Module 1

The Human Organism

Topic Topic Title Time

Duration
1 Introduction to Anatomy, Physiology with 1 hour
Pathophysiology
2 Structural level of Organization
2.1 Chemical levels of organization 1 hour

2.2 Cell structure and function 1 hour

2.3 Tissue level of organization 1 hour

3 Homeostasis 1 hour

Introduction to Anatomy, Physiology with

Topic 1
Pathophysiology

Learning Objectives:
At the end of this Module the student is able to:
1. Define Anatomy, Physiology and Pathophysiology
2. Explain the importance of the relationship between structure and function
3. Define the directional terms, planes and cavities for the human body.
4. Describe the six levels of organization of the body and describe the major
characteristics of each level
5. List the eleven-organ system, identify their components, and describe the major
functions of each system
6. Discuss the main chemical elements of the human body.
7. Distinguish between inorganic and organic molecules.
8. Describe the functions of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
9. Discuss Homeostasis and explain why it is important for proper body function
Introduction:
The module in Anatomy, Physiology with Pathophysiology begins with the definition of terms
followed by a discussion of the organization of the human body and how the body regulates its
own internal environment known as homeostasis. To be able to name the different body parts, to
describe their detailed structure, and to be able to explain how they work are all necessary to
achieve the goal of understanding the human body.

Do you still
remember this
song?

The recorded study of Anatomy can be traced back during the Greek civilization when
Ptolemy I Soter allowed medical officials to cut open and examine dead bodies for the
purposes of learning how human bodies function. The study of human anatomy and
physiology also provides the basis for understanding disease which is important for
healthcare providers.

Anatomy is the study of the structure of the body.

Physiology is the study of the functions of the body.
Pathophysiology is the study of the changes of normal mechanical, physical, and
biochemical functions, either caused by a disease, trauma or resulting from an abnormal
syndrome.
Subdisciplines of Anatomy:
Cytology is the microscopic study of the structure of cells.
Histology is the study of tissue.
Developmental anatomy is the study of the structure from egg to adult form.
Embryology is the study of structures from the time of fertilization through the eight week
of gestation.
Gross anatomy refers to structures that can be studied without the aid of a microscope.
Pathological anatomy is the study of changes in structures caused by disease.
Regional anatomy is the study of a specific region of the body, such as the head or lower
extremities.
Radiographic anatomy is the study of the body through x-rays.
Surface anatomy is the study of the body through observation and palpation.
Systemic anatomy is the study of specific body systems.
Subdisciplines of Physiology:
Neurophysiology, the study of nerves;
Cell physiology, the study of cell function.
In the study of any body system, whenever any structure is affected by a pathological
condition, the physiology of the structure may be affected as well; therefore, cardiology,
endocrinology, and study of other body systems may also cross over into the categories
of physiology and pathology.

CAN YOU RELATE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION ?

The Kidney consist of millions of nephrons which filters the

blood of waste and excreted by forming urine. 1. What would
happen if these structures fail to function? 2. What diagnostic
procedure/intervention can be associated with this organ?
Anatomical Terminology
In studying the human body, it is important to know some anatomical direction as point of
reference. The correct anatomical position is standing erect, facing forward, arms at side, and
palms facing forward.
The body can be described by Planes of division.
The frontal plane also called coronal plane cuts the body into anterior and posterior positions.
The sagittal plane cuts the body into left and right sections
The midsagittal plane cuts the body into equal left and right sections.
The transverse plane also called horizontal plane, cuts the body into upper and lower sections

Directional Terms
Anterior (ventral): toward the front; in front of
Caudal (inferior): toward the tail; lower
Cephalad: toward the head; upper
Cranial (superior): toward the head
Deep: far from the surface
Distal: away from a point of reference; farthest from
the trunk
Dorsal (posterior): toward the back; in back of
Inferior (caudal): toward the tail; lower
Lateral: away from the midline of the body
Medial: toward the midline of the body

Cavities / Abdominal divisions

Characteristics of Life

• Movement
• Responsiveness - ability to sense changes and react
• Digestion - break-down and delivery of nutrients
• Metabolism – chemical reactions within the body
• Production of energy
• Excretion - elimination of waste from metabolic reactions
• Reproduction
• Growth - increasing of cell size and number
The human body can be studied at six structural levels; chemical, cellular, tissue, organ,
organ system and organism.

