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Cassava: Its polymer, fibre, composite and

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Article in Polymer Composites · May 2015

Impact Factor: 1.63 · DOI: 10.1002/pc.23614

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Cassava: Its Polymer, Fiber, Composite, and Application
Ahmed Edhirej,1 Salit Mohd Sapuan,1,2 Mohammad Jawaid,2 Nur Ismarrubie Zahari1
1
Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, University Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang,
Selangor, Malaysia
2
Laboratory of Biocomposites Technology, Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products, University Putra
Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
Cassava is a type of plant which has different pur-
poses of use. It is used to produce various foods, bio-
fibers, bio-composites, and bio-polymers. Besides, it is
now used as renewable energy source of starch. The
intention of the paper is to focus on the importance of
cassava fibers, polymers, and composites as well as
its potential applications, another focus point of this
research is the biodegradable polymer development
which is taken out from cassava starch. Moreover, this
work gives a comprehensive review about surface
treatments as well as the most recent developments of
cassava polymer/fiber based bio-composites and the
summary of main result presented in the literature,
focusing on properties of cassava composite and
applications. These applications were related to vari-
ous industrial application as well as others such as the
production of xylenes, ethanol and bio-fuel, food, food
packaging and cassava foam. POLYM. COMPOS.,
00:000–000, 2015. VC 2015 Society of Plastics Engineers
INTRODUCTION
With the increase in awareness levels about the envi-
ronment, the interest to develop biodegradable material via
renewable sources seems to be growing. Since starch is
attributed to offer a favorable combination of cost, avail-
ability and performance is said to be very effective and
valuable as compared to other polymers [1]. Lately, there
is a rapid increase in the composite components’ use in
sports, leisure and automotive. This has generally focused
on renewable and sustainable reinforced composites. There
are many kinds of materials and shapes ranging from natu-
ral to synthetic, which allows meeting the requirements for
the production of composites having demined characteris-
tics. The inclusion of reinforcements like fillers and fibers
into offers a source of improvement in the composites
properties which follows the requirements of almost every
application related to engineering [2]. For the last 10220
Correspondence to: S.M. Sapuan; e-mail: sapuan@upm.edu.my
DOI 10.1002/pc.23614
Published online in Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com).
C 2015 Society of Plastics Engineers
V [8–10].
POLYMER COMPOSITES—2015
years, natural fibers have been used quite a lot and there
seems to be an overall increase in the interest in its use.
There are various advantages of these composites such as
less tool wear, biodegradability, low cost, low density and
availability. The generally common plant which is used in
such applications is bast fibers like sisal, hemp, kenaf,
jute, and flax [2]. Biodegradable plastics which are rich in
cellulose and starch fibers apparently are the ones that
undergo persistent growth with respect to usage. This is
the time when researchers and scientists should study the
potential hidden in fiber and polymer. They can be used
for the development of biodegradable polymer with respect
to the development of technology and science. With all
that said, the environment should be taken care of during
the aforementioned development [3]. With rice an maize
being the first and second most significant source of calo-
ries respectively, cassava is the third most grown plant in
the subtropical and topical areas of Africa, Latin America
and Asia 262,585,741 tonnes of cassava was produced
worldwide in 2012 where Nigeria, Thailand, Brazil and
Indonesia topped the producer list [4]. Besides, an advant-
age of cassava is that is can be grown on marginal lands
and bad soils as it is tolerant to bad weather and drought.
Cassava has a wide range of usage with respect to many
industrial applications. Popular examples include produc-
tion of ethanol and biofuel which has become quite a
focus by researchers in the last ten years with respect to
limited reserve of fossil oil [5]. A significant component
of cassava root is starch which can be around 80% of the
total dry weight [6]. The quality of starch in cassava is
highly responsible for the determination of the quality of
cassava itself. Since starch is sustainable, natural, biode-
gradable, and abundant, it is the most favorable material to
produce biodegradable plastics and relevant composites.
Besides, it can also show thermoplastics attitude when
there is utmost stress and high temperature [7]. In order to
develop and increase the moisture resistance and mechani-
cal characteristics of the hybrid composite, it is preferable
to hybridize the natural fiber like synthetic fiber and kenaf
CASSAVA PLANT

History of Cassava
Cassava (Manihot EsculentaCranz. tapioca, manioc) is
considered as the third most significant source of food
for those who live in tropical areas. It is also the fifth
most produced starch crop around the world [11]. It can
be defined as a starchy sort of root which belongs to the
family of Euphorbiaceae. Since the crop is grown from
sea level to a height of 1,800 m, it is highly adapted.
The temperature is kept around 202308C where the opti-
mum temperature is 248C. The humidity levels are
50290% where the optimum humidity level is 72%. The
rainfall annually is around 6002300 mm where 1,500
mm is the optimum level of rainfall [12]. It can grow up
FIG. 1. Cassava plant (Manihot esculenta Crantz) [15]. [Color figure
to 4.5 m that is 15 feet. We can refer the whole plant as can be viewed in the online issue, which is available at www.inter-
the food factory where the end products are the tubers science.wiley.com.]
for the consumption of animals and humans. The func-
tioning of the roots, stem, and leaves, their development Leaves. The protein and starches are produced by the
and the soil and the climate are highly responsible for leaves. These nutrients are the major building blocks for
the tuber yields [11]. Since cassava is one of the staple the growth of the cell and its development. Therefore, the
foods for about 800 million of population in South yield is greatly influenced by the extent to which the
America, Asia, the pacific islands and Africa, it is very leaves are healthy.
significant for these countries [11, 13, 14]. Cassava plays
a particularly important role in agriculture in developing
Stems. The stems play the function of transport organs
countries, especially in sub-Saharan Africa, because it
as it transfers the produced food to different plant parts
does well on poor soils and with low rainfall, and
for the development and growth. They also offer planting
because it is a perennial that can be harvested as
material for various related crops.
required. Its wide harvesting window allows it to act as a
famine reserve and is invaluable in managing labour
schedules. It offers flexibility to resource-poor farmers Roots. There are three kinds of roots in cassava plant.
because it serves as either a subsistence or a cash crop Namely: thick roots, tuberous roots and fine white roots.
[15]. Cassava holds a lot of energy and is comprised of The thick roots help anchoring the plant to the ground
80% starch. It is rich in minerals, carotenoids, and vita- while the tuberous roots store carbohydrates. The fine
min C [16]. The short life span of cassava is a limitation white roots on the other hand, absorb nutrients and
of its growth [13, 14]. It is available all year round water [15].
because of the flexible harvesting and crop planting. There is a gradual increase in the research interest
Hence, with all these traits, cassava is a very reliable with respect to plant fibers. This is because of the
food crop. It also has riboflavin, nicotinic acid, thiamine advantages they carry, such as low cost, renewable,
and carbohydrate. However, there is no presence of pro- light weight, environmental friendly, biodegradability,
tein the crop [17]. Around 80% production of cassava is easy to separate, recyclable, and carbon dioxide seques-
done for human food in Africa, while more than 50% is tration [18].
used in different forms of processing. In America, around
40% is produced for human food while 30% for the feed
Cassava Application
of livestock. Asia on the other hand exports its produc-
tion of cassava [17]. There are multiple uses of biodegradable polymer
materials. Examples include agriculture, medicine, auto-
motive, packaging and drug release. There is an
Cassava Plant Parts
increased awareness of environmental responsibility
Cassava is produced in different countries like Latin with respect to the industry as well as the consumers.
America, Asia and Africa, and it is the fourth most signif- The processes that make use of greater development of
icant crop in the world. It is a starch rich root crop and biopolymer materials via natural resources, appears to
provides major calories in tropical regions. It is also used be most promising [3]. Cassava is also sued as the raw
as a raw material for different applications in the industry material to produce cakes, traditional foods and cassava
[4]. There are three major cassava plant parts which are starches. Since cassava leaves are rich in bioactive com-
shown in figure 1 and described below: pounds and protein, they can be used as medicine and

