Analyzing an Audience in Public Speaking

"You might think about these questions as the who, what, where, when, and whys of audience
interaction:

Who is in this audience?

What opinions does your audience already have about the topic you are presenting?

Where are you addressing the audience? What things about the context or occasion might influence
your audience members' interest and dispositions?

When are you addressing the audience? This is not just a matter of the time of day, but also why your
topic is timely for the audience.

Why would your audience be interested in your topic? Why should these people make a particular
judgment, change their minds, or take a specific action? In other words, how does your goal intersect
with their interests, concerns, and aspirations?

This analysis will help you figure out how to make effective choices in your speech."

(William Keith and Christian O. Lundberg, Public Speaking: Choice and Responsibility, 2nd. ed.
Wadsworth, 2016)

George Campbell (1719-1796) and Audience Analysis

"[Campbell's] notions on audience analysis and adaptation and on language control and style perhaps
have had the longest range influence on rhetorical practice and theory. With considerable foresight, he
told prospective speakers what they need to know about audiences in general and audiences in
particular. . . .

"[In The Philosophy of Rhetoric, Campbell] moved to an analysis of the things which a speaker should
know about his particular audience. These include such matters as educational level, moral culture,
habits, occupation, political leanings, religious affiliations, and locale." (James L. Golden, The Rhetoric of
Western Thought, 8th ed. Kendall/Hunt, 2004)

Audience Analysis and the New Rhetoric

"The New Rhetoric recognizes situation (or context) as the basic principle of communication and revives
invention as an indispensable component of rhetoric. In so doing, it establishes audience and audience
analysis as important to the rhetorical process and vital to invention. [Chaim] Perelman's and [Stephen]
Toulmin's theories especially establish audience belief as the basis for all rhetorical activity (which
covers most written and spoken discourse), and as the starting point for the construction of arguments.
Later, theorists applied the insights of New Rhetoric theory specifically to composition theory and
instruction." (Theresa Enos, ed., Encyclopedia of Rhetoric and Composition: Communication from
Ancient Times to the Information Age. Taylor & Francis, 1996)
Hazards and Limitations of Audience Analysis

"[I]f you pay so much attention to the audience that you inhibit your self-expression, audience analysis
has gone too far." (Kristin R. Woolever, About Writing: A Rhetoric for Advanced Writers. Wadsworth,
1991)

"As Lisa Ede and Andrea Lunsford point out, a key element of much audience analysis is 'the assumption
that knowledge of the audience's attitudes, beliefs, and expectations is not only possible (via
observation and analysis) but essential' (1984, 156). . .

"Due to the pervasiveness of an audience-oriented inventional strategy in the history of rhetoric,

numerous analytic methods have been developed over the years to aid the rhetor in this hermeneutic
task. From Aristotle's early efforts to categorize audience responses to George Campbell's attempts at
engaging the findings of faculty psychology to contemporary demographic attempts to apply cognitive
psychology, the tradition offers a vast array of tools for audience analysis, each of which relies on some
visible criteria in order to determine an audience's beliefs or values.

"Nevertheless, these efforts to infer attitudes and beliefs from more observable phenomenon present
the analyst with a host of difficulties. One of the most sensitive problems is that the results of such
analyses frequently end up looking like a politically egregious form of stereotyping (not unlike the
practice of racial profiling)." (John Muckelbauer, The Future of Invention: Rhetoric, Postmodernism, and
the Problem of Change. SUNY Press, 2008)

https://www.thoughtco.com/audience-analysis-speech-and-composition-1689146

The link between clear, logical organization and effective communication is powerful, both for the
"sender" and the "receiver." For the writer, a well organized outline of information serves as a blue print
for action. It provides focus and direction as the writer composes the document, which helps to ensure
that the stated purpose is fulfilled. For the reader, clear organization greatly enhances the ease with
which one can understand and remember the information being presented. People seek out patterns to
help make sense of information. When the reader is not able to find a pattern that makes sense, chaos
and confusion abound. Effective communication, then, begins with a clearly organized set of ideas
following a logical, consistent pattern. Thus, one of the most important decisions a writer makes
concerns the pattern of organization that is used to structure and order information.

There are many patterns a writer can use to organize his/her ideas. The specific pattern (or combination
of patterns) chosen depends upon the particular topic and the objectives the writer has identified for
the document. There is no rule to follow in choosing a pattern of organization; one must simply think
carefully about which pattern makes the most sense in helping the reader to better understand and
remember the information. There are many different ways of organizing the same information, and
often two or more different organizational patterns are combined to create a final outline of
information.

