www.EasyEngineering.n ANEXCLUSIVE WEBSITE FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS & GRADUATES = DAS, ENGINEERING © Apprise Education, Reprise Innovations ©2nd Edition , Textbook of | Engineering | Geology IN Chenna Kesavulu_|— CONTENTS Proce 10 the Second Eilon Preface 10 the First Eation GeoLocy Introduction {il Main and Allied Branches of Geslogy 12 Importance of Geslogy in Civil Enginzing 13 Scope of Geology GENERALGEOLOGY Introevetion 21 Geological Agents 22 Weathering of Rocks 23° River as a Geolozical Agent Introduction 31 Definition of a Nineral 32. Definition of @ Crystal 33. Mode of Formation of Miners 34 Common Rock-ferning Minerals and The Abundance 33 Different Methods of Study of Miners 346 Significance of Difeent Physical Properties in Mineral Identification 37 Diagnostic or Distinguishing, Physical Properis COMMON ROCK-FORMING MINERALS, Intcoduetion 41 Types of Rock-frming Minenls 42 Special Features of Silicate Minerals 43 Brief Sketch of Common Rocl-forning Mines 44 Important Details of Common Reckfoming Minerals PETROLOGY Introduction S1Shell Stvctre of the Earh 52. Definion of a Rock 3 533. Clasicaon of Rsks SA Sequenoe of Foaalion of ieent Groups of Ross 55 Rock Cycle 56 Chil Enginesriog Importance of Ptloey Z Baareees 101 ixit Contents 6 IGNEOUS ROCKS Ineodution 6:1 Forms of tenous Rocks 52 Miscelnneoms 63. Common igneous Rocks and Resto of Their Consent Minas 6.4 Classification of Igneous Rocks oT 65 _Sroties and Tenures 66 Sunabily of Igneous Rocks for Constructions Megsscopc Deseion of Relatively Common Ineoas Rock Types 7. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS Inroducon 7A Sedmentary Rocks on the Eh’ Crt 12 Clasieaton of Sedimentary Rocks 73. Common Siacres and Testes of Sedimentary Rocks TA Deseripdve Sudy of Common Sedimentary Rocks 8, METAMORPHIC ROCKS Intodtion £1 Meamorphism 82 Common Suctres and Textures of Metamorphic Rocks 83 Clifton of Metmorpis Rosks 8.4 Decripive Study of Common Metamorphic Rocks 9, STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY Inroduction 9.1 Causes for Development of Structures 92 Folds 93 Faults 94 Joins 9.5 Unconformity 1916 Common Symbols to Indicate Some Geological Structures 10, IMPORTANCE OF GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES Iroduetion ; 10.1 Effects of Folding and Their Civil Engineering Imperance 102 Effects of Faulting and Their Civil Engineering Importance 10.3 Effects of Joints and Theie Civil Engineering Importance 11. GROUND WATER Introduction 11.1 Sources of Ground Water Supply 112 Advantages of Using Ground Water 113 Distribution of Rainfall FP and emenily Duos a rocks Bs on Posty ané Pees 118 Cee anes of Gee Was 18 Mo Tn Spraean Grand Water Moves [rg Fuervation of the Water Table Level in Unconfined Aqui TE9. Ground Water Potetial in Difeent Pans ofl ar zm Poy 2 26 oy 2i0 21 0 mu 245 28 230 BB 2st 256 1140 Ground Water Exploion Contents i Tit Effects of Bxessve Taping of a 1112 Watelogging Gre Wer oH 12. STRATIGRAPHY EA Inodution 261 TEL Aims of Statigaphy a 122. Principles of Staeaphy x 123. Geological Tine Sele 2 124 Geological Dissions of nda ea 125. Major Sttigzpical Unis of tna = 125 Importance of the Study of Stat eee jmphy fom the Ci Engineering 13, EARTHQUAKES: Intoduction S31 Earthquake Terinology 32. Classifeations and Causes of Fanbqankes 133 Seismic Belts and Shield Areas Earthquakes and Faing Earthquake Wares Intensity of Eathquakes Magnitude of the Eachqukes [Locating the Epicente ofan Eanbuake Determining the Depth ofthe Focus of an Eathquke Effects of Earaquakes CGivil Engineering Considerations in Seismic Areas 112 Plate Tectonics and Earthquake Distribution 14, LANDSLIDES ‘nrodvetion L | 141 Importance of Landslides 142. Classification of Earth Movements 183. Causes of Lanislides 144 Effects of Lanislides 145 Preventive Messures for Landslides 18. GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATIONS Intoduetion 151 Branches of Geophysics 152 Necessity of Geophysical Investigations 153 Principles of Exploration Geophysics 154 Classifiaton of Geophysical Methods ISS Welllogeing 6. GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATIONS OF Inroduction 161 Electrical Resistivity Method 162. Seismic Refretion Method CIVIL ENGINEERING IMPORTANCE 25 312 xi 32xiv Consents 17, ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF ROCKS Introcuction V7.1 Different Engincering Property Tests for Rocks 17.2 Tests for Rocks Used as Foundation Sites of Consitions 173 Tests for Rocks Used as Building Stones I7A Tests for Rocks Used as Aggregates Dams Introéuction 18.1 Importance of Geology in Dam Constriction 182A Dam and Its Pans 