2 POLYMER COMPOSITES—2015 DOI 10.1002/pc

natural vegetables. Its wood can be used as firewood.
There is quite some solid waste produced by processing
of cassava starch. Many environmental issues are cre-
ates if this waste is discharged directly. It has been pro-
ven that cassava peels can be used as precursor in order
carbon having high surface area and is activated [19].
Cassava also provides significant energy especially to
the households with low incomes, as compared to other
food items. Furthermore, cassava is also used to prepare
many household food items like paste, sauce, biscuits
and sago bread. The starch of cassava is modified in
industries for the provision of products with chemical
and physical characteristics for particular applications
like jelly, gravies, confectioneries, glucose, thickening
agents, baby food, and custard powders [20]. Sugu-
maran et al. [21] had been found cassava with greater
uses as it can be used in the production of xylenes
through Bacillus subtitles with the use of cassava
bagasse which is submerged in fermentation. The great-
est production occurred when cassava bagasse was used
as this process is economical. There was greater stabil-
ity of the enzyme when the alkaline level was at 6008C
and pH 8. There is a huge industrial potential in the
thermostable and alkaline xylenes that is produced via
Bacillus subtitle [21].
Villamizar et al. [22] had another investigation to
study the influence of adding cassava peels and coal ash
on the compressed earth bocks engineering characteristics
(CEB). This mixture comprises 5% of coal ash to the
clayed soil was seen to have the greatest result of coal
ash (7.5%) where the cassava peels were 2.5%. Cassava
peels are found in great quantities in the wastes and they
can be used to make CEBs. This way, the environmental
problem can be reduced [22]. Furthermore, kraft paper
and cassava bagasse were also utilized to form a compos-
ite which is quite like cardboard. In this process, a fiber
like residue which was highly rich in bagasse was used.
The percentages of cassava bagasse and Kraft paper in
this production was 90% and 10%, respectively. To
enhance the mechanical properties of this material, Kraft
paper had been added to provide with long fibers.
According to the results, 10% Kraft paper and 90% Cas-
sava bagasse can be used to manufacture the cardboard.
This is quite a remarkable way of decreasing the absorp-
tion of water [23]. Another study carried out by Mohd
Aripin et al. [24] was focused on the determination of the
cassava peel potential to act as the alternative for fiber in
paper and pulp with respect to the chemical properties.
According to the results of the chemical characterization,
there is a lower amount of cellulose and holo-cellulose in
cassava peels. However, these peels are rich in hemicellu-
lose. Hence, in conclusion, we can say that there is signif-
icant pulp parameters present in cassava peels which can
be effective as a fiber alternative for paper making and
pulp industries. These industries can favor recyclable
materials in the future, thereby reducing the environmen-
tal problems [24].
DOI 10.1002/pc
Cassava peels (CP) were blended by Ofoefule et al. [25]
with some wastes of animals in order to increase its ability
to create biogas. 1 : 1 ratio was kept for this process of
blending. The biogas yield (mean) of these cassava peels
was 2.29 6 0.97L overall mass of slurry. After being
blended with the dung of the cow, the swine dung (SD)
and poultry droppings (PD) mean yield of flammable bio-
gas was 5.65 6 2.62 L /overall mass of slurry and 4.88 6
1.73, 5.55 6 2.17, respectively. According to the overall
results, the biogas production via cassava peels can be
increased to a considerable extent if it is combined with the
wastes of animal [25]. According to Oladipo et al. [26] cas-
sava peeling ash (CPA) is used in cement for the concrete
work. The most effective mix was observed to be 15220%
CPA with respect to the safety and strength of the concrete.
As a conclusion, it was said that concrete which comprises
of 30% CPA is stable and can be used in most of the con-
crete work. Such an alternative use will promote greater
value economically to the cassava peelings [26]. According
to Larbie et al. [27] cassava fiber can be used in various
biomaterial applications through studying the changes in
the Simulated Body Fluid (SBF) composition. No changes
were observed in Mg, Mn, Cu, K, Na, and Cl concentration
when they were immersed in SBF. This observation was
carried out over a period of a week where the temperature
was kept at 378C. Moreover, according to the results found
initially, cassava fiber can be considered for the usage in
biomaterial applications. This is favored by the results
found after immersing elements in SBF, which shows that
fiber samples release no ions in the fluid. However, it can
still affect the composition of the physiologic fluid as it
picks up ions present in the solution itself. Amaranth flour
was used by Fiorda et al. [28] with starch and cassava
bagasse for the production of gluten-free pasta. The most
effective result was observed with the proportion of (10 :
30 : 60) for pregelatinised flour, amaranth flour, and cas-
sava starch, respectively [28].
BIO-PRODUCTS FROM CASSAVA
There are various uses of cassava and it used exten-
sively. Examples include using it in the production of
ethanol and biofuel, which has now become a focus point
by many researchers over the last ten years, with respect
to the reserve of limited fossil oil [5]. One worrisome
matter is the solid residue disposal left once the starch is
extracted from cassava. To solve this matter, researchers
have tried to utilize it to produce bio products like lactic
acid, ethanol and a-amylase. This is done by incubating
the residue at various moisture holding capacities which
is around 40280%. This period for this process was
around 12260 h and 242144 h for a-amylase and etha-
nol, respectively. As for the lactic acid, it was 2 to 10
days. The highest yield observed was at the moisture
holding capacity of 60% where the incubation time period
was around 362120 h for amylase and ethanol, respec-
tively. As for lactic acid, it was 6 days. According to this
POLYMER COMPOSITES—2015 3
study, it was seen that cassava solid residues factories can
be useful to give a cheap substrate with respect to the
production of bio-products [29]. It was observed that
there were great changes in the amylose content, which
ranged from 0 to 30.3%. For instance, the range of amy-
lose was in between 15.2 and 26.5% in cassava genotypes
of 4050 [30]. We can obtain yields with high starch
through the use of different apt varieties that have dry
matter in greater quantity and peel thickness which is thin
[31]. There are different factors that influence the yield of
starch. Examples include: drying factors of raw materials
such as chips and flour that are oven dried. There was
greater yield when these were oven dried as compared to
being dried in the sun [6]. The content of amylose was
pretty same at different stages of growth in the first 6
months [32]. Thereon up to 16 months, there was a fall in
the amylose content [33]. There was little influence of the
harvesting time [34, 35]. Chookietwattana [36] carried
out a study with the aim to choose an amylolytic lactic
