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BU Midterms (Room Acoustics)
BU Midterms (Room Acoustics)
BU Midterms (Room Acoustics)
LECTURE 4
Room acoustics
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Kuvat: Rossing et al .
2002, Beranek 2004
Reflection of sound
Significance of reflections
• Sound perception is affected by the
level of reflections, their delay in
relation to direct sound and the
direction from which they reach the
listener
• Strong reflections with adequate
delay are heard as separate
echoes (disturbance)
• If the delay between direct sound
and early reflections is appropriate
(about 50...80 ms), the reflections
increase the loudness of sound
(perceived sound level)
important in the design of speech
and music spaces
• Lateral reflections (reaching the
listener`s ears from the sides) add
to the sense spatial impression
and broadening of the sound
source crucial in the design of The effect of single lateral reflection to sound
concert halls perception (Barron 2003)
Reflection of sound
The effect of basic room geometry
3 8
13 9
11 10
6
2
5 1 12
Reflection of sound
Effect of surface geometry
Reflection of sound
Example: reflecting surfaces in a concert hall
Reverberation time
Significance of reverberation time
• The reverberation time in a space correlates rather well
with the perceived clarity of speech or music: long
reverberation the syllables in speech or separate
musical notes attenuate slowly and mask each other
Reverberation time
Significance of reverberation time
• Too short a reverberation time is not desirable because in an
overly damped space there are no useful reflections!
• In addition to appropriate reverberation time, good room
acoustics provides that
– The space has appropriate size and shape
– Sound absorbing and reflecting surfaces are positioned correctly
• Two viewpoints: room acoustics experienced by the audience
and by the performer
– For the audience, it is important to have useful sound reflections
form the performer to the audience
– For the performer, it is important that the stage acoustics supports
the performer`s activity
Reverberation time vs. use
Reverberation time vs. use
V / hlö
Tila
[m3]
Kokoustila 3…5
Auditorio, teatteri 4…6
Musiikkiteatteri,
5…8
ooppera
Kamarimusiikkisali 6…10
Konserttisali 8…12
Kirkko 10…14
Reverberation time
Sabine equation
• Sabine equation:
V
RT60 0,161
A n
A 1S1 2 S 2 ... n S n i Si
i 1
• Sabine equation assumes that the sound field in the room is
diffuse, i.e., at any point in the room sound can arrive from
any direction and the field remains the same throughout the
room
• This is an idealisation that does not hold perfectly true in real
rooms
Reverberation time
Notes on Sabine equation
• Sabine equation can be used with good accuracy in rooms which
are sufficiently reverberant
– Sabine equation is most accurate in a reverberant room where the average
absorption coefficient is < 0,25 1)
– In very absorbent rooms the Sabine equation gives erroneous results
• Additional requirements for Sabine equation to yield accurate
results:
– The room geometry should be simple (cube-like) and the room should be
quite small
– The absorption material should be evenly distributed on the room surfaces
– Calculation error increases in large and complex spaces
• In rooms where all the absorption material is positioned only on one
surface, Sabine equation yields shorter reverberation time than is
the case in practice
average
S
i i
S i
Reverberation time
Notes on Eyring-Norris equation
• Eyring-Norris equation can be used in more absorptive rooms
where average absorption coefficient is > 0,25, e.g., studios
• However, sound absorption coefficients that are commonly
available and published by material manufacturers are
Sabine coefficients (measured in a reverberation chamber
and calculated using Sabine equation) and can, thus, be
directly applied only to the Sabine equation
• For this reason, Sabine equation is the usual choice in
acoustical design and is also used on this course
• Other researchers have suggested alternative reverberation
formulas, e.g., Fitzroy, Millington, Hopkins-Striker...