Chemical level: the human body is made up of chemical elements which interact to
bring about body function
Cell level: The smallest living structure of the body is the cell
Tissues level: tissues are groups of similar cells that have a common function.
Organ level: An Organ is defined as a part of the body composed of two or more tissue
types and performing one or more specific functions. Examples are brain, heart, liver,
kidneys, and lungs
Organism level: An organism is any living thing composed of mutually interdependent
parts that maintain various vital processes.
Chemical levels of organization

All forms of matter whether living or nonliving are made up of chemical elements, there
are twenty-six chemical elements present in the human body. Four (96%) of these
elements constitute the major elements, namely carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.
The lesser elements (3.8%) are calcium, phosphorous, potassium, magnesium, sulfur,
sodium, chlorine, and iron. In addition, the remaining (0.2%) are referred as trace
elements such as aluminum, boron, chromium, cobalt, copper, fluorine, iodine,
manganese, molybdenum, selenium, silicon, tin, vanadium, and zinc. All the metabolic
processes and even malfunctions of the human body can be described in chemical terms.
There are two important classes of chemical compounds in the human body:
inorganic and organic. Inorganic compounds lack carbon these include water, salts and
bases. On the other hand, Organic compounds contain carbons and hydrogen.
Inorganic compounds:
Oxygen is a nonpolar inorganic molecule consisting of two oxygen atoms held together
by a double covalent bond. Oxygen is essential for most living organisms since they
require O2 for respiration.
Carbon dioxide consist of one carbon atom bound to two oxygen atoms. Carbon dioxide
is produced as a waste product of metabolism, once produced it is eliminated from the
cells as a waste product during exhalation.
Water is an inorganic molecule that consist of one atom of oxygen joined by polar
covalent bonds to two atoms of hydrogen. Due to its polarity it makes an excellent solvent
for other ionic substances. This property is important to health and survival. Because
water can dissolve many substances it is an ideal medium for metabolic reactions. Water
enables reactants to combine to form products or dissolves waste products. Water has
the ability of stabilizing body temperature.
Acids is a proton donor that dissociates into one or more hydrogen ions (H+) and one or
more anion example hydrochloric acid (HCL) in the stomach
Base is a substance that removes H+ from a solution and is a proton acceptor, it
dissociates into one or more hydroxide ions (OH-), example sodium hydroxide (NAOH)
dissociate to form sodium (Na+) and hydroxide (OH-) ions.
Salts are compound consisting of a positive ion other than H+ and a negative ion other
than OH-, example hydrochloric acid combines with sodium hydroxide forms NaCl. In the
body, salts are electrolytes that are important for carrying electrical currents.
Buffers are chemical substances that resists changes in pH when an acid or a base is
added to a solution containing the buffer. Buffers may either add or remove (H+), this is
important in maintaining the acid-base balance of the fluid inside or outside the cells. One
important buffer system of the body is the carbonic acid-bicarbonate buffer system
Organic compounds

Carbohydrates consist of elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. they had the
empirical formula CH2O. They are defined as polyhydroxy aldehydes and ketones.
Among the compounds that belong to this family are cellulose, starch, glycogen, and most
sugars. In humans’ carbohydrates function mainly as source of chemical energy. The
ratio of hydrogen to carbon is 2:1. There are three major groups of carbohydrates namely
Monosaccharides also called simple sugar, Disaccharides or double sugar and
Polysaccharides or complex sugar.
The monosaccharides are white, crystalline solids that contain a single aldehyde
(aldoses) or ketone (ketosis) functional group. They are also classified based on the
number of carbon atoms as a triose (3C), tetrose (4C), pentose(5C), hexose (6C), or
heptose (7C). The important monosaccharides are glucose, fructose, maltose all with
a formula of C6H12O6.
Disaccharides are formed by condensing a pair of monosaccharides. The structures of
three important disaccharides has the formula C12H22O11. The common “table sugar" is
the disaccharide sucrose, which is extracted from either sugar cane or beets. Sucrose is
the sweetest of the disaccharides. Maltose, or malt sugar, which forms when starch
breaks down, is an important component of the barley malt used to brew beer. Lactose,
or milk sugar, is a disaccharide found in milk. Very young children have a special enzyme
known as lactase that helps digest lactose. Human milk has twice as much lactose as
milk from cows, young children who develop lactose intolerance while they are being
breast-fed are switched to cows' milk or a synthetic formula based on sucrose.

