when the discharge Q pass-
ing a given cross-section is constant with time
Unsteady Flow
- when the flow Q at the cross-section varies with time
Uniform Flow
- occurs with steady flow for a given length of a stream
the average velocity of flow is the same @ every cross-
section
Continuous Flow
- occurs when at any time, the discharge Q at every
section of the stream is the same (principle of conserva-
tion of mass)
Continuity Equation
For incompressible fluids:
Q = A1V1 = A2V2 = A3V3 = constant
For compressible fluids:
1A1V1 = 2A2V2 = 3A3V3 = constant
or 1A1V1 = 2A2V2 = 3A3V3 = constant
Laminar Flow
- occurs when the path of individual fluid particles do not
cross or intersect
- Reynolds Number, Re ≤ 2000
Sample Problems:

1. Water flows through a 3-in-dia. pipe at a velocity of 10 ft/s. Find the:

a) volume flow rate in cfs and gpm,
b) weight flow rate
c) mass flow rate A
V = 10 ft/s
Q •
3-in 
Sol’n:
a) Volume flow rate is commonly known as Discharge, Q
Q = AV where: A = (d2)/4 ft 2 V = 10 ft/s
3 2

12
Q= 10 = 0.4909 cfs or ft3/s
4
Convert cfs to gpm (gallons per minute)
What is your answer?

Maximum flow is always at the longitudinal axis of the pipe (passing

through the center of the cross sectional area).
 b) Weight flow rate

W =  AV =  Q = 62.4 lb/ft3 (0.4909 ft3/s) = 30.6 lb/s

c) Mass flow rate

M =  AV =  Q = 1.94 slug/ft3 (0.4909 ft3/s) = 0.952 slug/s

2. Assume the conduit shown succeeding the problem has (inside)

diameters of 12 in. and 18 in. at sections 1 and 2, respectively. If water
is flowing in the conduit at a velocity of 16.6 ft/s at section 2, find the:
a) velocity at section 1
b) volume flow rate at section 1
c) volume flow rate at section 2
d) weight flow rate
e) mass flow rate
(For continuous flow it should be steady and uniform that is always our assumption in
the problems of hydraulics unless stated otherwise and it is mostly applied to
incompressible fluids.)
2
1
Fluid flow
a) Using Continuity Eqn:

A1V1 = A2V2
[()(12/12)2/4](V1) = [()(18/12)2/4](16.6)
V1 = 37.3 ft/s

b) Q1 = A1V1
Q1 = 29.3 ft3/s

c) Q2 = A2V2
Q2 = 29.3 ft3/s

d) You solve weight flow rate and

e) mass flow rate.

Reynolds Number
- A dimensionless number which is significant in the
design of a model of any system in which the effect of
viscosity is important in controlling the velocities or the
flow pattern of a fluid.
Turbulent Flow
- occurs when the path of individual particles are irregular
and continuously cross each other.
- Re > 4000
One-Dimensional Flow
- occurs when in an incompressible fluid, the direction and
magnitude of the velocity at all points are identical
Two-Dimensional Flow
- occurs when the fluid particles move in planes or parallel
planes and the streamline patterns are identical in each
plane
Streamlines
- are imaginary curves drawn through a fluid to indicate
the direction of motion in various sections of the flow of
the fluid system.
Streamtubes
- represents elementary portions of a flowing fluid bounded
by a group of streamlines which confine the flow.
Flow Nets
- are drawn to indicate flow patterns in case of two-
dimensional flow.
Energy and Head
• Potential Energy
♪ Energy due to position or elevation
♪ Energy due to pressure in the fluid
• Kinetic Energy
Kinetic Energy
- the ability of the fluid mass to do work by virtue of its
velocity
1 1 W 2
KE = MV2 = V
2 2 g

KE V2
Kinetic Head or Velocity Head = =
W 2g

where:
M = mass of the fluid
V = velocity of flow
W = weight of the fluid
Elevation Energy
- the energy possessed by the fluid by virtue of its position
or elevation with respect to a datum plane

Elevation Energy = WZ
Elevation Head = Z

where:
z = position of the fluid above (+) or below (-)
the datum plane

Pressure Energy
- the energy of fluid due to its pressure head
Pressure Energy = W
p

p
Pressure Head =

Total Flow Energy, E
- is the sum of the kinetic and the potential energies
expressed as
V2 p
E= +  + Z (Total energy head)
2g

Power
- the rate at which work is done, units is in watts (N.m/s)
- a fluid of unit weight  (N/m3) and moving at a rate of
Q (m3/s) with the total energy of E (m).