acid bacterium so that the fermentation and saccharifica-
tion (SSF) between starch and lactic acid can be done
simultaneously as well as to find out the most suitable
conditions for cassava starch SSF for the production of
lactic acid. A pH of 6.5, 6% (w/v) was considered as the
optimum conditions for MSUL L. plantarum in SSF with
respect to cassava starch [36]. According to Chaleomrum
et al. [37] there is a great potential of the waste water of
cassava starch with respect to the production of poly
hydroxyl alkanoate (PHA) through batch reactor sequenc-
ing (SBR). There is a huge advantage of seeding Bacillus
tequilensis SU 112 in the system as it increases the PHA
production. Waste water of the synthetic cassava starch
that had a COD demand at 4,000 mg/L concentration
gave the greatest concentration of the PHA [37]. A com-
plicated microbial consortium was developed by Zhang
et al. [38] which had the capacity to cause excessive cel-
lulose degradation. This microbial consortium was then
used in cassava residues pretreatment. The findings of
this experiment showed that the highest methane yield
(259.46 mL/g-VS) was attained at 12 h of pretreatment of
the mix of cassava residues and distillery wastewater, a
result that was 96.63% more than the control (131.95 mL/
g-VS) [38]. Cassava bagasse, a by-product of cassava
starch industrialization, was examined by Pasquini et al.
[39] as a new raw material for obtaining cellulose
whiskers. The by-product is essentially made of cellulose
fibers (17.5 wt%) and residual starch (82 wt%). The study
findings show that it is possible to attain high value-
added products from an agricultural waste residue. Those
cellulose whiskers that had a high aspect proportion were
removed from the cassava bagasse directly and were used
in the process of nano-composite films alongside a natural
rubber matrix. The inclusion of filler led to a considerable
improvement in the storage tensile modulus [39]. The
impact of temperature (378C, 608C, and 708C) and initial
pH (4-10) in batch experiments was examined by carrying
out fermentative hydrogen production using cassava stil-
4 POLYMER COMPOSITES—2015
lage. It was found in the study that thermophilic hydrogen
production from cassava stillage by means of mesophilic
anaerobic sludge was more efficient as compared to mes-
ophilic and extreme thermophilic fermentation setting.
The study carried out to determine the impact of pH dem-
onstrated that a pH 6 was most appropriate initially for
generating hydrogen at a temperature of 608C, and lesser
amounts of hydrogen were produced when the pH was
lower or higher initially [40]. In the study by Sugumaran
et al. [21] xylenes production was examined by Basillus
subtilis by employing cassava bagasse in submerged fer-
mentation. There was highest production when cassava
bagasse was used because of which the process becomes
feasible economically. Under alkaline conditions with pH
8 and temperature of 6008C, the enzyme was stable and
more active. The Bacillus subtilis generates alkaline and
thermostable xylenes which can be used in various indus-
trial processes. According to Sugumaran et al. [21] due to
cellulose production, low cost solid state materials like
pine leaves, cassava bagasse, rice bran and wheat bran
were tested. It was found that out of these four solid
materials, cassava bagasse turned out to be the most
likely substrate. This study showed that the most appro-
priate conditions for cellulose generation were solid sub-
strate- cassava bagasse with an initial pH -6 [21]. The
study by Ki et al. [41] shows that liquid biofuel was gen-
erated by pyrolyzing cassava peel. The range of output of
biofuels obtained from steady pyrolysis of cassava peel
was between 38.7% and 51.2%. The highest temperature
for pyrolysis which provided the greatest liquid output
was 5258C. The key component of bio-oil was essentially
various organic categories like acids, aldehydes, esters,
phenols, ketones, hydrocarbons, and alcohols [41]. In the
study by Sivakumar et al. [42] an activated carbons devel-
oped from waste cassava peels using physical and chemi-
cal methods were investigated for their effectiveness in
the removal dyes and metal ions obtained from aqueous
solution. It can be seen in the initial studies that activated
carbon that is developed from waste cassava peels can
effectively be employed in treating dyes and toxic ions
from waste water. The raw material is a waste substance;
hence, it is likely that its application in the treatment pro-
cess can turn out to be commercially feasible [42]. In the
study by Ofosuer et al. [43] a butanol developing strain
was separated using a “sandwich” isolation technique.
The development and tolerance of butanol was further
improved by serial enhancement tests carried out to attain
a butanol tolerant mutant strain SE36. Tests were also
carried out on ABE fermentation from cassava flour. It
can be observed in this study that mutant strain SE36
seems to be an exceptional strain when ABE fermentation
takes place using cassava flour [43].
Cassava Fiber
Cassava Bagasse. The industrial applications to gener-
ate cassava starch use the solid residue (bagasse) that is
DOI 10.1002/pc
 TABLE 1. Physico-chemical composition of cassava bagasse (g/100 g dry weight).
Soccol
Composition (1994) [46] Cereda (1996) [47]
Moisture 5.02 9.52
Protein 1.57 0.32
Lipids 1.06 0.83
Fibers 50.55 14.88
Ash 1.10 0.66
Carbohydrates 40.50 63.85
obtained from the extraction that consists of fibrous mate-
rials and starch which has not been extracted. Substantial
amount of bagasse is generated in the industry, which is
around 900 kg of bagasse, with 85% moisture for every
tonne of processed root. It is the origin of the cassava
and the processing method that determines the composi-
tion of the bagasse, however, most of it comprises of
starch (40260%) and fiber (15250%), as well as small
amounts of lipids and proteins [44]. Significant quantities
of lignocellulose wastes are developed through industrial
procedures such as cassava bagasse and are used for
xylenes production by means of the fermentation process
[45]. It is important to develop thermostable xylenes
using economic conditions because of the vast-scale
applications. The renewable solid waste material, cassava
bagasse is developed from processing industry and is
present in lands close to the processing unit. However, it
has a larger organic content and biodegradability which
leads to greater pollution [44]. It consists of around 20%
cellulose fibers and does not include any cyanide. The
protein is present in small quantity, hence, it is not uti-
lized as a cattle feed. One of the latest developments in
the field of biochemical engineering pertains to the use of
the biodegradable waste for generating more significant
products like organic acids, xylenes enzyme, bio polymer,
and antibiotics [21, 44]. The content of ash is quite low,
hence, cassava bagasse is a prospective and appealing
substrate for microbial production instead of other agri-
cultural waste substances like rice straw and wheat straw
[44].
 Cassava Bagasse Properties. Cassava bagasse is simply a
fibrous deposit containing no cyanide, less protein content
and 50% starch on dry weight basis [46]. The constitu-
ents of cassava bagasse and their percentages obtained
from different sources have been summarized. The varia-