Polysaccharides, have relatively large molecular weights. The polysaccharides like

glycogen serve two principal functions. They are used by both plants and animals to
store glucose as a source of future food energy and they provide some of the mechanical
structure of cells. The most abundant structural polysaccharide is cellulose. Humans
cannot digest cellulose because they don't have an enzyme that can cut the b-linkages
between glucose molecules. Cellulose in their diet therefore serves only as fiber, or
roughage. The digestive tracts of some animals, such as cows, horses, sheep, and goats
contain bacteria that have enzymes that can cut these b-linkages, so these animals can
digest cellulose.
Fats/Lipids are substances containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen that are
hydrophobic (insoluble in water) but dissolve in non-polar solvents, such as acetone and
alcohol. Fats are important energy storage molecules; they insulate and act as cushion
to body organs. The unit structure of fats are glycerol and fatty acids.
Three types of lipids found in foods and in your body:
• Triglycerides (fats), Phospholipids, and Sterols
• Basic unit of triglycerides and phospholipids is fatty acid
There are three main types of fatty acids:
• Saturated fatty acids: all carbons bonded to hydrogen, Example: stearic acid, solid at
room temperature
• Monounsaturated fatty acids: one double bond, Example: oleic acid, (olive oil), liquid at
room temperature
• Polyunsaturated fatty acids: more than one double bond, Example: essential fatty acids
linoleic and alpha linolenic acids (soybean oil)

Proteins are polymers of 20 different amino acids. Each amino acid consists of a carbon
atom (called the α carbon) bonded to a carboxyl group (COO-), an amino group (NH3+),
a hydrogen atom, and a distinctive side chain.
 Proteins serves as 1. structural components of cells and tissues collagen fibers, and
contracting units of the muscle called actin and myosin.
2. Transport and storage of small molecules (e.g., the transport of oxygen by
hemoglobin), 3. transmitting information between cells (e.g.protein hormones),
and 4. providing a defense against infection (e.g., antibodies).
5. act as enzymes to catalyze nearly all the chemical reactions in biological systems.

Nucleic acids — building blocks of nucleotides

DNA and RNA —are the principal informational molecules of the cell
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) has a unique role as the genetic material, which
in eukaryotic cells is located in the nucleus.
Ribonucleic acid (RNA) participate in a number of cellular activities. Messenger RNA
(mRNA) carries information from DNA to the ribosomes, where it serves as a template for
protein synthesis. Two other types of RNA (ribosomal RNA and transfer RNA) are
involved in protein synthesis. DNA contains two purines (adenine and guanine) and two
pyrimidine (cytosine and thymine). Adenine, guanine, and cytosine are also present in
RNA, but RNA contains uracil in place of thymine.
 Cellular levels of organization
The smallest living structure of the body is the cell, there are about 200 different types
of specialized cells that carry out functions to maintain homeostasis of the whole human
body.
A ‘typical’ Eukaryote cell major parts include:
1. Nucleus
- chromosomes /chromatin - dispersed thin strands of DNA, histones
- Nucleolus – composed of rRNA and proteins
2. Cytoplasm
 Cell membrane - Outer limit of the cell, Phospholipid bilayer, selectively permeable
• Controls what moves in and out of the cell
Cytoplasmic organelles
 Flagellum – long hair-like projections from cell surface that aid in cell movement
 Cilia – are small hair-like structures outside the cell organ.
found in lungs, respiratory tract, fallopian tube, middle ear.
➢ Rough Endoplasmic reticulum - Studded with ribosomes on cytoplasmic side –
Synthesizes proteins • Adds sugar to protein – Results in glycoproteins
 Smooth Endoplasmic reticulum -membrane- No ribosomes – Synthesis of lipids
 Mitochondria – generates energy (ATP)
 Ribosomes – granules composed of RNA - protein synthesis
 Centrioles- Used to produce cilia and flagella • Distributes chromosomes during
cell division
 Lysosomes- Enzyme-containing sacs • Digest worn out cell parts /unwanted
substances