183. Types of Dams and Bearing of Geology of Site in Their Selection 184 Purposes of Dams 185 Geological Considerations in the Selection of a Dan Site 18.6 Stages of Investigation in the Selection of a Dam Site 187 Case Histories 19, RESERVOIRS Inroduetion 19.1 Considerations ‘or Successful Reservoirs 192 Capacity of the Reservoir 193 Effect of Evaporation 1948 Water-tightness and Influencing Factors 19.5 Reservoir Siting 19.6 Seismic Activity in Reservoir Areas 19.7 Landslide Occurences 20, TUNMELS Introfuction 20.1. Purposes of Tunnelling 202 Effects of Tunnelling on the Ground 203 Lining of Tunnels i 204 Economical Aspects of Tunnelling 205 Geological Considerations for Successful Tunnelling 206 Overbreak 207. A Few Examples of Tunnels of Interest and Imporance Bibliography Indes SEEEESS 3 S8ESEE oH 1 GEOLOGY Inrovction: 1.1 Main and Aled Be Mineniogy U3 Feri, U1 paeonaagy 1.7 Eon L140 Geog Goyder: izes Sheinerig: 13 Soe of Grp: 131 heen Inpro of Cato 1s ates Applied Geology in Different Fields. art ey ‘Ams: The aims of this chaper ae: 1. To introduce the subjet. ‘To ist out the mair and allied branches of geology, exphin ei subject mater an wo tly fnlicate thee relevance from the ei eagnerng point view 3. Toexplore the scopeof geology in terms ofits academic sigicance Its purely mess to icukte inerest and curiosiy in the subject mate. 4. Te give the importance of geology in the fs of ()emploraton exten and exploitation of economic mine deposits, and mining: (0) ground water sues, tone planing: () ci engineering, and so on. InTRopUCTION ‘Glogy is the science ofthe eath (geo = ean logos = sty or scene). Ideals with diferent ‘spect of the ean as a whole such as () org, age, iter site and istry of the earth CG evcltion and mosicaton of various sure features ike vers mountains and lakes along with ther causes; and (ii) matrals making up the ean Geology isa scately recent sbjec In ation tis cre branches, advances in geology in Ali elds nave te to specie sees Iie geophysics, peste. eebyo, acy ‘tismoigy, oceanography, rock mechanics, phlogeOOE. aM Se as Sitirly, based on the applied importance of eve) inte: Fels ‘gineering geology, mining geology and x0 on Rav cme2 Textbook of Engineering Geology 1.1 MAIN AND ALLIED BRANCHES OF GEOLOGY “The vast subject of geology has been subdivided into the folowin ns tothe following branches fr the sake of systematic Main branches: Physical geology Allied branches: Engineering geology Mineralogy Mining geology Petrology Geophysics Structural geology Geohydrology Historical geology (stratigraphy) Geechemistry Palacontology Economic geology 1.1.1 Physical Geology | “This is also variously described as dynamic geology, geomerphology, ete. Asthe name suggests it deals ‘with: () different physical features of the earth, such as mountains, platerus, valleys, rivers, lakes, [laciers, and voleanoes in terms of their origin and development, (i) the different changes occuring ‘on the earth's surface, ike marine transgression, marine regression, formation or disappearance of fiver. srings and lakes, (i) geological work of wind, pliers, rivers, oceans, ground wate, and eit ole in constantly moulding the earth's surface features, and (i) natural phenomena like landslides, cearthquskes, and weathering. | "The main cause for surface changes is w« or indirectly due to changes in the atmospher ‘of special importance from the civil engineering point ‘and dunbility of rocks are adversely affected by weal ideal for most of the civil engineering works becomes weah rendering it useless. Civil engineers deal with structures like dams which are rivers, Proper understanding of the geological work of asiver Utilization for engineering applications. ceathering. Ths is a natural phenomenon resulting directly} re. It disintegrates and decomposes rocks. This aspect is 3 of view, because colour, appearance, strength thering. Thus even granite which is considered 1k and friable on thorough weathering, atificial barriers to the natural flow of ‘and its features will lead to their blir 1.1.2 Mineralogy ie z ae et i wh ith ie a Tis dee he fam omar, omni, carese 9 SSH a ject mat mineralogy. . ce sm a Propeenowiedge in this branch of geotogy is necessary for a ivi ‘engineer because the wor eee i ea (cancun nat eat aa rss eeaise of its mineral composition and ProPetis their constituent minerals, For example, Geology 1.13 Petrology (Peto = rock, fpos = stay) The earth's Sete cae ish mae iret Cu, exe eposton, eect engineering point of view. 1.14 Structural Geology ectatenery rca like folds, favs, joins and unconformits in rocks. The deals of mode of lerreaes aoe ae, classification, importance, etc., of