The most commonly used patterns of organization are described below.

Chronological Patterns

A chronological pattern of organization arranges information according to a progression of time, either

forward or backward. When a topic is best understood in terms of different segments of time, a
chronological format works well. For example, topics of an historical nature are best organized using this
pattern.

When using a chronological pattern, each main section of information represents a particular period of
time, and the sub-points contained within each main section refer to significant events that occurred
within that time frame. A variation of this organizational pattern involves dividing a topic into "past-
present-future" or" before-during-after" segments.

For example, suppose a writer's stated purpose is to describe the historical development and evolution
of the city of Seattle. Assuming that Seattle is 100 years old, the writer could organize the information by
grouping it into four 25-year chunks. In this case, the sub-points within each main section of time
represent the most significant events that occurred during that particular time frame. Notice that by
breaking the 100 year span into distinct 25 year chunks, the writer can create an outline that follows the
guidelines of outlining described under "Principles of Organizing." This outline contains four mutually
exclusive and balanced sections of information.

Chronological Pattern Example

I. 1895 - 1920

Significant Event # 1

Significant Event # 2

II. 1920 - 1945

Significant Event # 1

Significant Event # 2

III. 1945 - 1970

Significant Event # 1
Significant Event # 2

IV. 1970 - 1995

Significant Event # 1

Significant Event # 2

Sequential Patterns

A sequential pattern of organization is similar to a chronological pattern, but arranges information

according to a step-by-step sequence that describes a particular process. Using a sequential pattern,
each main section of information represents a main step that one would follow in the actual process.
The points included within each main section represent the sub-steps one would follow. When one
wishes to describe a process that follows a specific series of steps in a particular order, then, a
sequential pattern works well.

For example, suppose a writer's stated purpose is to explain how wine is made. A sequential pattern
would be effective in this case because it breaks the process down into a specific series of steps which
should be followed in a precise order. Notice that a series of related smaller steps are grouped into one
larger category. Thus, a process which involves many specific steps can be simplified by highlighting the
most fundamental steps, which helps the reader understand the process and remember its key parts.

Sequential Pattern Example

I. Step One: Harvest the grapes

Harvesting procedure number one

Harvesting procedure number two

II. Step Two: Prepare the grapes

Preparation procedure number one

Preparation procedure number two

III. Step Three: Ferment the grapes

Fermenting procedure number one

Fermenting procedure number two

IV. Step Four: Press the grapes

Pressing procedure number one

Pressing procedure number two

V. Step Five: Age the wine

Aging procedure number one

Aging procedure number two

Spatial Patterns

A spatial pattern of organization arranges information according to how things fit together in physical
space; i.e., where one thing exists in relation to another. This pattern works well when a writer wishes to
create a mental picture of something which has various parts distinguished by physical location. Topics
involving geography, for example, are often best organized using a spatial pattern.

For example, suppose a writer wished to describe the forms of entertainment available to tourists
visiting Seattle. He/she could arrange the information according to "things to do" in the different
districts or geographic locations of the city. Notice how this pattern of organization aids the reader. It
makes sense for the writer to organize the information by physical location because the information is
easy to understand and use in this format, particularly for tourists who are not familiar with the area.

Spatial Pattern Example

I. Downtown Waterfront

Aquarium

Pike Place Market

II. Seattle Center

Space Needle

Pacific Science Center

III. University District

University of Washington campus

The "Ave" (shops on University Avenue)

Compare-Contrast Patterns

A compare and contrast pattern arranges information according to how two or more things are similar
to or different from one another (or both). This is an effective pattern to use when the reader can better
understand one subject when it is described in relation to another. If the reader is familiar with one
topic, the writer can compare or contrast it with another topic to shed insight on it.

For example, suppose a writer's stated purpose is to help the reader make an informed decision about
whether to attend a two-year college or a four-year university. One way to arrange the information is to
compare and contrast the two educational options along several important dimensions, such as cost,
quality of education, and variety of educational programs. In this case, the number of main sections in
the outline would depend on how many dimensions or factors were considered (three in the case
below). Another way to arrange the information would be to create two main sections, one that
describes similarities and one that describes differences (as shown in example # 2). Notice that either
format could be equally effective.

