Unit I Introduction

CS8601Mobile Computing Department of CSE 2020-2021
UNIT I INTRODUCTION
Mobile Computing – Mobile Computing Vs wireless Networking – Mobile Computing
Applications – Characteristics of Mobile computing – Structure of Mobile Computing
Application. MAC Protocols – Wireless MAC Issues – Fixed Assignment Schemes – Random
Assignment Schemes – Reservation Based Schemes.
PART-A
1. What is mobile computing?
Mobile Computing is a technology that allows transmission of data, voice and video via a
computer or any other wireless enabled device without having to be connected to a fixed
physical link.
2. List the issues of wireless MAC(April 2018)
1.Hidden and Exposed terminal problem
2.Near and far terminal problem
3. Distinguish between mobile computing and wireless networking(April 2017)(Nov
2017) (April 2018)
Mobile computing Wireless networking
Mobile computing refers to computing information between a computing device
devices that are not restricted to a desktop. Wireless refers to the method of transferring,
A mobile device may be a PDA, a smart and a data source, such as an agency
phone or a web phone, a laptop computer, database server, without a physical
or any one of numerous other devices that connection
allow the user to complete tasks without
being tethered, or connected, to a
network. Accessing information and
remote computational service while on the
move.
4. What are the different characteristics of mobile computing?
 Ubiquity
 Location awareness:
 Adaptation
 Broadcast
 Personalization
5. Define ubiquity.
In the context of mobile computing, ubiquity means the ability of a user to perform
computations from anywhere and at anytime.
6. What is meant by Adaptation?
Adaptation in the context of mobile computing implies the ability of a system to adjust to
bandwidth fluctuation without inconveniencing the user.
7. What is personalization?
Services in a mobile environment can be easily personalized according to a users profile.
This is required to let the users easily avail information with their hand-held devices.
8. Give different types of mobile computing applications.
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Presentation (Tier-1): It is a user interface. It includes web browsers and customizes client
program for dissemination of information and for collection of data from the user.
Application(Tier-2):vital responsibility of making logical decisions and performing
calculations Data(Tier-3):Basic facilities of data storage, access and manipulation
9. What is meant by MAC Protocols?
When an IP packet reaches its destination (sub)network, the destination IP address (a
layer 3 or network layer concept) is resolved with the Address Resolution Protocol for
IPv4, or by Neighbor Discovery Protocol (IPv6) into the MAC address (a layer 2 concept)
of the destination host.
10. How performance is improved in CSMA/CD protocol compared to CSMA protocol?
In CSMA scheme, a station monitors the channel before sending a packet. Whenever a
collision is detected, it does not stop transmission leading to some wastage of time. On
the other hand, in CSMA/CD scheme, whenever a station detects a collision, it sends a
jamming signal by which other station comes to know that a collision occurs. Wastage of
time is reduced leading to improvement in performance.
11. What is Hidden and exposed station problem ?(May 2016)
Hidden station problem:
 A sends to B, C cannot receive A
 C wants to send to B, C senses a “free” medium (CS fails)
 collision at B, A cannot receive the collision (CD fails)
 A is “hidden” for C
Exposed terminals
 B sends to A, C wants to send to another terminal (not A or B)
 C has to wait, CS signals a medium in use
 but A is outside the radio range of C, therefore waiting is not necessary
 C is “exposed” to B
12. Write the three types of MAC protocol?
Fixed assignment scheme: resource required for a call are assigned for the entire duration
of the call
Random assignment scheme: reservation schemes are called packet switched scheme. No
reservations are made. ALOHA, Slotted ALOHA, CSMA, CSMA/CD, CSMA/CA
Reservation based scheme: a node makes explicit reservation of the channel for an entire
call before transmitting.
13. What are the categories of Fixed assignment Mac protocols ? (Nov 2013)
 Frequency Division Multiple Access(FDMA)
 Time Division Multiple Access(TDMA)
 Code division Multiple Access(CDMA)
14. What is meant by FDMA?

FDMA is a channel access method used in multiple-access protocols as a channelization
protocol. FDMA gives users an individual allocation of one or several frequency bands, or
channels. It is particularly commonplace in satellite communication.
15. What are the different features of MAC Protocols?