Movement across the cell membrane

A solution is generally composed of one or more substances, called solutes, dissolved
in the predominant liquid or gas, which is called the solvent.
Diffusion – movement of solutes from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower
concentration of that same solute in solution. Osmosis - is the diffusion of water (a
solvent) across a selectively permeable membrane, from a region of higher water
concentration to one of lower water concentration

Hypotonic - solution that has a lower concentration of solutes and a higher concentration
of water relative to the cytoplasm of the cell. Water moves by osmosis into the cell,
causing it to swell. If the cell swells enough, it can rupture, a process
called lysis. Hypertonic- solution, that has a higher concentration of solutes and a lower
concentration of water relative to the cytoplasm of the cell. Water moves by osmosis from
the cell into the hypertonic solution, resulting in cell shrinkage, or crenation. Isotonic –
solution that has the same concentration of various solutes and water on the same on
both sides of the cell membrane. The cell therefore neither shrinks nor swells

Active transport is a carrier-mediated process that moves substances across the cell
membrane from regions of lower concentration to those of higher concentration against
a concentration gradient. Active transport requires energy in the form of ATP. One
example of active transport is the movement of various amino acids from the small
intestine into the blood. Endocytosis - is the uptake of material through the cell
membrane by the formation of a vesicle, the cell membrane folds inward and the material
is taken into the cell. Phagocytosis, larger vesicle forms (solid particle is taken in),
pinocytosis, smaller vesicle is formed (liquid is taken in)
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Cell Cycle – the process by which a cell divides into two and duplicates its genetic
material. There are three stages namely: interphase, mitosis and cytokinesis.
Interphase - this is the longest phase. During this phase, the cell grows (G1), the cell
acquires nutrients, creates and uses proteins and other molecules, replicates its DNA (S)
and prepares for mitosis (G2.
Mitosis is a type of cell division in which one cell (the mother) divides to produce two new
cells (the daughters) that are genetically identical to itself.
Prophase – in this phase the chromatin in the nucleus begins to thicken and becomes
visible in the light microscope as chromosomes. The nucleolus disappears. Centrioles
begin moving to opposite ends of the cell and fibers extend from the centromeres. Some
fibers cross the cell to form the mitotic spindle.
Prometaphase – in this phase the nuclear membrane dissolves, proteins attach to the
centromeres creating the kinetochores. Microtubules attach at the kinetochores and the
chromosomes begin moving.
Metaphase – in this phase spindle fibers align the chromosomes along the middle of
the cell nucleus. This line is referred to as the metaphase plate. This organization helps
to ensure that in the next phase, when the chromosomes are separated, each new
nucleus will receive one copy of each chromosome.
Anaphase – in this phase the paired chromosomes separate at the kinetochores and
move to opposite sides of the cell.
Telophase – in this phase the chromatids arrive at opposite poles of cell, and new
membranes form around the daughter nuclei. The chromosomes disperse and are no
longer visible under the light microscope. The spindle fibers disperse, and cytokinesis or
the division of the cell begins.
Cytokinesis - In animal cells, cytokinesis results when a fiber ring composed of a protein
called actin around the center of the cell contracts pinching the cell into two daughter
cells, each with one nucleus. In plant cells, the rigid wall requires that a cell plate be
synthesized between the two daughter cells.

Normally, in each type of cell division, the genetic material is exactly duplicated but
sometimes the genetic material may be damaged due to radiation or certain
chemicals and the cells continuously grow forming masses of tissues which can lead
to cancer
 Topic 2.3 Tissue level of organization

Tissue level:
A tissue is a group of specialized cells that share a common structure and function. There
are four primary types; epithelial, connective, muscular and nervous
Connective tissue