Compare and Contrast Pattern Example One

I. Cost of Tuition

Two-year

Four-year

II. Quality of Education

Two-year

Four-year

III. Educational Programs

Two-year

Four-year

Compare and Contrast Pattern Example Two

I. Points of Comparison

Educational Programs

Cost of Tuition

II. Points of Contrast

Quality of Education

Type of Degree

Advantages-Disadvantages Patterns

This pattern organizes information about a topic by dividing it up into its "good" and "bad" parts, or
pro's and con's. It is effective to use when a writer wishes to objectively discuss both sides of an issue
without taking a persuasive stance. This allows the reader to weigh both sides of an issue. As with the
compare-contrast pattern, there are a number of possible variations to an advantages-disadvantages
pattern. The simplest form of this pattern is shown below.
Suppose, for example, that a writer's stated purpose is to describe the advantages and disadvantages of
attending a two-year college. One way to arrange the information is to divide it into two main sections,
one for the advantages and one for the disadvantages. In this scenario, the information contained within
each main section will represent the specific topics of analysis (cost, accessibility, etc).

Advantages and Disadvantages Example

I. Advantages

Cost

Accessibility

II. Disadvantages

Number of educational programs

Quality of instruction

Cause-Effect Patterns

This pattern is used to show the different causes and effects of various conditions. This pattern is
particularly effective when writing a persuasive document in which the writer advocates some action to
solve a problem, because it demonstrates important relationships between variables. There are two
major variations to this pattern; (a) dividing the outline into two major sections comprised of causes and
effects; or (b) dividing the outline according to the different causes, with the effects of each cause
contained within the larger "causes" section. See the examples below.

Suppose a writer's stated purpose is to explain the causes of conflict escalation and their effects. He/she
could organize the information in one of the following two ways. Again, notice that either method could
work equally well.

Cause and Effect Pattern Example One

I. Causes of Conflict Escalation

Expanding the issues

Personal attacks

II. Effects of these causes

Lose focus on original issue

Cycle of defensive responses

Win-Lose orientation

Negative emotions

Cause and Effect Pattern Example Two

I. Cause: Expanding the issues

Effect: Lose focus on original issues

Effect: Cycle of defensive responses

II. Cause: Personal attacks

Effect: Negative emotions

Effect: Win-Lose orientation

Problem-Solution Patterns

A problem-solution pattern divides information into two main sections, one that describes a problem
and one that describes a solution. This pattern is typically used in persuasive writing, where the writer's
general purpose is to convince the reader to support a certain course of action. The pattern is designed
to compel the reader to make some kind of change in opinion or behavior by establishing that a problem
exists, then providing a solution. In the problem section, the writer identifies different aspects of the
problem being discussed and offers evidence of these problems. In the solution section, the writer
identifies a potential solution and supports the effectiveness of this solution over others.

For example, suppose a writer's stated purpose is to persuade his/her readers to ride bicycles as their
primary form of transportation. First the writer will attempt to establish that common forms of
motorized transportation create compelling problems that require a solution. Then he/she will show
how the proposed solution - riding bikes - provides a beneficial alternative to driving.

Problem-Solution Example

I. Problem: Motorized Transportation

Increasing traffic congestion

Increasing pollution

Increasing "road rage" from traffic-related stress

II. Solution: Riding Bicycles

Bike riding reduces the number of motorized vehicles in use

Bike riding is not a source of pollution

Bike riding has physical and psychological health benefits

Topical Pattern

This pattern is the most commonly used format, and will typically work when the other patterns do not.
A topical pattern arranges information according to different sub-topics within a larger topic, or the
"types" of things that fall within a larger category. Using this pattern, each "type" represents a main
section of information.

For example, suppose a writer wished to describe various types of wine. One way to outline this
information would be to divide the type of wine by its color, as shown in example one. A second way
would be to divide the types of wine by the region in which they were made, as shown in example two.

Topical Pattern Example One

I. Red Wines

A. European

Bordeaux

Burgundy

Chianti

B. Californian

Cabernet Sauvignon

Pinot Noir

Zinfandel

II. White Wines

A. European

Bordeaux

Burgundy

Mosel

B. Californian
Sauvignon Blanc

Chardonnay

Riesling

Topical Pattern Example Two

I. European Wines

Red

___

___

___

White

___

___

___

II. Californian Wines

Red

___

___

___

White

___

___

http://faculty.washington.edu/ezent/impo.htm

owers of 10:
Time Scales in Public Speaking

by Andrew Dlugan

Published: Sep 11th, 2011

Have you ever thought about the relationship between time and public speaking?