tion in the amount of the constituents’ maybe due to the
fact that varying crop varieties has been used by each
source. The samples of cassava bagasse used in the formu-
lation were obtained at different time and from varying
processing units in the State of Parana, Brazil. Poor use of
technology may also be the reason for varying results by
different sources. Cassava bagasse is not suitable for ani-
mal feed because of its low protein concentration but due
to its easy energy regeneration capacity as compared to
other crop deposits it has been deliberated as an efficient
store for solar energy. Another advantage of this in com-
DOI 10.1002/pc
Vandenberghet Pandy et al., Woiciechowski
al. (1998) [48] (2000) range [44] et al (2002) [49]
11.20 5.02–11.2 8.5
1.61 0.32–1.61 1.52
0.54 0.53–1.06 0.53
21.10 14.88–50.55 21.10
1.44 0.66–1.50 1.50
63.00 40.50–63.85 66.00
parison to sugar cane bagasse is that it does not require
any pretreatment. Moreover, this residue offers lower ash
content as compared to other agricultural deposits like rice
straw (17.5% ash content and wheat straw (11% ash con-
tent) being used in bioconversion processes utilizing
microbial cultures as shown in Table 1 [44, 46–49].
Cassava Peels. Cassava, one of the basic foods in the
tropical regions, is normally utilized in traditional food
items, cakes, etc. There is a significant amount of cassava
production; however, very small quantity is used in tradi-
tional food industries, while the remaining is utilized in
the form of raw materials in cassava starch industries.
The production of cassava starch usually involves a sig-
nificant amount of solid wastes (cassava peel), and if
these solid wastes are directly released, significant envi-
ronmental issues can arise [19]. Cassava peel is a thin
brown outer layer that has a thicker leathery parenchyma-
tous inner layer. This is the foremost waste that is devel-
oped in cassava processing that take place in either food
or other industrial products. In the developing nations,
cassava provides the third highest calories, following
wheat, and rice [11]. The cassava peel can form around
10220% of the wet weight of the roots [50] which sug-
gests that it has a huge potential to be used in biotechno-
logical and industrial processes since it is available in
large quantities and is not very expensive. These peels
are, however, considered to be a waste substance and are
directly released which leads to severe environmental
issues with respect to their decomposition. Animal feed
uses very little amount of the cassava, since there is little
protein content and excessive amounts of hydro cyanide
and high crude fiber. The protein content is improved
using successful microbial methods [51, 52].
 Cassava Peel Properties. After conducting several tests and
experiments the chemical properties of the cassava peels
were determined; thus, obtaining the percentage existence
of various components constituting cassava peels. It has
been deduced from the results that cassava films have
lower contribution of lignin (7.5%), ash content (4.5%),
and hot water solubility (7.6%) whereas higher values of
extractives were observed particularly in 1% sodium
hydroxide solubility (27.5%). Higher concentrations of
holocellulose were also obtained (66%) but the amount
was less than that observed in wood sources (10280.5%)
POLYMER COMPOSITES—2015 5
 TABLE 2. Chemical composition of cassava peels [54]. screen. The starch that had been extracted was left to
sediment, following which the fiber was removed and the
Components Cassava peel
starch was washed once again with distilled water to
Holocellullose 66.0 eliminate any leftover fiber. Next, the starch was dried in
Cellulose 37.9 an oven for six hours with the temperature fixed at 458C,
Hemicellulose 37.0 so that the degree of moisture could be decreased.
Lignin 7.5 Finally, the drying process was carried out under direct
1% NaOH 27.5
sunlight for 4 h. This powdered starch was then stored in
Hot water 7.6
Ash 4.5 an air tight container to avoid contamination and moisture
from accumulating [59].
The technique given by Moorthy et al. [60] was uti-
and canola straw (77.5%). Cassava peels having the above lised to prepare cassava starch. A grating machine was
constituents can be used for paper making [53]. The used to peel, wash, and disintegrate the cassava roots.
results have been summarized in the table. A mixture of This process resulted in formation of cassava mesh
hemicelluloses and cellulose in dry plants results in holo- which was reground and then mixed with water accord-
cellulose [54] (Table 2). ing to the ratio of 1:5 (w/v %). A double layer of nylon
cloth was used through which mesh was filtered, result-
ing in the starch solution. The process of sedimentation
and decantation was followed to separate the starch
Cassava Polymer
from the water. The starch was placed in the oven to
Cassava Starch. Starch is one of the most widely avail- dry and the native starch was then labelled [32, 60]. The
able and cheapest agricultural products which can be fully planting seasons did not impact the chemical composi-
degradable in several environments [55]. It is because of tion of starch (also comprising of the amylose content)
these characteristics that starch is examined as a polymer [34]. Overall, there is a need to further study on the
in several applications. The creation of thermoplastic chemical nature of the smaller constitutes like lipid, pro-
starch involves temperature and pressure extrusion and/or tein, and fiber.
moulding. The degradation of pure-starch polymer takes
place very rapidly in a composting atmosphere (the pro-
cess extends around a month); however, it becomes of
age quite slowly and does not have resistance to moisture
[56]. Several thermoplastic starch composites are gener-
ated on the basis of combining starch and vinyl alcohols,
and such polymers have a tendency of being more stable.
However, there is an inverse relationship in the biode-
gradability of such composites and their starch content
[57]. Starch is a significant constituent of cassava root
and can make up around 80% of its dried weight. Hence,
it is naturally presumed that the quality of several
cassava-based products largely depends on the quality of
the starch [6]. There are two main molecular constituents
of starch, amylose and amylopectin. The most significant
feature of starch is its amylose content which leads to
diverse attributes of starch and ultimately, the end-use
purposes that have gone through huge amounts of investi-
gation [58]. It was the wet milling of fresh cassava that
essentially led to the production of cassava starch. The
steps presented in Fig. 2 were followed to extract starch
from fresh cassava roots. The key factors when harvesting
or choosing cassava roots for the extraction of starch are
age and quality of the root. It is important to process cas-
sava roots right after the harvest because the roots are
extremely perishable and the enzymatic processes lead to
the acceleration of deterioration in 122 days. The cassava
were peeled, rinsed and grated into finer particles. Sieving
was used to extract starch from the grated pulp, with the
fiber staying intact. This fiber was washed repetitively for
at least three to four times using distilled water on the FIG. 2. Flow chart for production of cassava starch [59].