P = QE
or in horsepower Note:
QE 1 Horsepower = 746 watts
Hp = = 550 ft-lb/s
746
Sample Problems:
1. A pipe positioned below contains water flowing with a velocity of 5 m/s,
the center of the pipe is 3 m above a datum line and if a piezometer is
placed above point A, pressure head would be at 1.5 m. Find the
Discharge, Weight Flow Rate, Total Energy, and Power of the flow.

p
0.20 m  h= = 1.5 m


A Velocity = 5 m/s

3m Datum

Sol’n:
Discharge is volume flow rate, Q = AV
= [()(0.20)2/4](5)
Q = 0.1571 m3/s
W = Q
= (9.81 kN/m3)(0.1571 m3/s)
W = 1.541 kN/s
 VA2 pA
Total Energy, E = + + ZA
2g 

(5 m/s)2
= + 1.5 m + 3 m
2(9.81 m/s2)

= 5.774 m (energy in meters)

Power, P = Q  E
= (0.1571 m3/s)(9810 N/m3)(5.774 m)
= 8898.61 N.m/s or Watts

QE 8898.61 Watts

To horsepower = =
746 746 Watts/hp
= 11.928 hp
Bernoulli’s Energy Theorem
- resulting from the application of the principles of
conservation of energy

1 
2
Z1 Datum Z2

Eat section 1 + Eadded – Elost = Eat section 2

1. Neglecting friction, the total energy head, or the total amount of
energy per unit weight, is the same at every point in the path of flow.

Energy Grade Line, EGL

V12
2g
V22
Hydraulic Grade Line, HGL
2g
p1

1

Q
E1 p2 E
 2

Z1

2

Z2
Datum Plane
Energy Equation from point 1 to point 2

E1 = E2

V12 p1 V22 p2
+ + Z1 = + + Z2
2g  2g 

Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL) also known as pressure gradient - is the graphical
representation of the total potential energy of flow. It is the line that connects the
water levels in successive piezometer tubes placed at intervals along the pipes.
Its distance from the datum plane is (p/) + z .

Energy Grade Line (EGL) - is the graphical representation of the total energy of flow
(the sum of kinetic and potential energies). Its distance from the datum plane is
V2 p
+  + Z1
2g
2. With continuous, steady flow, the total head at any point in a stream
is equal to the total head at any downstream point plus the loss of
head between the two points.

V12 Energy Grade Line, EGL

HL1-2
2g

Hydraulic Grade Line, HGL

p1
 V22
2g
1

Q
E1 E
p2
2

Z1

2

Z2
Datum Plane
Energy Equation from point 1 to point 2

E1 - HL1-2 = E2

E1 = E2 + HL1-2

V12 p1 V22 p2
+ + Z1 = + + Z2 + HL1-2
2g  2g 

The greatest head loss is due to friction between fluid and pipe walls.
3. With pump: Pump is used basically to increase the head. (Usually
to raise water from a lower to a higher elevation). The input power
(Pinput) of the pump is electrical energy and its output power (Poutput)
is the flow energy.
•2

P
•1

E1 + HA - HL1-2 = E2 Note:
HA = Head Added
E1 + HA = E2 + HL1-2
V1 2 p1 V22 p2
+ + Z1 + HA = + + Z2 + HL1-2
2g  2g 

Pump power = Q  HA (output)

Efficiency = (Poutput / Pinput) x 100%
4. With Turbine or Motor: Turbine or motor extracts flow energy to do
mechanical work which in turn converted into electrical energy for
turbines.