On the surface, you engage your audience second by second, stringing together words into sentences
that, over the duration of your presentation, may last minutes or perhaps hours.

Yet, the impact of your speaking experiences may last days, weeks, months, or even years — for you and
for those in your audiences.

In this article, we examine time scales ranging from a tenth of a second to hundreds of years, and
consider how each of these scales is relevant to you as a speaker.

One Tenth of a Second

A typical speaking rate is 150 words per minute, or 2.5 words per second. This means the average time
between words is just four tenths of a second. When you consider pauses, a syllable leaves your lips in
about a tenth of a second. (Your brain, of course, has to operate on a much faster scale to keep up.)

In one tenth of a second, perceptions form in your audience’s mind — either positive or negative. It
could be an inflection that makes them cringe, or a visual that evokes a warm memory. It could be a
facial expression which betrays a lack of sincerity, or a crackling voice which signals genuine emotion.

One Second

Pauses in your speech range from a short “comma pause” (about one second) to longer pauses for
rhetorical effect (lasting several seconds). The duration of pauses is critical; if it’s too long, you’ve got an
uncomfortable pause.
Want to learn more?

Explore perspectives on filler words in: Are… um… Filler Words… ah… Okay?

The enemy of the pause is the filler word: utterances which include “um”, “uh”, and “ah”. Everyone has
a few filler words, but they are more common among speakers who are inexperienced, unprepared, or
especially nervous. Skilled speakers understand that, instead of filler words, you can simply pause while
you collect your thoughts; you don’t need a filler word to mark the moment.

Although the audience perceives slide visuals on the sub-second level, slide recognition occurs on the
order of a second. Well-designed slides are recognized easily, and their meaning is associated the words
of a speaker quickly. Particularly confusing slides can cause several seconds (or more) of high cognitive
processing.

Ten Seconds

Effective eye contact is achieved when your gaze finds an audience member, and then stays there for
perhaps a sentence or two — generally in the ten second range. Eye contact which is significantly
shorter — like a ping pong ball — will seem insincere. Eye contact which is significantly longer may be
uncomfortable, and perhaps leave other audience members feeling “left out.”

“You should be able to clearly summarize your main message within ten seconds.”

Ten seconds is also the range in which complete sentences are spoken, including most memorable
phrases and quotations. You should be able to clearly summarize your main message within ten
seconds.

One Minute

One minute is about the length of good story which a speaker might tell. Stories significantly shorter
probably do not develop adequate conflict, emotion, or a significant message. Stories significantly longer
could likely benefit either from aggressive editing (removing superfluous details which detract from the
story) or splitting in two (in case more than one point is being made).

Want to learn more?

You can find numerous tips in How to Introduce a Speaker: 16 Essential Tips for Success

One minute is about the maximum time needed to introduce a speaker in most contexts. Any longer
than this, and the introducer risks boring the audience and stealing attention away from the speaker.
Ten Minutes

Ten minutes is the upper limit for what many people might call a “short” speech. In ten minutes, you’ve
only got time to properly develop one central idea, while supporting it with several stories and
supporting points. It requires precise focus and discipline from a speaker.

Many popular formats hover around this average.

Speaking formats such as Pecha Kucha (six minutes forty seconds) or Ignite (five minutes) restrict
speakers down further and yet are wildly popular social events.

TED talks (which have been reviewed numerous times on Six Minutes) come in various lengths, but the
longest top out at 18 minutes.

Ten minutes is long enough to read most articles on Six Minutes, or another speaking blog. These bite-
sized lessons are intended to motivate, instruct, and challenge you to improve your skills.

In a longer speaking session (e.g. a training session), ten minutes is a rule of thumb for switching gears.
It’s wise to vary your technique, switch formats, and otherwise add variety to your session to keep the
energy of your session high.

One Hour

One hour is a common length of a keynote address or the corporate staple known as the noon-hour
seminar. One hour provides time for a speaker to cover their topic in much more depth and breadth, as
well as allowing for an extended question and answer (Q&A) period.

One hour is the most common length of a Toastmasters meeting. It’s short enough to allow members to
fit it into their hectic day, but long enough to cover the core elements (prepared speeches, evaluations,
and impromptu speaking).

One hour is also a convenient duration for speech coaching sessions. A good speaking coach can work
with you to explore your strengths and weaknesses, and one hour provides lots of time for repetitive
practice as well.