6 POLYMER COMPOSITES—2015 DOI 10.1002/pc

TABLE 3. Physico-chemical composition of cassava tubers (100 g it showed less swelling, lower viscosity, and high thermal
basis) [48]. stability. To study comparative crystallinity X-ray diffract
grams were analyzed and variation in peak intensities was
Composition Fresh weight Dry weight
observed [68] (Table 4).
Calories 135 335
Moisture (%) 65.5 15.7 TREATMENT OF CASSAVA COMPOSITES
Proteins (g) 1.00 1.4
Lipids (g) 0.2 0.5 Many mechanical and chemical surface modification
Starch (g) 32.4 80.6 researches regarding different natural fibers have been
Fibers (g) 1.1 1.2
Ash (g) 0.9 1.8
focused on improving interfacial linkage between fibers
Calcium (mg) 26 96 and the polymer matrix.
Phosphorus (mg) 32 81
Iron (mg) 0.9 7.9
Sodium (mg) 2 – Chemical Treatment
Potassium (mg) 394 –
Vitamin B2 (mg) 0.04 0.06 Acetylation, alkalisation, and bleaching are the con-
Vitamin C (mg) 34 0 ventional techniques of chemical modification. Since
Niacine (mg) 0.6 0.8 these techniques are economical, efficient, and relatively
Cyanide (%) – 1.6
simple; they are more frequently employed. But, they are
usually utilised under static treatment conditions [69].
One of the most common chemical treatments of natural
 Cassava Starch Properties. The study and analysis of the fibers is its use with alkali. This treatment is also known
starch chemical composition shows that values vary as mercerisation [70]. In order to break hydrogen bonding
greatly in a wide range. Following results were found: ash in the network structure of the fiber’s cellulose; sodium
(0.03–0.29%), protein (0.06–0.75%), lipid (0.01–1.2%), hydroxide is utilised. This leads to increase in the rough-
and phosphorous (0.0029–0.0095%), last, fiber (0.11– ness of the fiber’s surface. The wax, oils, and lignin that
1.9%). It was also found that mainly palmitic, linoleic and cover the external surface of the fiber’s cell wall are also
oleic fatty acids are present in starch grains [61]. By using removed through this treatment. Moreover, the native cel-
13P magnetic resonance spectroscopy it was concluded
lulose structure depolymerises, and the short length crys-
that phosphorous in form phosphate monoester is present
tallites are exposed [70]. A solution casting approach was
in small quantity i.e., 0.0065% [62]. When compared with
normal cereal starch this cassava class tends to have very used to prepare biodegradable materials from kenaf fibers
minuscule amount of lipids in it. Quantity of C-6 phos- and cassava starch [71]. Treatment of kenaf fibers was
phate is only just enough to be detected whereas C-3 done by NaOH, and then bleached using acetic buffer and
phosphate is present in much larger amount [63, 64]. sodium chlorite solution. Following this was the process
There are many factors that contribute to the varying of acid hydrolyzation to form cellulose nano-crystals
chemical composition of starch such as planting season, (CNCs). Starch and glycerol/sorbitol were mixed with dif-
dried or fresh starch and most importantly the plant genet- ferent filler compositions to prepare bio-composites in the
ics [34, 65–67] This point can be understood when we form of films (0–10 wt%). Enhancements in the func-
look at the fiber content results obtained by analysing the tional aspects of a Nigerian kind of native cassava starch
starch taken from fresh and dried roots, the latter had low
were carried out. Four types of modified starches were
fiber contents [65]. When paralleled with potato, wheat
prepared through modification by cross-connecting
bean and maize the cassava starch is found out to have the
least quantity of phosphorous [62]. Research shows that employing four kinds of reagents (sodium acetate, sodium
cassava tubers have good amount of starch present in acetate neutralized with fumaric acid, sodium acetate neu-
them; however, the percentage of protein is quite less. The tralized with adipic acid, and ammonium phosphate). The
Table 3 below clearly indicates the chemical composition best enhancement of the functional properties of the
of the tubers [48]. native starch occurred through the starch that modified
using sodium acetate. This starch had the lowest moisture
Different tests were conducted to study the effect of content, low ash content, highest gel temperature, highest
single and double heat moisture treatment of cassava solubility, and fairly neutral pH). It is suggested that
starch (CS) at about 10021208C. Properties such as swel- starch modified using ammonium phosphate and sodium
ling, solubility, thermal characteristics, pasting and crys- acetate can be utilised in the adhesive, paint, and paper
tallinity were assessed for the cassava starch. It was seen industries due to its low viscosity and resistance to shear
that the moisture treatment did not affect the characteris- stress. Due to our wish to facilitate the reduction of envi-
tics much as compared to the effect of varying tempera- ronmental pollution, new starch-based items have been
ture. To perform the moisture treatment the moisture proposed by Ulloa et al. [72] Organic waste materials
content in cassava starch was fixed at about 22% by from cassava are used to obtain starch, and for enhance-
weight. For food purposes, the starch exposed to single ment of the resistance of this material, the natural fiber
HMT at 1208C was found to give optimum results. Since, (agave) was utilized. Earlier on, this was treated with

DOI 10.1002/pc POLYMER COMPOSITES—2015 7

 TABLE 4. Swelling power, solubility, gel hardness, and pasting properties of native and HMT cassava starches [68].

Single HMT Dual HMT Single HMT Dual HMT

Treatments Native at 1008C at 1008C at 1208C at 1208C

Properties
Swelling power (g/g) 29.11 6 0.08a 17.80 6 0.38 b 17.58 6 0.22 b 13.57 6 0.01 c 13.82 6 0.07 c
Solubility (%) 25.66 6 0.18 a 17.17 6 0.05 b 12.50 6 0.26 c 11.07 6 0.18 d 10.70 6 0.13 d
Gel hardness (N) 0.70 6 0.03 b 1.70 6 0.01 a 1.68 6 0.07 a 1.64 6 0.20 a 1.56 6 0.08 a
Pasting temperature (8C) 64.5 6 0.1 c 68.5 6 0.1 ab 69.5 6 1.3 a 67.4 6 0.4 b 68.6 6 0.1 ab
Peak viscosity (RVU) 364.3 6 1.5 a 301.3 6 5.4 b 274.0 6 3.6 c 218.7 6 2.7 e 260.0 6 0.3 d
Breakdown (RVU) 215.8 6 0.7 a 103.0 6 1.7 c 86.7 6 2.1 d 86.7 6 0.6 d 113.5 6 2.2 b
Setback (RVU) 69.6 6 2.3 d 88.0 6 1.3 b 93.6 6 2.8 a 84.5 6 0.6 c 91.9 6 0.4 a
Final viscosity (RVU) 215.0 6 1.6 d 283.7 6 4.4 a 285.3 6 1.6 a 225.0 6 4.1 c 238.5 6 2.3 b

sodium hydroxide at three concentrations (0.1 N, 1 N,
and 4 N). This was done to remove lignin and to modify
its polarity. This process results in a flexible, resistant,
and elastic material. The features of this material are sim-
ilar to that of plastic, and could be utilised for the pur-
pose of decorative products. However, the difference is
that this material is derived from plants. An outstanding
outcome was achieved when natural fiber (agave) was
used with an alkali treatment of 1N in 1,000 ml of water.
This proved what was presented in the past research [73].
An appropriate concentration combination for the bio-
product is 40% of biopolymer and 60% of fiber. It is
stated that pure biopolymer is useful for manufacturing
decorative products, and inclusion of natural fiber will
enhance the quality and resistance of that product [73].
The tensile strength of the films was determined and the
results are plotted in Fig. 3a. As shown, the film rein-
forced with treated fibers had a higher tensile strength
compared to the neat matrix film, which had the lowest
tensile strength (3.5 MPa) compared to the controlled
matrix. Acid hydrolysis resulted in an enhancement of
91–134% in terms of tensile strength compared to the
control film [73]. The work by Fiore et al. [74] using
kenaf fibers pretreated in a NaOH solution (6% in
weight) at room temperature for two different periods (48
and 144 h) using unidirectional long fibers or randomly
oriented short fiber, the result from tensile test showed
that all of the composites show higher tensile modulus as
compared to neat epoxy resin. The alkali treatment
increased the mechanical properties of the composites,
due to the improvement of fiber–matrix compatibility.
The flexural properties of composites are similar to those
of tensile test. As shown in Fig. 3b [74].
Thermal Treatment
Thermal treatment was carried out on the matrix and
composites. The fibers and thermal treatment led to
improvement in the tensile properties of cassava starch.
The inclusion of fibers led to decrease in water uptake,
swelling, and moisture absorption of TPS. This occurred
due to improved interfacial linkage between the fibers
and the matrix, and the difficulty of absorption occurred
due to the fibers [74]. Mechanical tests were used to
assess the impact of various treatments and filler contents
of the bio-composites. It was indicated through the find-
ings that the optimum filler content was 6%, and after
every treatment, the tensile strengths and the moduli of
the bio-composites increased. The formation of cassava
starch based composites including fibers taken from green
coconuts is explained in the study by Lomeli Ramirez
et al. [75] various quantities of coir fibers were used to
prepare these composites through thermal moulding and
by using glycerol as a plasticizer for the starch. The
laccase-mediator system was used by Narkchamnan and
Sakdaronnarong [76]. To perform the treatment of cellu-
lose fibers and lignin in order to improve the strength of
binding of lignin compounds and natural fibers into cas-
sava starch composite matrix. Testing of Violuric acid
(VA) was done to determine its impact as mediator for
laccase treatment. It was indicated through the results that
flexural strength and modulus increases by four times
when compared to the control if 15% (w/w) fibers are
included in the bio-composite at 44% (w/w) water con-
tent. The highest amount of enhancement of flexural
strength for 375.8% and modulus for 1140% as much as
neat starch bio-composite occurred due to combination of
fibbers 1VA. Water resistance of starch bio-composite
considerably improved due to the existence of lignin, VA,
and fibbers as mediator for laccase treatment. This was
found through a change observed in the water drop con-
tact angle on bio-composite surface [59, 76].
CASSAVA COMPOSITE
The plant fibers have been used in recent times to pre-
pare a different type of bio-composite. The new class is
basically an All Plant Fiber Composite (APFC) [18, 77].
This material recently formed is eco-friendly and if for its
preparation petroleum-based constituents are not used
then it totally based on bio-materials [78]. In order to
enhance the interfacial bond, it is found that we need to
use the same molecular quantity as medium [79]. There-
fore, to refrain from pollution optimum use of CSR in
manufacturing of APFC is important as this will also aug-
ment the value of lignocellulose’s quantity. The three