•1

T
•2

E1 - HE - HL1-2 = E2 Note:
HE = Head Extracted
E1 = E2 + HE + HL1-2
V12 p1 V22 p2
+ + Z1 = + + Z2 + HE + HL1-2
2g  2g 

Turbine power = Q  HE (input)

Efficiency = (Poutput / Pinput) x 100%
Continuous Flow
- occurs when at any time, the discharge Q at every
section of the stream is the same (principle of conserva-
tion of mass)
Continuity Equation
For incompressible fluids:
Q = A1V1 = A2V2 = A3V3 = constant
For compressible fluids:
1A1V1 = 2A2V2 = 3A3V3 = constant
or 1A1V1 = 2A2V2 = 3A3V3 = constant
Laminar Flow
- occurs when the path of individual fluid particles do not
cross or intersect
- Reynolds Number, Re ≤ 2000
Continuous Flow must also be a uniform and steady flow.

Q1
Converging Flow 1
3 Q3
Q1 + Q2 = Q3
2
Q2

Diverging Flow
Q1 = Q2 + Q3
Example
In the rectilinear chamber shown, section 1 has a diameter of 4 in. and
the flow in is 2 cfs. Section 2 has a diameter of 3 in. and the flow out is 36
fps average velocity. Compute the average velocity and volume flux at
section 3 if D3 = 1 in. Is the flow at 3 in or out?

Solution:
Example
A fluid is flowing in a 6-in-diameter pipe at a pressure of 4.0 lb/in2
with a velocity of 8.0 ft/s as shown in the figure. The elevation at the
center of the pipe above a given datum is 10 ft. Find the total energy
head above the given datum if the fluid is:
a) Water
b) Oil with a specific gravity of 0.82
c) Gas with a specific weight of 0.042 lb/ft3
Solution:
Example
The figure below shows a pump drawing water from a reservoir and
discharging it into the air at point B. The pressure at point A in the
suction pipe is a vacuum of 10 in. mercury, and the discharge is 3.0 cu.
ft. per second. Determine the total head at point A and at point B with
respect to a datum at the base of the reservoir.
Example
The figure below shows a 50-mm-diameter siphon is drawing oil
(s.g. = 0.82) from an oil reservoir. If the head loss from point 1
to point 2 is 1.50 m and from point 2 to point 3 is 2.40 m, find the
discharge of oil from the siphon and the oil pressure at point 2
when the temperature is at 20oC.
Using the energy equation from point 1 to 3 solving for v3

Solving for the discharge of the whole system.

Using the energy equation from point 1 to 2 solving for p2

Example
The pump shown draws water from a reservoir A at elevation 10 m
and lifts it to reservoir B at elevation 60 m. The loss of head from A
to 1 is 2 times the velocity head in the 200 mm diameter pipe and
the loss of head from 2 To B is 10 times the velocity head in the
150 mm diameter pipe. Determine the horsepower of the pump
and the pressure heads at 1 and 2 in meters when the discharge is
0.03 m3/s
Solution:

𝑄1 = 𝑄2 = 0.03 𝑚3 /𝑠
𝜋
𝑄1 = 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 0.2 𝟐𝑉1 = 0.03 𝑚3 /𝑠
4
𝑚 𝑉1
𝑉1 = 0.955 ; = 0.0465 𝑚
𝑠 2𝑔

𝜋
𝑄2 = 𝐴2 𝑉2 = 0.15 𝟐𝑉2 = 0.03 𝑚3 /𝑠
4

𝑚 𝑉2
𝑉2 = 1.698 ; = 0.147 𝑚
𝑠 2𝑔

Energy Eqn. between the surfaces of A and B

𝐸𝐴 − 𝐻𝐿𝐴−1 + 𝐻𝐴 − 𝐻𝐿1−𝐵 = 𝐸𝐵
 𝑉𝐴 𝟐 𝑝𝐴 𝑉𝐵 2 𝑝𝐵
+ + 𝑍𝐴 + 𝐻𝐴 = + + 𝑍𝐵 + 𝐻𝐿𝐴−1 + 𝐻𝐿1−𝐵
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾

0 + 0 + 10 + 𝐻𝐴 = 0 + 0 + 60 + 2(0.0465) + 10(0.147)

𝐻𝐴 = 51.563 𝑚

In the substitution of values in the energy equation from liquid surface of reservoir
A to reservoir B, the velocity head was assigned the value of 0 due to the fact that
what has been considered is a particle of water at the fluid surface and at the start
the particle was at rest then when the water was drawn from reservoir A to
reservoir B the particle also starts to move from rest and acquires a velocity inside
the pipe. When it reaches the surface at reservoir B, the particle stops as it reaches
its destination. The pressure head at the liquid surface is given a zero value
because the particle of liquid is exposed to atmosphere and when it is in gage
pressure all particles at the surface has a pressure of zero. The same reason when
it reaches the liquid surface at reservoir B.
3
𝑄𝛾𝐻𝐴 0.03 𝑚 𝑠 9810𝑁 (51.563 𝑚)
𝐻𝑝 = =
746 746

𝑯𝒑 = 𝟐𝟎. 𝟑𝟒 𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒔𝒆𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 (output power of the pump)

Pressure heads at 1 and 2:

Energy Eqn. between surfaces of A and 1:

𝐸𝐴 − 𝐻𝐿𝐴−1 = 𝐸1 There is a loss

of energy head
𝑉𝐴 𝟐 𝑝𝐴 𝑉1 2 𝑝1 as water travels
+ + 𝑍𝐴 = + + 𝑍1 + 𝐻𝐿𝐴−1
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 from A to 1 due
to friction
𝑝1 (which is a
0 + 0 + 10 = 0.0465 + + 0 + 2(0.0465) major loss). So,
𝛾
the loss at A
𝒑𝟏
= 𝟗. 𝟖𝟔𝟎𝟓 𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 will be added to
𝜸 point 1 in
consonance to
Bernoulli’s
There is no HA involved because the flow Energy
considered has not yet reached the pump. Theorem
considering
loss of head.
Energy Eqn. between 2 and surface of B:

𝐸2 − 𝐻𝐿2−𝐵 = 𝐸𝐵

𝑉2 𝟐 𝑝2 𝑉𝐵 2 𝑝𝐵
+ + 𝑍2 = + + 𝑍𝐵 + 𝐻𝐿2−𝐵
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾

𝑝2
0.147 + + 0 = 0 + 0 + 60 + 10(0.147)
𝛾
𝒑𝟐
= 𝟔𝟏. 𝟑𝟐𝟑 𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝜸
 Example
The figure below shows a 50-mm-diameter siphon is drawing oil
(s.g. = 0.82) from an oil reservoir. If the head loss from point 1
to point 2 is 1.50 m and from point 2 to point 3 is 2.40 m, find the
discharge of oil from the siphon and the oil pressure at point 2
when the temperature is at 20oC.

Pressure at
pt 1 is zero
because it
is exposed
to atmo-
sphere
Pressure at pt 3
is zero because
the water dis-
Charges into the
Atmosphere.
Using the energy equation from point 1 to 3 solving for v3

Solving for the discharge of the whole system.

Using the energy equation from point 1 to 2 solving for p2

The negative pressure here
indicates that at the summit of the
tube is suction.
Example
Neglecting friction, find the
velocity and volumetric
discharge at the exit 2.

𝑉1 𝟐 𝑝1 𝑉2 2 𝑝2
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2 + 𝐻𝐿1−2
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾

𝑉2 2
0 + 0 + 3 + 0.6 + 1.5 = 0 + +0+0
2(9.81)

𝒗𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎 𝒎/𝒔

𝜋 150
𝑸 = 𝐴𝑉 = 2(10) = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟕𝟕 𝒎𝟑 /𝒔
4 1000