these geological str ial a eel tein ee geology. eee “ : aU te eae ae sed aoa neil oN i ny tne ee sree ee ce any ene i se desirable geological set-up, while the same rocks with downsteam ‘dab la Fish —> Amphibians —» Reptiles 5. Inthe geological past. the earth experienced intense cold periods 5. Dari dynamic earth, its natura forces, their origin, development snd effets are known oly eee dob was cmnloped ty stow toa conser extent Te I ped of gaan £0. Po Src ie te Peep eo eae Wurm, occurred around 20,000 8 SMA 15, Studies of geological history reveal periodical occurence of large-scale eataseepic phere 66. Theancestors of the present-day insignificant lizan-tke reptiles were represented by the physi} ‘like owgeny. epeirogen. intense voleanic activity and paca, These demarcate the begins nos well-developed giant replies. They had dominated the land, the sea and even the sky. They! oF et! of geological era which is rlavely calm and Nourishing with ie. The petixts of seem to have roamed over the world unobstructed during the entire Mesozcie era of 180 million catastiophic phenomena on earth have unquestionably changed the scene of life drastically (show Me i fice became extinct suddenly, At present the mammals are dominaing the word ough] "4 Tealing to total extinction ofl i). they were non-existent fer major part of the earth's Tie history ‘| For thousands of millcns of years the natural forees like rivers laters and wind have been 7, The nan end mass at preseat does not have even a single volcano, But ihe same counafagig ‘lees ering the lls ord mounaie aed epoting Teg kn oe ‘experienced very intense volcanic activity nearly 60 million years back, when lava flowed far and ‘seas. In spite of enormous transfer of material like this, we sll find lofty mountains and deep ‘magnitude of eruption was such that a few of the individual lava flows were more than ‘a hundre details of all these natural forces which tke part in continuously changing the cath» sarfass feet thik mi 6. The mwstimeresing dtl flee y gly aa oi insane far wn ‘evidence shows that some of the present-day land masses were once parts of oceans and information and according to ite age wf the eat i estimate! as fare mary shores which indicate marine transgression and regression. jon years. There are many hypotheses about the origin ofthe earth but most of them 9. lewill te dificult to believe thatthe distribution of eontinnts and oceans of tay was al $500 milion year Ta er oe nculr hypothe and the bial Nye Alt differen in the pst Inthe beginning thre was a single and mass called Pangaca whieh [roped hypotheses are ony aly wnvncing and are not Fee from cotrvendes The sent surrounded by an ocean called Panthalassa. Pangaea was girdled in the middle by a deep, fetus ofthe ers ines ar: athe cen NF (N= sic Fon osu me etn river or sea called Tethys (now represented by the Alpine: Himalayan ranges). The noriea con ecn up to 378 kn oer om te cnr ats Is sumo ty mac Southern parts of Pangaea were called Angara (Laurasia) and Gondwana land respeclv ty of heavy ultrabasie rocks, also Believed (De Th faa as arar ‘Gondwana subsequently split at the end of the Palaeozoic era into smaller blocks which later crust. The mantle is necrly 2850 km thick — sir ikc cath Wis ie, Meu te sti in differen directions giving rset the present-day continents of America, Australi, Mtge tree tino at a cone el and the Indian subcontinent. This unique geological event of the is e" ‘fan apple Ths pclae a the southern hemisphere, the ant arin beomnet This unique geological event of the pst is ced We Pi ene jee pemisphere, tapering continents inthe southern be the satipodal Freee gene ofthe Nah Pole inthe saan the South Pole 10, The North and South poles were not in their present places in the past, They Were Felsen of land and sa ox ex ive ofa tetrahedral shape, but such shape unstable | J on fad), These peculiiis are SURES “a i pls Th mea the climate cniton had changed repeat it different pase and only the apheia pe spss fra bys of te can 11, Morethan 98% othe e's crass compose of only nine elements. These make wP 1.2 importance of Appi Geology in Dieent Fis rocks. The remaining elements comprise je ones ements corpse ong Isto ery wf and veiabE OPA Under ses, 118 19a in the Fekls of civil enginserin. Lpabiesy Sapper er hae a a silver, platinum, copper, chromium, manganese, lead and w s manganese, lead and zinc, These elements hundred, together make up only less than 29% of the earth's crust, Had these Sem!wo stbook of Engincering Geology ming sso mes geologic sus beans they provide ifort recnototh of steam pound water sili Sich deta ae neo inipnion, inicio