8 POLYMER COMPOSITES—2015 DOI 10.1002/pc

 FIG. 3. Show the effect of treatment on mechanical properties. [74]. [Color figure can be viewed in the
online issue, which is available at www.interscience.wiley.com.]
main parts of a plant fiber are the lignin, cellulose and
hemicellulose, which is an established fact. One thing
that should be mentioned here is that plants due to the
crystalline and net like structure cannot be treated like the
normal polymers of plastic [18, 80]. Nowadays, eco-
friendly polymer and natural fiber is being used to pre-
pare bio-composite which then being used to manufacture
recyclable and eco-friendly products rather than plastics
made from petroleum-based components [81–83]. Another
study that was conducted to characterize CSF by mixing
cassava starch foam with zein, gluten, soy protein, kraft
fiber, and palm oil at various concentrations with 0, 5,
10, and 15% by wt. of starch, along with different con-
centrations of palm oil by Kaisangsri et al. [84] The addi-
tion of Kraft, gluten and zein material resulted in
increasing the compressive and flexibility strength. It was
observed that to obtain maximum flexibility and compres-
sion strength 15% of Kraft has to be added. Refined and
uniform structured foam was obtained due to the presence
of zein and gluten. The water solubility and water absorp-
tion in CSF is far more than Extended Polystyrene Foam;
this is why cassava starch foam is generally preferable for
packaging of food with low water content as suggested
by this study. Kraft, zein and gluten only help in improv-
ing the mechanical characteristics of CSF [84]. When
Poly Vinyl Alcohol (PVA) is blended with cassava
bagasse (CB) the resultant foam trays are decomposable
as proposed in the study by Debiagi et al. [85] approxi-
mately 0210% of polyvinyl alcohol mixed in 90-100% of
CB was baked at a high temperature to produce the
required foam trays. Addition of PVA helped in getting
DOI 10.1002/pc
100% outcome as it was seen that without usage of PVA
only 90% yield of production resulted. Furthermore, water
absorption was decreased and a minimum level of absorp-
tion in trays was achieved by incorporating 2.525%
PVA. A decrease in density and enhancement in thickness
resulted due to the addition of polyvinyl alcohol. Lastly,
usage of PVA augmented the stress at break values by
8211 times. Optimistic characteristics were obtained
when 2.525% polyvinyl alcohol was used [85]. The study
conducted by Vallejos et al. [86] was done on composites
based on corn and cassava starches that had been turned
to plastic using 20% by weight of glycerine mixed with
0215% of bagasse fiber. The experiment conducted for
malleability showed that strengthened thermoplastic had
their stiffness greatly improved. However, if only 10% of
strengthening agent was added no change in stiffness was
observed. About 10% of bagasse fiber increased the
strength of corn starch by 44% in contrast with a 47%
increase in strength found in cassava starch on addition of
bagasse fibers. A fourfold change in elastic modulus was
observed due to the increased strength provided by 15%
by weight of bagasse fiber; on the other hand a decline in
ductile strain was seen [86]. The thermoplastic cassava
starch fortified with jute and kapok fibers was taken up
for study by Prachayawarakorn et al. [87] Incorporation
of these cellulose fibers yielded two major changes. First,
regression in water content uptake by TPCS reinforced
with jute and kapok was observed. Second, Young’s mod-
ulus and the strain at full-load augmented considerably
with the use of these cellulosic fibers. Opposite behavior
was seen for thermal degradation temperature as yielded
POLYMER COMPOSITES—2015 9
from the thermos-gravimetric analysis that is a decline in
the temperature for kapok fiber and improvement in case
of jute fiber. Altogether the mechanical characteristics
enhanced considerably by using jute or kapok fiber for
strengthening. In a nut-shell the water content uptake in
case of kapok reinforced TPCS was high whereas, the
thermal degradation temperature declined as compared to
TPCS strengthened with jute in whose case the tempera-
ture did not vary [87]. The bright prospective of using
kenaf fibers obtained from CNCs (Cellulose Nano-Crys-
tals) to strengthen the bio-composite based on starch have
been mentioned in this study by Zainuddin et al. [71] The
solution casting method employed here makes use of
0210% by weight kenaf cellulose nanocrystals for
strengthening and to glycerol/sorbitol in 50 : 50 ratio to
give shape in preparation of bio-composite based on cas-
sava starch. CNCs were used in varying quantities to
characterize the composites by using distinct methods.
Investigation of the samples obtained from the basic
medium when using 6% by weight kenaf showed that the
yield was transparent although a strengthening agent had
been incorporated. The experiments was performed to
check the malleability of the sample, i.e., the minuscule
composite layers showed that if cellulose quantity is
amplified the mechanical characteristic tend to improve.
Maximum ductility was obtained by using 6% by weight
of cellulose nanocrystals. Therefore, the conclusion
deducted from these experiments was that kenaf fibers
derived from CNC’s could be used as a strengthening
agent in bio-composites since they do not affect the trans-
parency and helps in improving the mechanical properties
such as malleability and ductility [71]. If agricultural
waste remainder is properly treated the outcome is impor-
tant materials [88]. The study was conducted to examine
the microscopic units present in thermoplastic cassava
starch structure turned into plastic using glycerol or a
combination sorbitol and glycerol. All the microscopic
specks of cellulose were incorporated in the study. These
units were derived from cassava bagasse having a low
diameter ranging from 2 to 11 nm and a high length rang-
ing from 360 to 1,700 nm. The hydrophilic property and
water absorption characteristic of thermoplastic starch
structure declines by adding microscopic fibers of cellu-
lose in it particularly the models made using glycerol.
Natural and phosphate cush-cush yam and CS (cassava
starch) were studied by Gutierrez et al. [89] analysing the
mechanical and chemical characteristics of derivative
films. The comparison yielded following results; moisture
content in derivative of CS was far less, hence minimiz-
ing bacterial growth, better thermal durability was
observed in films made from CS than cush-cush yam.
The basic constituents of these films make it clear that
they would be comestible, eco-friendly, and decompos-
able. Enhanced solubility and crystal like structure was
obtained in materials derived from cross-linked starches
as they tend to be hydrophilic. In order to get best chemi-
cal and mechanical properties, starches have to be altered
10 POLYMER COMPOSITES—2015
as per the need. The products, thus obtained had a lot bet-
ter properties and depending on their characteristic, they
can be employed in the food industry [89]. Cassava starch
was impregnated with cinnamaldehyde and antimicrobial
agent with the help of a supercritical solvent to yield a
bio-composite film to attain the prime objective i.e., to
achieve the predicted use [90] the films thus produced
had a lot better characteristics. One of the remarkable
substitutes generally used as packaging material is created
from plasticized cassava starch strengthened with micro-
scopic units mixed with an antimicrobial agent. It has
been found out that if we make use of supercritical sol-
vent impregnation in cassava starch the resultant yield in
form of films is a promising substitute for the packaging
materials when paralleled with the yield from orthodox
approaches. Melt extrusion twin screw extruder method
was used to merge the cassava blends of polyvinyl alco-
hol; the compression method was employed to prepare
experiment trials as in Munthoub et al. [91] There is a
decline in the water absorption of cassava PVA as the
glycerol content increases however, at higher composition
of cassava PVA better results were obtained mainly due
to their hydrophilic properties. This was done to analyze
the effect of different ratio of glycerol and cassava skin.
Three more properties were investigated and following
results were obtained from the same test samples. Young
Modulus decreased for high composition cassava skin
whereas a direct relation was found out between young
modulus and glycerol content. The elongation of cassava
PVA decreased when either glycerol or fiber loading was
increased by up to 70 wt% and 30 wt%, respectively. The
strength of cassava PVA showed the same trend as in
water absorption with an increase of about 70 wt% on
increase on fiber loading [91]. Table 5 bellow reported
the work of cassava based composite [23, 84–88,
92–114].
PROPERTIES OF CASSAVA FILM
By observing and studying the properties of cassava
films certain findings were obtained. It was found out
that percent elongation, Young’s modulus and tensile
strength decreased when the glycerol concentration was
increased. On the other hand, water solubility, moisture
content, and water vapor permeability of the cassava film
augmented with the escalating glycerol concentration.
Therefore, it was observed that glycerol content affected
both the mechanical and water barrier properties.
Physical Properties of Cassava Film
Moisture Conten. Table 6 shows the moisture content
of the cassava starch biodegradable films. The moisture
content was found to be high when the glycerol content
was high (45 wt%) and low when the amount of glycerol
was low (30 wt%). The values of moisture content for the
DOI 10.1002/pc
 TABLE 5. Reported work cassava-based composite.