 It should implement some rules that help to enforce discipline when multiple nodes
contend for a shared channel.
 It should help maximize the utilization of the channel
 Channel allocation needs to be fair.
 It should be capable of supporting several types of traffic having different maximum
and average bit rates.
16. What is ALOHA?
Aloha, also called the Aloha method, refers to a simple communications scheme in which
each source (transmitter) in a network sends data whenever there is a frame to send. If the
frame successfully reaches the destination (receiver), the next frame is sent. If the frame
fails to be received at the destination, it is sent again.
17. Define TDMA.
Time division multiple access (TDMA) is a channel access method for shared medium
networks. It allows several users to share the same frequency channel by dividing the
signal into different time slots. The users transmit in rapid succession, one after the other,
each using its own time slot
18. What is CDMA? (Nov 2013)
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) is a channel access method used by various radio
communication technologies. CDMA is an example of multiple access, where several
transmitters can send information simultaneously over a single communication channel.
19. What is the difference between Infrastructure and Adhoc Modes?
 Infrastructure mode- Devices on the network all communicate through a single access
point, which is generally the wireless router.
 Ad-hoc mode –It is also known as “peer-to-peer” mode. Ad-hoc networks don’t require
a centralized access point. Instead, devices on the wireless network connect directly to
each other.
20. What is reservation based scheme?
It is by RTS/CTS scheme. A sender transmits an RTS(Ready to send) packet to the
receiver before the actual data transmission. On receiving this, the receiver sends CTS
(Clear to send) packet and the actual data transfer commence only after that.
21. What is meant by MACA?
Multiple Accesses with Collision Avoidance (MACA) is a slotted media access control
protocol used in wireless LAN data transmission to avoid collisions caused by the hidden
station problem and to simplify exposed station problem.
22. How exposed terminal problem is solved in MACA.
Assume B needs to transmit to A. B has to transmit RTS. The RTS would contain the
names of the receiver (A) and the sender(B) . C does not act in response to this message as

it is not the receiver. But A responds with a CTS. C does not receive this CTS and
conclude that A is outside the detection range.. Thus C can start its transmission
assuming that no collision would occur at A.
23. What is the use of RTS and CTS?
CSMA with CA uses short signaling (control) packets to eliminate hidden station and
exposed station problem:
 RTS (request to send): a sender request the right to send from a
receiver with a short RTS packet
before it sends a data packet
 CTS (clear to send): the receiver grants the right as soon as it is
ready
Signaling packets contain:
 sender address ,receiver address
24. List the advantages of mobile computing.(May 2016)
Location flexibility, Saves time, Enhanced productivity, Ease of research, Entertainment.
25. What are the limitations of Mobile Computing?(Dec 2016)
Insufficient bandwidth ,Security standards, Power Consumption, Transmission
Interferences, Potential health hazards, Human interface with device.
26. What are the different Random assignment scheme in MAC?(Dec 2016)(April 2017)
ALOHA Scheme and CSMA Scheme.
27. “MAC protocol designed for infrastructure based wireless network may not work
satisfactory in infrastructure-less environment” – Jusify. (Nov 2017)
Because,  It is for a transmitting node to detect collisions
 Hidden and Exposed terminal problems makes MAC protocols inefficient.
UNIT-I / PART-B
1 What is mobile computing? Mention the characteristics and applications of mobile
computing.(May 2016)(April 2017)(April 2018)
What is mobile computing? Mention the characteristics and applications of mobile
computing.(May 2016)(Nov/Dec 2016)
Mobile Computing is a technology that allows transmission of data, voice and
video via a computer or any other wireless enabled device without having to be
connected to a fixed physical link.
characteristics of mobile computing
 Ubiquity
 Location awareness:
 Adaptation
 Broadcast
 Personalization
Applications
In many fields of work, the ability to keep on the move is vital in order to utilise
time efficiently. The importance of Mobile Computers has been highlighted in many
fields of which a few are described below:
1. Vehicles: Music, news, road conditions, weather reports, and other broadcast
information are received via digital audio broadcasting (DAB) with 1.5 Mbit/s.
For personal communication, a universal mobile telecommunications system
(UMTS) phone might be available offering voice and data connectivity with 384
kbit/s. The current position of the car is determined via the global positioning
system (GPS). Cars driving in the same area build a local ad-hoc network for the
fast exchange of information in emergency situations or to help each other keep a
safe distance. In case of an accident, not only will the airbag be triggered, but the
police and ambulance
service will be informed via an emergency call to a service provider. Buses, trucks,
and trains are already transmitting maintenance and logistic information to their
home base, which helps to improve organization (fleet management), and saves
time and money.
2. Emergencies: An ambulance with a high-quality wireless connection to a hospital
can carry vital information about injured persons to the hospital from the scene of
the accident. All the necessary steps for this particular type of accident can be
prepared and specialists can be consulted for an early diagnosis. Wireless
networks are the only means of communication in the case of natural disasters
such as hurricanes or earthquakes. In the worst cases, only decentralized, wireless
ad-hoc networks survive.
3. Business: Managers can use mobile computers say, critical presentations to major
customers. They can access the latest market share information. At a small recess,
they can revise the presentation to take advantage of this information. They can
communicate with the office about possible new offers and call meetings for
discussing responds to the new proposals. Therefore, mobile computers can
leverage competitive advantages. A travelling salesman today needs instant access
to the company’s database: to ensure that files on his or her laptop reflect the
current situation, to enable the company to keep track of all activities of their
travelling employees, to keep databases consistent etc. With wireless access, the
laptop can be turned into a true mobile office, but efficient and powerful
synchronization mechanisms are needed to ensure data consistency.
4. Credit Card Verification: At Point of Sale (POS) terminals in shops and