Reverberation time
Air absorption
• Taking account of air absorption, the Sabine and Eyring-
Norris equations can be written as:
Sabine: Eyring-Norris:
V V
RT60 0,161
S ln 1 average 4mV
RT60 0,161
A 4mV
where m is the air attenuation coefficient (some values: m =
0,009 at 2 kHz; m = 0,025 at 4 kHz; m = 0,080 at 8 kHz)
• Air attenuation
– is only significant in large spaces above 2 kHz
– depends on relative humidity of air, absorption increases at low
humidity
Air absorption
T = 20 °C, RH = 50 %
Room modes
• Sound field within a room is comprised of room
resonances, called room modes
• Room mode = characteristic resonance of the
room
• Three types of modes: axial, tangential, oblique
• The amount and spacing of room modes changes
with frequency
• At low frequencies there are only a few room modes
and the modes are sparsely spaced, as a result of
which the reverberation time and sound level can
vary considerably in different points in the room
(consider the placement of a subwoofer in a living
room)
• At high frequencies the number of room modes gets
so high and their frequencies are so close to one
another, that single room modes cannot be
distinguished sound field approaches the
idealisation of diffusivity
Room modes
• The frequency, below which the sound field in a room is not diffuse (so-
called Schröder frequency) depends on reverberation time and volume:
T
f s 2000
V
• Example, typical dewlling room: T = 0,5 s ja V = 30 m3 fs = 260 Hz
• The room modes of a rectangular room can be calculated based on the
dimensions of the room (Lx, Ly, Lz):
c l m n
2 2 2
f lmn
2 LX LY LZ
where l, m, n are integers
Room modes
• Standard deviations of
reverberation times
measured in 50 empty
rooms in a dwelling
• Each point represents
the reverberation time
calculated from
measurement
conducted in 12 points
in a room
• In small rooms sound
field is not diffuse at
low frequencies, thus
the variance in
reverberation time
increases towads low
frequencies
Absorption vs. reflection
Sound absorbing materials
General
• Sound absorption –
three absorption
mechanisms:
– Porous materials (P)
– Resonant absorbers (R)
– Membrane / panel
absorbers (M)
• Typical absorption
behaviour in the figure
Sound absorbing materials
Porous materials – effect of placement
• Sound absorption of porous
materials is based on thermal
losses caused by friction in
the pores of the material
• At the surface of a rigid
structure (e.g. wall, roof)
sound pressure is at
maximum and particle
velocity at minimum
• Maximal particle velocity
occurs at 1/4λ distance from
the surface of the structure
to achieve effective
absorption, there should be
absorbing material at this
distance
Sound absorbing materials
Porous materials
• Porous material absorbs sound most effectively when the thickness of the
material is at least four times the sound wavelength: d ≥ 1/4λ
• Example:
mineral wool 20 mm: 20 mm ≥ 1/4λ λ ≤ 80 mm f ≥ 4290 Hz
• Note: low-frequency sounds have long wavelength (e.g. 100 Hz 3,4 m)
thin layers of porous material do not much absorb low frequencies!
/4 /4
Sound absorbing materials
Porous materials
• Absorption
coefficients of
mineral wool
• Note the effect of
suspension height
Sound absorbing materials
Porous materials – examples of use
Sound absorbing materials
Porous materials – examples of use
Sound absorbing materials
Perforated panels (resonant absorbers)
• Perforated panels act as resonant absorbers; the absorption is
based on mass-spring resonance caused by the air in the hole
acting as mass and the air in the background airspace acting as
spring
• Absorption is most effective at the resonance frequency of the
mass-spring system
• Resonance frequency and absorption coefficient are affected by:
– Thickness of the airspace and filling with porous material
– Size, amount and geometry of holes
– Thickness of the panel
• Resonance frequency is typically at mid frequencies (500-1000 Hz),
below and above which absorption coefficient decreases
• Absorption coefficient of perforated panel absorbers can be
increased by filling the background airspace with porous absorption
material
Sound absorbing materials
Perforated panels
1,0
0,8
Reikäala 7 %, ilmaväli 30 mm
0,6
Absorptiosuhde
Reikäala 17 %, ilmaväli 30 mm
0,4
Reikäala 17 %, ilmaväli 200 mm,
jossa 50 mm mineraalivilla
0,2
0,0
125
250
500
1000
2000
4000
Keskitaajuus [Hz]
Sound absorbing materials
Panel absorbers
• Structure of a panel (or membrane) absorber: a closed
airspace behind an impervious (not perforated) panel
which can be filled with porous material
• Absorption coefficient is highest at low frequencies
around the resonance frequency
• Resonance frequency depends on the surface mass of
the panel and thickness of the airspace:
60
f0
m`d
• Note: at high and mid frequencies panel absorbers are
sound reflecting structures!
Sound absorbing materials
Panel absorbers
1,0
0,8
0,4
2 x kipsilevy 13 mm, mineraalivilla
50 mm
0,2
0,0
125
250
500
1000
2000
4000
Keskitaajuus [Hz]
Sound absorbing materials
Miscellaneous materials and structures
Hard surfaces
1,0
0,8
0,6
Absorptiosuhde
Lakattu puu 69 mm
Maalattu betoni
Muovimatolla päällystetty betoni
Rapattu tiili
0,4
0,2
0,0
2000
125
250
500
1000
4000
Keskitaajuus [Hz]
Chairs and audience
1,0
0,8
0,6
Absorptiosuhde
0,2
0,0
4000
1000
2000
125
250
500
Keskitaajuus [Hz]
Air absorpion
Effect on reverberation time
2,5
• In large spaces
reverberation time
2,0
decreases at high
frequencies because of
Jälkikaiunta-aika T [s]
1,5
air absorption
• Example curve: 1,0
Savonlinna hall
0,5
0,0
250
500
1000
2000
4000
125
Keskitaajuus [Hz]
Effect of vapour barrier on absorption
Effect of vapour barrier on absorption
Classification of absorption materials
• According to EN 11654
(classes A-E)
• Measured absorption
coefficient is compared to
a reference curve, the
sum of unfavourable
deviations ≤ 0,10
• Note: definition of
absorption class does not
consider frequencies
below 200 Hz!
Classification of absorption materials
Sound diffusing structures (diffusors)
Requirements for
early reflections
and reverberation
time