Matrix Reinforcement Reference

Cassava starch Green coconut fibers [92]

Cassava starch Coconut fibers [93]
Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) Cassava skin [91]
Polyvinyl-alcohol (PVA) incorporated with clove Cassava bagasse [85]
(CEO) or oregano (OEO) essential oils
Cassava starch Chitosan/ kraft fiber [94]
Cassava starch Cellulose cassava bagasse nanofibrils (CBN) [88]
Cassava starch Cassava bagasse-Kraft paper [23]
Cassava starch Cellulose nanocrystals from kenaf fibers [95]
Native cassava starch Cinnamon essential oil/clove essential [96]
oil/Sucrose ester of fatty acids
Cassava starch Sugar cane bagasse [86]
Native cassava starch (Beta zeolite nanocrystal or Na-beidellite) [97]
Agar (AG), cassava starch (CAS) and [98]
arabinoxylan (AX)
Cassava starch A kaolinite-rich clay which is mineral [99]
composition is as follows: 76.5% kaolinite;
10.4% illite; 3.4% TiO2; 2% iron oxide and 4% SiO2
Sodium cellulose sulfate (NaCS) / Cassava starch [100]
Cassava starch Chitosan [101]
Cashew tree gum (CTG), cassava [102]
starch and carnauba wax
Cassava starch Exploitation of chitosan as a compatibilising [103]
Cassava starch Malt bagasse [104]
Cassava starch foam (CSF) trays, blended with zein, gluten, soy protein, [84]
kraft fiber, and palm
Cassava flour (CF)/ wheat flour (WF) [105–108]
poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) Cassava stillage residue (CSR) [109]
final egg albumen: cassava starch: sunflower oil [110]
cassava starch/low-density Polyethylene cotton fibers [111]
Cassava stillage residue (CSR self-reinforced [112]
Cassava Starch Cassava Pell/ Cassava Bagasse [113]
Cassava starch The remaining fibrous residue of cassava starch extraction [114]

films ranged in between (11.8 6 2.2) % and (41.1 6 0.33) 3 10210 g/s.m. Pa and (4.47 6 0.44) 3 10210 g/
1.5)% [115]. s.m.Pa [115].

Water Solubility. Table 6 shows the water solubility of

cassava films. Increasing the amount of glycerol in the
film led to increased solubility of the cassava in water.
The values of solubility ranged in between (23.0 6 0.5)%
and (32.1 6 1.5)% [115].
Water Vapour Permeability. Table 6 lays out the
water vapour permeability of the cassava films. The water
vapour permeability of the cassava films increased with
the enhanced amount of glycerol in the film. The values
of water vapour permeability ranged in between (3.28 6
Mechanical Properties of Cassava Film
As it has been mentioned earlier, presence of glycerol
has a direct influence on the percent elongation, Young’s
modulus and tensile strength of the cassava films. Increas-
ing the amount of glycerol resulted in the decrement of
Young’s modulus (E) and tensile strength (r). This is
because of certain alterations on the structure of starch
network upon addition of glycerol. The network became
under stress and also less dense when glycerol was amal-
gamated; moreover, the flexibility of film improved

TABLE 6. Moisture contents, water solubility, water vapor, and mechanical properties of cassava films, as a function of glycerol content.

WSP (x 10210/
Glycerol content s.M.Pa) [115] WS (%) [115] MC (%) [115] r (MPa) [116]  (%) [116] E (MPa) [116]

30 3.28 (0.33) 23.0 (0.5) 11.8 (0.2)* 2.4 (0.2) 49.4 (3.4) 46.3 (4.6)
35 4.22 (0.11) 26.0 (1.8) 22.2 (1.9) 2.1 (0.2) 41.9 (3.2) 32.2 (3.7)
40 4.39 (0.14) 29.2 (1.6) 24.8 (1.5) 1.4 (0.1) 28.8 (2.4) 14.7 (1.2)
45 3.39 (0.14) 32.1 (1.5) 41.1 (1.5) 1.2 (0.2) 26.8 (4.0) 14.0 (.01)