Cells divide more rapidly in the young and much more slowly in older adults.
Therefore, injuries in older adults heal much slower and occasionally, incompletely
especially bone tissue. Muscle cells and nerve cells decrease with age and so memory
and brain capacity decline significantly. Collagen fibers become irregular resulting to
fragile and less flexible tendons and wrinkling of the skin.
Organ System
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
This system is made up of the heart, blood, blood vessels, and lymphatics. It is the body’s delivery
system, concerned with circulating blood to deliver oxygen and nutrients to every part of the body.
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
The purpose of the digestive system is to turn the food you eat into something useful for the body. When
you eat, your body uses this system to digest food so your cells can use it to make energy. The organs
involved in this system include the mouth, stomach, and intestines.
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
This system is made up of a collection of glands, including the pituitary and thyroid glands, as well as the
ovaries and testes. It regulates, coordinates, and controls a number of body functions by secreting
chemicals into the bloodstream. These secretions help control moods, growth and development, and
metabolism.
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
This system consists of the skin, hair, nails, and sweat glands. Its main function is to act as a barrier to
protect the body from the outside world. It also functions to retain body fluids, protect against disease,
eliminate waste products, and regulate body temperature.
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
This system is made up of muscle tissue that helps move the body and move materials through the body.
Quite simply, muscles move you. Muscles are bundles of cells and fibers that work in a simple way: they
tighten up and relax.
NERVOUS SYSTEM
The nervous system is the control center of the human body. It is made up of the brain, spinal cord, and
nerves. It receives and interprets stimuli and transmits impulses to organs. Your brain uses the
information it receives to coordinate all of your actions and reactions.
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
The human reproductive system ensures that humans are able to reproduce and survive as a species. It
is made up of organs such as the uterus, penis, ovaries, and testes.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
The primary function of the respiratory system is to supply the blood with oxygen in order for the blood to
deliver oxygen to all parts of the body. The respiratory system does this through breathing. It consists of
the nose, larynx, trachea, diaphragm, bronchi, and lungs.
SKELETAL SYSTEM
The skeletal system provides the shape and form for our bodies in addition to supporting and protecting
our bodies, allowing bodily movement, producing blood cells, and storing minerals. This system consists
of bones, cartilage, and joints.
URINARY SYSTEM
The purpose of the urinary system is to filter out excess fluid and other substances from your
bloodstream. Some fluid gets reabsorbed by your body but most gets expelled as urine. The organs
found in this system are the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra.

Homeostasis
Homeostasis describes the mechanism by which the constancy of the internal
environment is maintained and ensured by self-regulating physiological processes
Ex. Regulation of temperature, Transport of Extracellular Fluid, Maintenance of pH of ECF
(acid– base balance), Maintenance of water and electrolyte balance, Supply of nutrients,
oxygen, enzymes and hormones, Elimination of metabolic and other waste products, and
Reproduction.
Homeostasis is mostly maintained by physiologic processes:
 If the response reverses the stimulus it is called negative feedback mechanisms
 If the response enhances or intensifies the stimulus a system is operating in a
positive feedback
Negative feedback
 Positive feedback

If homeostasis is disturbed, various negative feedback mechanisms usually return the

body to normal. In acute conditions, the body recovers its homeostatic balance quickly.
In chronic diseases, a normal state of balance may never be restored. If the disturbance
keeps the body’s internal environment too far from normal for too long, death may result.
Disease terminology:
Pathology – refers to the pattern of a disease’s development
Signs – are objective abnormalities that can be seen or measured by someone other than
the patient.
Symptoms – are the subjective abnormalities that are only felt by the patient.
Acute – when signs and symptoms appear, persist for a short time and the disappear
Chronic – when the disease develops slowly and last for a long time
Etiology – the cause of the disease
Idiopathic – diseases with undetermined cause
Epidemiology – refers to the occurrence, distribution, and transmission of disease in
human population
Endemic – disease that is native to a local region
Epidemic – disease that spreads to many individuals at the same time
Pandemic – disease that affect large geographic regions, spreading worldwide

Categories of basic mechanisms of disease:

1. Genetic mechanisms
2. Pathogenic organism like bacteria, virus, fungi, protozoa
3. Tumors and cancer
4. Physical and chemical agents
5. Malnutrition
6. Autoimmunity
7. Inflammation
8. Degeneration
Risk factors:
1. Genetic factors – an inherited trait puts one at greater risk ex. Light skinned are
at risk of developing skin cancer
2. Age – biological and behavioral variations during the different phases of human
life cycle ex. Middle ear infection is are more common in infants than adults
because of the difference in ear structure at different ages.
3. Life-style – the way one live and work can put him at risk for some disease
4. Stress – physical, psychological, or emotional can put one at risk
5. Environmental factors – climate and pollution can cause disease
6. Preexisting conditions – a preexisting disease such as infection can affect the
ability to defend oneself against infection.