Welltnge,conamicalons, teaking wer, eo mineralogy sory pena Decouse pines aon etal ferent tnd tel faut ratoa, This lio Bp n ore benefciaon sidy or ie Repti pron of) tel cl ening ef Tenshi wl cen fe in exploration extn 9 scone men nero. Ti i mont rat fe ape 1 repeat these of omic mines pnts wher mac non rest troll now ndapenabl The loa do ative fede ae tpt dient utc il ge det of age soon og eet Sea ae al ner tlre, The occur of oe mine epee tothe age of he mck fe sample in Ida bl aos ao he Arran sp Gondwana he Baro pttcu dps of Tenia aph a hone pg cal and pele erin sedimentary rock pin chomivm, nck ee, ee res anode cin bes ogc ka pay gece te loge! rie or example, ake os olen along remo oa slong ass Ths clea askné hs in miner expan, Nawal and em spent athsach dicen wilson be ily ua Farr he set upc: cbaned rom seopes sping nonjution ih gogo l ME Itunes of dossiers of 5 spe nln extension nd dept ef ese 4etails will help 10 estimate the economic viability of the deposit, its reserve and to pla sfextartonSewal ato ont ite he Celi Survey of Indi ad Commission and National Mineral Development Corporation are actively involved in explorations and investigations, 2 IntkoDUCTION Any cock however had and #05 Wa ef the funn oo Be wed a disintegrates, ultimately making the pom ‘onsiweton material. Deal of p05 rope: understanding ofthe weathering Pht ‘in naure granites ae the most ‘eaten analysis of hs rok 2 GENERAL GEOLOGY Ivoduction: 2.1 Geological Agent: 2.11 Esogesous Gell Agents: 212 Endogenous (Geological Agents, 213 Degradation, Agraiion and Gelivon; 22 Weadenag of Rocks 221 Role of Aimophere in Weabeog: 222 Weaberas, sion and Desubun, 223 The ‘Weathering Proce, 22.1 Papal Factors 2.232 Chenacl Fasers, 223.3 Bokpeal acon: 224 Summary of Weathenag of Rocks: 22 Resome of Grane to Weashenng. 2.3 Rive a» 3 ‘Geological Agents 23.1 Developme of iver 23.2 Vly Deelapent 2.3.3 Ries of li, 234 Geological Work of Rivers 2041 Ret Erion, 224 River Transp: 243 River Deposition: 235 Inpatace of Rivers ia Chil Engng. ‘Alms: The aims of this choper are: 1. Toexpain the typos of geological agent (.. natralfoces) ad therein eonsaty moeklng te surface of the eat To explain des. weateig ofa hat isi? Why does it occur? How does it ake place? . ‘What happens to rocks on wearing? What ss inpeaee from he civil exginesing pik viet ii a pelo agen slg work earl eat ‘enlain thespeci impos of Be ier a ara en rg Pei ri Slopmet of e veto wean 0 evi engine nen exoosed to the aumospbar, decays aod eck al © ee hentia wl ge 8 of hoe ence eins ors ca Tt ont er re. Heme, ‘comnor x given in his it12 Textbook of Engine Funher, a civil engineer, white performing his duty will be combating natural acer wind, and tides and waves ofthe sca, Though iis desirable to know the due fores for his avant, only sive are chosen for stay 2 they ate store appropng construction of dains, reservoirs, bridges, tunnels, ete Since the earth's surface is a scene of the continuous geological action of erosion, and deposition due wo different natural frees, this aspect along with development i dea for the fiver. The earth's surfice has been dynamic and, therefore, subject to various kinds of g ‘Transeressions and repressions ofthe sea, appearance of new mountains, rivers, glaciers lakes, springs, waterfills et. and disappearance of old or earlier features of similar kid few such changes. The natural forces tke rivers, ind, volcanoes, earthquakes, es are part and parcel of earth's crust are responsible for all these changes. Of coutse tecone too play a major role 2.1 GEOLOGICAL AGENTS. ‘epigen ‘not only in thei origin but also in their nature of work and results produced, etc. 1 Exogenous Geological Agents ‘These agents originate on the eanh’s surface, work slowly but steadily and erese inregularites ic. ups and downs on the surface. Theic geological workin a way is commences with ersion and is followed by transportation and deposition. The ersion pt \isappearance of promuding land mses like hills, while the deposition process eauses th ‘of depressed land masses like pits, lakes and seas. Thus plain lane surface is made 2.20, i Fig. 2.1 In hills o ron, rocks are broken dowe into smaller pees, which a epost i depressions (kes or Sea). Tee result decease i the ih ‘he dep ofthe ake, Uimatly leveled ground appears Rivers, wind, placies, tides and waves of the sea are typical examples of the x08 of geological agens. The work of these forces appears to be to slow, because visible ‘not noticed even in decades or centuries. (For exampe, mountains or lakes appa t0 Be feature, though they are supposed to disappear by virue of the combised work of He! seological agents.) But