DOI 10.1002/pc POLYMER COMPOSITES—2015 11


FIG. 4. Extrusion of cassava foam [122].
because of the ease in movement of polymer chains
[116]. The percent elongation () of the films also
decreases with the increase in glycerol content. Due to
this property of the films, the starch films became more
ductile i.e. easily breakable instead of becoming more
brittle [117]. These three properties have been shown in
the table as a function of the glycerol contained.
CASSAVA HYBRID
Stability and equilibrium has been attained in the
fibers amalgamated in the composite structure by using
hybrid composites. The fibers that are incorporated into
the material can be of two types: manufactured synthetic
and natural fibers. Some of the synthetic materials are
renewable while some are non-renewable. The nonrenew-
able synthetic fibers are quite expensive; therefore, alter-
natives for this must be obtained for optimizing the
hybrid process. A feasible and practical material has been
obtained by combining renewable and synthetic fiber.
Since this is copiously present it can be easily used
instead of non-renewable synthetic fibers [118]. Several
other studies have been conducted for obtaining a cheaper
FIG. 5. Starch foam: (a) Pesika Naturpack GmbH; (b) Suedstraerke GmbH. [116]. [Color figure can be
viewed in the online issue, which is available at www.interscience.wiley.com.]
12 POLYMER COMPOSITES—2015
and better material. The study conducted by Kaisangsri
al. [92] used cassava starch incorporated with natural
polymers of chitosan and kraft fiber to obtain biodegrad-
able foam trays. The starch/ fiber and chitosan mixture
was made in the ratio of 1 : 1 and chitosan solution at 0,
2, 4, and 6% (w/v) were used. Likewise, a mixture of
starch/ fiber and kraft fiber at 0, 10, 20, 30, and 40% (w/
v of starch) was obtained. Foam obtained from a mixture
of cassava starch and 4% chitosan and 30% kraft fiber
had elongation of starch of 2.43% and tensile strength of
944.4 kPa that was similar to that obtained for polysty-
rene foam. The foam obtained was quite similar in prop-
erties to polystyrene foam but the water solubility index
(WSI) and water absorption index (WAI) were found to
be in increased amount as compared to their value in
polystyrene foam [92]. Another study conducted by Teix-
eira et al. [119] used cassava starch and cassava bagasse
to develop fiber-reinforced thermoplastic starch (TPSB
and TPSI, respectively). The maximum tensile modulus
(41.6 MPa) and tensile strength (0.6 MPa) increased by
using cassava bagasse instead of cassava starch because
the existence of fibers in the bagasse supported the TPS
structure. Moreover, cassava bagasse can be used to make
TPS at much lower cost in comparison to cassava starch
because of its great copiousness. Lower elongation to
break was obtained in TPS made from cassava bagasse in
comparison to that obtained in TPS made from cassava
starch. PLA can also be added with cassava bagasse in
the formulation of TPS to further reduce cost but compro-
mising the tensile modulus and strength Mixtures of poly
(lactic acid) and TPSI (20%) and TPSB (5, 10, 15, and
20%) can also be used for obtaining efficient composite
materials having better performance and lower cost [119].
Tantatherdtam et al. [120] also conducted a study to
obtain better composite material by using cassava root
fiber as a bio-reinforcement. Maleic anhydride-
DOI 10.1002/pc

FIG. 6. Illustrative picture of cassava starch edible film (blend of 1.0 g
of glycerol; 0.3 g of glutaraldehyde; 0.3 g of polyethylene glycol) [123].
[Color figure can be viewed in the online issue, which is available at
www.interscience.wiley.com.]
polypropylene (MAPP) compatibilizer has been used for
enhancing the interfacial strength between the polymer
structure and fibers in the composite material obtained by
mixing polybutylene succinate (PBS), polypropylene (PP)
and cassava root fiber on a twin screw extrusion. The
flexural strength of PP composite having 50% fibers also
increased with the addition of MAPP the interfacial bond
between the polymer structure and fibers was found using
a scanning electron microscope and it was observed that
the bind was better in the composite material containing
MAPP compatibilizer. The flexural and tensile strength
decreased upon increment in load on the fiber, on the
other hand, the flexural and Young’s modulus increased.
The increase in the Young’s and flexural modulus
resulted in greater stiffness in the composite material
[120].
CASSAVA COMPOSITE APPLICATION
Howeler and Tan [121] have produced Starch Puff,
this kind of product is known also as (Plate expanded by
FIG. 7. Film production by extrusion: (a) acquisition of pellets and (b)
formation of tubular film. [101]. [Color figure can be viewed in the
online issue, which is available at www.interscience.wiley.com.]
DOI 10.1002/pc
extrusion, Gelatinized starch puff or Baking with water).
The products are formed in the extruder by the swelling
and expansion of starch through the action of high tem-
perature and water vapour to form starch foam, snack,
etc. Plate expansion or baking give products such as waf-
fles, which can be formed in tray shapes or other packag-
ing material [121]. Clean Green Company in
Minneapolis, MN, USA, has produced “starch foam” by
extrusion of wheat starch and polyvinyl alcohol. “Eco–
Foam”, a product of National Starch, uses waxy corn as
raw material. In European countries, the baking technol-
ogy is also at a commercial scale. Packaging products,
such as fast food utensils, are available in the market
using both cereal and potato starches. The marketing of
biodegradable packaging products are supported in the
EU. Cassava starch has been successfully expanded under
extrusion conditions. Due to its low bulk density, a little
modification is needed so that its moisture content is
increased. Twin screw extrusion figure 4 is recommended
for direct expansion of cassava starches. Cassava starch
can also be used as the raw material for plate expanded
or baking products. Cassava starch can be expanded in
moulds, at 20022408C for 123 min, to form into pack-
age utensils, such as bowls. About 10% additives, includ-
ing calcium carbonate, agar, or emulsifier is needed to
improve the properties. Figure 5 shows cassava foam and
an example of it is application [122].
Parra et al. [123] produced film from blending cassava
starch with glycerol and PEG, the films were transparent,
homogeneous and flexible (see Fig. 6). However, those
with glutaraldehyde became slightly opaque. The average
thickness of the films was 0.012 mm [123].
The components of the formulations (starch, chitosan
and glycerol) were mixed. In the first stage of the extru-
sion process, the mixtures were extruded and pelletized
twice to obtain good homogenization (Fig. 7a). Next, the
reprocessed pellets were used to manufacture the film by
blown extrusion (Fig. 7b) [101].
CONCLUSIONS
Cassava starch is viable, available widely and it is
quite cheap; therefore, cassava starch is being used in a
wide variety of application. Some of the functional and
structural properties of cassava starch are: The starch
granules are rounded, oval, and truncated and exhibit
great variety in gelatinization, rheological properties, sol-
ubilisation and swelling. Certain modification in the
starch structure can lead to varying physical, chemical
and enzymatic properties. Various modifications for cas-
sava fibers are still necessary to be investigated to maxi-
mize the benefit of such fiber type. It has been observed
that the nomenclature particularly for starch molecule
(e.g., definitions of A-chain of amylopectin and cluster) is
a bit ambiguous; therefore, some uniform nomenclature
criterion have to be developed. Another important obser-
vation is the repetition of research (e.g., starch
POLYMER COMPOSITES—2015 13
modifications) that has led to several confusions as the
results of each research are different due to the differen-
ces in the implemented research methods and techniques.
The concept of “from waste to wealth and recyclable
material” has been promoted by the increased deposits of
organic wastes like cassava bagasse and peels. In applica-
tions like production of enzymes, organic acids, feed, etc.
the use of cassava bio-products can be economical.
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