Ten Hours
Ten hours is the upper bound for a daily seminar, or the daily program at many conferences. Most
people will get pretty fatigued with 10 hours of listening to speakers. Speaking in this environment
requires special skill in balancing valuable information with lighter, less cognitively draining activities.

One Day

“Your speech should be designed with a clear and emphatic call-to-action to do something that can
reasonably be done within a day.”

One day is a practical upper bound for someone in your audience to act on your call-to-action. Nick
Morgan claims that “the only reason to give a speech is to change the world.” I agree, and that starts by
changing the thoughts and actions of individual audience members. Your speech should be designed
with a clear and emphatic call-to-action. It should be challenging enough that opting to do it truly does
represent change, but simple enough that it can be started within a day of your speech.

For example, “losing 20 pounds” is not a call-to-action,

but “starting an exercise habit tomorrow” is.

One day is also the outer range where you can receive useful feedback on your presentation (assuming
it was not recorded, of course). The best time to solicit feedback is during (e.g. a feedback form) or
immediately after (e.g. mingling with your audience) your presentation. Asking for feedback days or
weeks after a presentation is not likely to reap many rewards as the feedback you receive will tend to be
generic.

One Week

One week is a healthy period to practice your presentation. You certainly don’t need to practice twenty-
four hours a day for a full week; thirty minutes per day will usually suffice. Rather than cramming all of
your practice into the night before your presentation — or worse, the morning of your speech —
consider spreading it over a week to allow yourself the time to become more comfortable with the
content.

One week is also a good interval during which you should try to devote some time to developing your
speaking skills. Like any habit, it’s hard to built momentum if you don’t get regular exposure. This
includes both speaking before an audience, as well as support activities like working on speeches,
gathering speechwriting material, or reading speaking blogs and books. It is not a coincidence that
Toastmasters clubs (and most other extra-curricular activities) are designed to establish weekly
participation.
Ten Weeks

Ten weeks is about the length of time it takes to establish a new speaking habit. Most of us resist
change, either consciously or subconsciously. If you want to develop a new habit (speaking or
otherwise), doing it once or twice will not suffice.

“If you want to develop a new habit (speaking or otherwise), doing it once or twice will not suffice.”

Ten weeks is the also upper limit needed to fully prepare for most major presentations. Do you think
that’s too long? Well, let me bound it a bit.

By “major presentations”, I’m talking about the ones which can make or break your career (like landing a
new client) or help you achieve a personal goal (like making your case before city council for a new
bylaw).

By “fully prepare”, I mean the time from your initial idea that you’d like to give a speech to the time you
deliver it. You might spend the first four or five weeks just brainstorming or researching content. Then,
you might spend the next few weeks writing, practicing in front of a test audience, and honing your
delivery.

One Year

One year is long enough to set yourself on a new speaking path. The new path depends a great deal on
where you are now, and what your goals for the future are:

Maybe “I’m terrified of speaking” gets replaced with “I’m scared, but I speak”.

Maybe “I’m scared, but I speak” gets replaced with “I feel nervous, but I harness that energy”.

Maybe “I speak when I am required to” gets replaced with “I enjoy speaking whenever I can”.

In one year, you could recognize an opportunity, develop a course, market yourself, and launch
supplementary income or a whole new career.

Ten Years

Over a span of ten years, you can completely reshape yourself with a disciplined, committed approach
to improving your communication skills, and translating that into becoming more effective at whatever
path you choose to pursue.
For example, maybe devoting yourself to becoming a master communicator will launch you into
management and steer your career to new heights.

One Hundred Years (and more)

You may not live this long, but your words can live one hundred years or longer.

Maybe you’re going to give a political speech that is quoted for centuries to come.

Or, more likely, you’re going to inspire your children, your grandchildren, and your audience members
with a message that continues to become more and more powerful as the years pass.

Individual syllables, which last only tenths of a second on your lips, can last for hundreds of years if they
are carefully chosen. Consider that the next time you are writing your speech.

Inspiration for This Article

You may be interested on know that the inspiration for this article is Powers of Ten, a classic
documentary by Charles and Ray Eames which can be viewed below.

As a science geek, the documentary is fascinating, but there are lessons to be learned for speakers too.
Some particularly effective techniques include:

The use of a common, everyday occurrence to set the initial context.

The frequent use of comparison to easily understandable distances (e.g. 100 meters: the distance a man
can run in 10 seconds)

The simple, repetitive use of 10 and the consistent pace of the documentary.

Enjoy!

http://sixminutes.dlugan.com/time-scales-public-speaking/