in spite of this apparently slow progress in their Work penomena} output in their ceaseless routine. For example, eack ofthe Himalayan AVE {dus and Brahmaputra, physically transport one milion tons of sediments daly. Silt Gomera Grdogs 13 Pats annualy tn te Rass of Kstch Inuge boulders many meties in diameter, ide. They ate even capable of anspor . eg peaeer eens of Sas eel agen are: (i) slow but metheatical woe in . on ad deposin (i) etna ungulates wes cerace te hills and highlands) and depressions (like lakes and seas) lead jupement a on eeu’ sue td agin on saree eM EHP re “he cath had fomed neatly $800 mln ea gE or a elately an gen begining. he exogenes grup of gelpelspens ne hen a aon eb ak se thier of rsng th inepuliison casas Wien eee oer eh ae, of work these agen’ capate uf sing ae enomoss ume ped os nestor ag os itis posible for ely mountain he Hina and ep cea wo a etn Hn ase teenno ober factors repose, ntl ll ese ngaates stu av eae ne and te ean’ surface wuld hav be pli, Ton tel en i ae ee er aaa face responsible forte ocurece of topogapil iene, Ths fre th“ pevkial agen 2.1.2 Endogenous Geclogical Agents fc win ot linia fendi oad Gia ce eee de erate rere a Se ec deanery ames ae fe ele li oe a are es ea ae er ea grr erica SR ee ce ere ee a ee ea eee cers ae (23 Etna in Sicily (>10,000) and Fujiyama of Japan. In this context. it is a matter of interest Caan Sy O18) te fe Sheer sora na anrereregie creation 30007, greater fot the highest mountain (ML Everest = 29,142) ofthe weed. Likewise, op po Ne ia pooner ‘or ridges or highlands, Faults and folds of geological strata occur due to tectonic fore which are fe al trace ts aoa ie tM es a agp Tis, the differen sat wean and permanent in existence. thet eect to te avait id cl Sesh cme sera St a a 2.1.3 Degradation, Aggradation and Gradation * = Tthas already been sttedthat in the proces of elimination of th Mp texpiaie te ot ih ey ena er ah i i i |14 Textbook of Engineering Geology ‘The continuous removal of material from hills, mountns of highlands reduces their heigt yu lowering the elevation or altitude of high-lands may be described as degradation. The a seslogical agents dump thei load in places favourable for deposition. For obvious reasons thee, “i the ow yng trace basins Ike, esc, which ae tpepaphis iene De eal Aeposton, these ae gradually ied ip, therby eeesing ther eps slowly bby be Frag {topographic level becomes equal to their surroundings. This phenomenon ofthe rising ofthe acaq Take boom or thse depth ducing maybe described w aggradation Dus tosepataton ie one of highland) and aggradation (e~concomitn elvan flonan) pre te woop elevations and depressions diappec, eating othe development of pln ground eld aes {very gene slope This i aed gradation, Ths, fv gration to ecu Serato bold pls fin, But dxadton snot simple press af moval a me: rm ils an ml ecause they are up of huge rock masses which are not directly amenable to transport by the | aura fores. ee a etl oe ‘Then how does degradation occur in nature? It happens because of “erosion”. Erosion i a proces ‘of breakdown of recks into smaller and smaller pieces and their subsequent removal from the s | Cf rigimal occurence That in eronon reduces he dae of orks ooh at estat tha ye el transported by the exogeaous geological agents. Now the question that arises i: how ae ts Gal fed hard rocks of ian size subjected natural breown inte hills? Wha ae the fet responsible? These rocks are edact in size det lyse, chemical snd bili fos of mau ‘They may aet together independently. When shysial factors inet, the rks ae J rechanzally Broken down, When cemica fatorslaene, th rock az dvd, decomposed nd Catena, When ological faturs influence the rocks se sina swell a decomposed Ths tisintegration and decomposition process which i instrumental in the breakdown or reduction of st | Crock sealed “weathering” Ths, weathering is tert aus fr gacstin, A sry mention the physical, chemical and biological factors responsible for weatheringare the different manifestation ‘of nature. This, in turn, is related directly of indirectly to weather, climate or atmospheric agencies, La wi Sone a fea eps ns cs ty aa The errning le we ca ne Snare cin oe sesh ma Tei nf oh i aye i ce ‘incon td yn ren i crim sent See cle at pane finns can al Te rape oe Terman rotor. eh Tan a se ae rac f ignorant ao asx clone vs An wih avy ales ana rela Pe sana ee res cy ec ee eee 22.1 Role of Atmosphere in Weathering, ‘Wind is capable of Genet Gestogy 1S eid pyil Sioraion mater ‘fhe atmosphere fs espenie fr nif ed ate. Thee diane hres py ampere The atmosphere also transmits heat and thereby influences effects uf lemperature chang “eae aor dos, oxen ce, cms Catan ea ene a at onsituents of rcls and thereby decompose the ks. Th int ive one ofthe earns, Stine under the influence of iphaig and Baca changes lo Gc, pce eae od als inthe decry of rocks Fur, ts cton desloge lage cane ad ind pan if nay plc. They ae needed ewan geht tba Cas ‘Sons for the weathering of rks Tha sarcus uscal, lenin aod olepea fen ack fe responsible fore weabeing of mks ae therveves sed dre) cry te Stmosphre. Hence the eof he tmnper lathe wear of rcs ele condos. The wer apa or rst contcat owl which cause foematun of river, glaciers causing disintegration an dcirgenton ot rac. 132.2 Weathering, Erosion and Denudation ‘hese three natural processes ae closely interelated, though hey diffe from eachother is peessary to have a clear concept ofthese processes before taking up deled discussion on weathering. When the rocks undergo decay du to various reasons they ae sid to have weatere. In eter words, he process of mere chemical decay and mechanical disintegration of rocks sella weathering. Dac © Neathering the affcted rocks become weak, less conssive and fractured. Such overlying tase ‘eathered material is easily dislodged by diferent natura forces ike gravity oe blowing wind oF Tuning water or giding plciers or dashing waves. This process of removal of westered tena Gavolving transport over sor distances ony) from the place ofits formation is called erosion. Erosion Tends to degradation in that region. When eosin takes alae (ie. removal and transport of the ‘eathered mantle orcs), rsh underlying surfaces of county rocks ar exposedfor weathering sack. “his process of exposing fresh county rocks wo the sufaze due 1 the remoral of their ovelying ‘veauhered materia alld denudation. In ny area denadion leads to weateing. weathering Hess 1 erosion and erosion leads to denadation, Thus these probes are inteelatd and go on Band in and. 223 The Weathering Process As already stated weathering of rocks id Aecompesiton, This happens du dif ' weathering, rocks become smaller. Tey sown or chemically dissolved oF laches By viru of the asociated kinetic ener. fc tothe processes of mechanical isingration and chemical physical, chenical and iclogica actors of ate. Due tre reduced in sz iter when they re physically feokem neeaatal AO Yaa a cna a ee ee re ne Kee rrme of teins Yat oye neler ee ee Mpouton are aso response fr decor postion decry tsk pura vfucnaaoecabnaion rao repent SSS wr a he a me =oe 16 Testbook of Engineering Geology 2.2.3.1 Physical Factors (Out of the wo ype of west veathering. disintegration and decomposition, the ds ‘is accomplished in nature by er win seein i smi hat er yf ml ve ee ee be Wes asd elt lls, landslides, avalanches, meteorites), exfoliation i Wind: Wind is 2 eave we ee ie ra ‘atively : pe ons eae ‘of the medium, i.e. air. In spite of this it ean tegration or create conditions favourable for weathering. Its actic 0 ‘sea shores and in desert regions, Wind causes disint ny ean at anaes of rocks exposed along the course of the wind) Poa Gas tokives orm =a along the couse ofthe wind) and ation (ue. bean a parks th nnd el Win cson eu when he oe pales oly cay tae the exposed rsks. This ation wil be mote pronouned when () he Nown pails fa pos we soft, and (ii) the velocity of the wind is high. The curious pedestal rocks ‘entifucts of deserts are the evidences of this phenomena. Wind attrition occurs in two different (@) during abrasion when sand particles strike the exposed rocks with force, they themselves rece | an equal impact which results in their breakdown and consequent decrease in size, (i) further, during transit in the medium of air, the heterogeneous particles do not move uniformly, thereby leading ‘mutual collisions. This also leads tothe breakdown of particles. A greater velocity and a greater len ‘of transit favour the attrition process. ‘Deflation is another phenomenon caused by wind. Deflare means "to tlow avay”. When a powerful blast of wind blows, it scours all loose weathered material on a surface and carries it along. This rips off the protective outer cover and lays bare the underlying rocks for weathering attack. Thus ths process Of deflation though by itself is not weathering, it creates conditions favourable for weathering, River: The importance of a river as an exogenous geclogical agent and its mode of causing erosion) by abrasion, attrition, hydraulic action and solution) ae dealt with in Sec. 2.24.1 along with th teenie fee incing se poving tes of ee ean cate ot neat, Dango of Se a eons. Tegel oie ordsargrton oA a eon quia (Psi ft ng ee tao roe vst Sims) a ea re ee pa on hs eee ek es tenn isos of keane vse, Dar sa, he ek seth he lag ies oe in, ch ee re ego weapon ar ses nom Cs yr ring caw it vs train ry ing oC he pl grated ye mtn, er he ot car ag kr ed eran he ak pon menage ot 8 ES sled nd ee er cn wicca avn ep. Bing wanes on so cea fr oh nea es. Te al ofthe The ww doles Sh isan meena om acon. Bol. eo resemble each other. ges than with gla poten payee fa rain aa bags nese soe rocks ae drei techie ao fence ne NT nh ‘of solid materials bythe ation of water ae (daireit ge leche scer< 2 tenes ey oer eon Sees ee able en coe es een a ase Se oct doce eo een aie ae phe a a ee ea ee cee ety sey pe were id od aaa dee as Sr a ee ee coer ie era Se am i ete ae Hasnain tte oe oft Dale Has time each he ee, Man ik, Be eof bc ee pene rl ofthe bee aratng dad easing concen. But ah age expansion ite ‘ne oS themes wl ake place mutase}. Heese of hema clio ce Daag DE fy ri ee tls tain aes ‘Be msin cena mas and pel ot iors deren in ericson coat anmene a Seen ry Sn nl Passage of time. of contd euch The sharpast 18 Textbook of Engineering Geology pai ‘Tre exfoliation process commences with the smoothenin, sphercidal shapes to boulders, Therefor, its also ealed “sph of sharp edges and coms ig | tere en oa boulders exhibit this appearance along hls and mums” Sila esfttion my ss rea em the expanion afore grou ek: Gag nluorie igneous rocks formed under a pressure of 2510 poundntt or 72.6 Mivey a exposed on the surface it experiences only 100 kNiin? or 14 poundsfinch®. This great, rede presure ess in sxpansion and crg of xk fed Coa | Frost wedging and fost heaving: These ae processes of mechanical disintegration of rocks wi occur a igh aloes ner moti os) ohh tees ear polar eon Nee te a (snowline is the lowest level up to which permanent ice exists) during daytime the snow melts in| Wale sig th sighs te wor feces no es Ts haps eames ay et temperatures. In such areas during daytime water percolates and fills the existing cracks and fractum fees Deng Ue igus dont fal Lapeer a seal soe Ieee oe ea to the consequent increase in volume (i.e. 1/10th) tremendous pressure (equal to 140 kglem? or 200) tonnes/fi2) is exerted on the sides of the cracks. When this process is repeated, even hard rocks get} Steed ino pnces Tis sort of dsimepaton sealed at sn, Se fo ere swell Sie cates etitny Sus is ea ill eae Weg ae oe tote cntag onactmrae eitac tmasoumteanr ov ents Uy eciaan eer Fee a pian tas Geodey aod age ane Fee eee ia or clon a gprs wat bew'oe eg Te pene le nt i i hopes an ve om poeta 2 oe eg scons te hs batoun fics Nan acon ia fo ey we pe In pl ct Ween they are in action, they cary out large-seale disintegration, Volcanic eruptions and ean ere lense is emoneron whe pee gata en aa seed to a powdery mass. For example, 2 fesh ion cod willbe foo hard and som Some ne ane im Pi eng wie el te : son of the same is 3 to ie to the chemical decompasiion of rocks. A bre discusson of he 3 awitasitlatminieiitcacte IPP pines teagan tng snp ‘water ats directly and indirectly in differem Ways Is on cei sane the presence of ran decomposition is impessible, a tl ee re ee See eee (waking porous, ie, partial disappearance of rocks), hydrwien aa wt sears na i oem ee papers igenn aaa eres = aon eee omer me rink imme at Set sega a ee pe Taman ata Ce ge eee ee reduction of ther size, The chemical reaction tht explains ths phesomenod is as follows: CaCO, + HO+CO, © 9 Ca (HCO), Gimetone) (ater with (caleiom bicaonae dsslved whichis solale ia carton dixie) water) Marbles, dolomite, mas and ater ees rock eit affect Learhng: Wit, song ile gis sth ot per coating an kating 2. Only sires raters are tal uae y water Mos of bins are eyed nd leached doe longed contc nih water Uderarpll linac hough ached ching meant saeeyar a soluble soem fm he rk by we) nd made ous. Latee saps! exanele See a A Sty very mek compare 0 comport an res ae: eck and easly tres down when stacked by neta oe. Fee nig ne mont power atk which water mates on rocks it bringing soak ae eth proces wri wer or pap elles aid no he composition Hyer heey binging aos te ernest of the mine ee ec caremely poate ftom BE fh nas fm ear ee asp king 7 of eng rox omega mint Rea ulr an lies malig fei 19208 of a merge ret) an ie Cee een aes wp next 4 fa arenas ct ae steed dado very ist Wi met sna fring minal coms din ccm Pasion wom exe ie dee aan lcs aac Druin sad. 8 Sottero tee erty acim are Anthea be mane! bye ftlowing ware : Go, > Ké0s + A10)280,2H,0 + 450; Kya1joy6si0, | + et ‘Sony Gand) eogees Se oxtypesof ay, wich we tas Unimate produc weateing of eps ae e Se PES io a hyo aluminium seats 9 COMPO an sare bres per ae cit ao ode ‘Silay enomogresu® reeearerene acne main eMC | | } |20 Texbook of Engincering Geology 4 change . Thus, water brings about 1 series of compositional chy “ altered to serpentine due to hydration, All the preceding changes are eases of decomposition which lead to the weakening of rocks, the bulk of an average rock is decayed in this i rere estes we in this way. hykation isa unique process in bringing Hydrolssis: In son cases of decomposition of minerals, instead of the water molecule, only hydrogen part of water enters into the mineral s is co to th al structure, This is called hydrolysis. The following tenosise —" tndogen en je achslie _(potaium ion it feldspar) from water) structure) solution) | Relation berween the Strength of the Rack and Saturation with Woter The mere presence of water in the openings of rocks is capable of reducing thei strengths. n porous and permeable rocks less of strength wil be 3s much as 30%. Thsfoe, dry rocks are ston than thse Saturated with water. This means rocks immersed. in water not ony lose their ier strength but are also sffected in varios other ways ‘Atmospheric gases: Crbon dioxide, oxygen and nitrogen are some atmospheric gases which take inthe weathering of rocks. “| Carben dioxide: Chemical combination with carbon dioxide is called exbonaton. Is imporance i the disolation of limestone and the production of cle fom feldspars tas already been refered ee am unch poder ham anerty ong tcc wea Gunns Chena! combination with oxygenis called oxiation Feruginoe minerals show conpicu Sages due to oxidation, Combination with water and oxygen produces hydroxides of va Slemens, which ate then leached out. Reduction is aather similar process of chemieal weal ftiskss place in the zones where the sil sch in decaying vegetation. This provides carbo tnateial which eauses the reduction reaction. ae of the rocks are itn bearing in nature, Whee such rocks undago weaberng either de oxidation or redution, specific colour changes are produced, Those rocks in which te fon has oxen tthe forte state show a marked brown colour, On he other kan, the presence of fe se paieted by green, blue and grey shades of feuginous rocks. + 2 Fon poate par ofthe amosphere consists ef iogen I es ansformod it siti Mae ce pactra and lighting. Nite acid is a good dissolving and powerful oxidizing “Thotefore it is effective in causing weathering ; ( aac rey common accessory mineral in many rocks. 1 very harmful for rocks Be jr ereates favourable conditions for weathering. 3 ae ven ger oxidized to iron sulphate withthe Hberon of sulphuric acid whieh chenially attack the other components of the rock: 2FeS, + 70; + 2H0 —> 2eSO, + 2H:SOy z pyrite oxygen water ferrous sulphuric sulphate acid as deed te vee of Ras, ten steam mayan op etme aan, ee, a, aa ee re ae ea coe hay sos Tiquids which decompose the rocks mes 22.14 Biological Facors Plots, animals, man and even bacteria help in disintepratioe and decompsitioe of rocks ‘ices and plants: The developing rool of growing tees and plans, sometimes, penetrate nto the crocs, widen them and ulimatly the rocks disintegrate. ‘Aninals: Some animals make burrows underground and help in the weathering of rocks. The major ‘conubution towards weathering from animals and plants i tat when they die ei soft pars decay nl decompose, releasing toxie products which are highly pet in causing decomposition of racks particularly reduction ‘Bactria: Some bacteria lso takepart inthe decomposition of rocks. These help in decay of organic mmsterial and produce humic, carbonic and other acids _Man’ Man ranks top inthe fist of various factors responsible fer freed unnatural weathering of racks Tei all powerful and to satisfy his various requirements be undertakes largesale construction of haiings, dams, bridges, roads, ec. Fo ll these, enarmeus quanti of constuction materia a res which he gts by quarrying. This results in the rapid disappearance of Wills and tours, ‘To sat him, when equied, man underakes tunnelling 00 Which means” age-scle Mating ofr Further, to feed mines int hs industries and factories he wesors to extensive mining ~ open cast ara anderground wich again means breakdown of rocks. Thus, man ina unique way camer che Uisitegrtion of rocks. Maa es of Disucgtin od Drcogston Though disintegration (ie. physical braking) and decompsiton (chemac SSH) EOS alogether two tfferen types ney aid each otber and acceler the weathering Pres This happens 1. If an unfractured, compact boulder oceurs in a stream, ns al etn certo rh een ely Sm a oh sa at be tar strong) eceurs in stream, it offers a lot of resistance (or may meme immune) fe rn) oP aye (ion Le etn de og seam wae ml wai Pe ‘composition aids the disintegration POE: only its surface portion is ch>mially