Supermarkets, when customers use credit cards for transactions, the
intercommunication required between the bank central computer and the POS
terminal, in order to effect verification of the card usage, can take place quickly
and securely over cellular channels using a mobile computer unit. This can speed
up the transaction process and relieve congestion at the POS terminals.
5. Replacement of Wired Networks: wireless networks can also be used to replace

wired networks, e.g., remote sensors, for tradeshows, or in historic buildings. Due
to economic reasons, it is often impossible to wire remote sensors for weather
forecasts, earthquake detection, or to provide environmental information. Wireless
connections, e.g., via satellite, can help in this situation. Other examples for
wireless networks are computers, sensors, or information displays in historical
buildings, where excess cabling may destroy valuable walls or floors.
6. Infotainment: wireless networks can provide up-to-date information at any
appropriate location. The travel guide might tell you something about the history
of a building (knowing via GPS, contact to a local base station, or triangulation
where you are) downloading information about a concert in the building at the
same evening via a local wireless network. Another growing field of wireless
network applications lies in entertainment and games to enable, e.g., ad-hoc
gaming networks as soon as people
meet to play together.
2 Distinguish between mobile computing and wireless networking explain briefly?
Mobile is a word that is commonly used to describe portable devices. A mobile device is
one that is made to be taken anywhere. Therefore, it needs an internal battery for power,
and must be connected to a modern mobile network that can help it to send and receive
data without attaching to a hardware infrastructure.
Wireless, on the other hand, does not mean mobile. Traditional computers or other non-
mobile devices can access wireless networks. One very common example is the use of a
localized browser product in a local area network (LAN), where the router takes what
used to be a cabled interaction and makes it wireless. Other kinds of wireless networks
called wide area networks (WAN) can even use components of 3G or 4G wireless systems
made specifically for mobile devices, but that doesn’t mean that the devices on these
networks are mobile. They may still be plugged in or require proximity to a router or
network node.
Mobile and wireless systems really accomplish two very different things. While a wireless
system provides a fixed or portable endpoint with access to a distributed network, a
mobile system offers all of the resources of that distributed network to something that can
go anywhere, barring any issues with local reception or technical area coverage.
For another example of the difference between mobile and wireless, think of businesses
that offer Wi-Fi hotspots. A Wi-Fi hotspot is typically a resource for someone who has a
relatively fixed device, such as a laptop computer that doesn’t have its own internal
Internet access built in. By contrast, mobile devices already have inherent access to the
Internet or other wireless systems through those cell tower networks that ISPs and
telecom companies built specifically for them. So mobile devices don’t need Wi-Fi - they
already have their connections.
• Wireless links: unique channel characteristics

– High, time-varying bit-error rate
– Broadcast where some nodes can’t hear each other
• Mobile hosts: addressing and routing challenges
– Keeping track of the host’s changing attachment point
– Maintaining a data transfer as the host moves
– Two specific technologies
– Wireless: 802.11 wireless LAN (aka “WiFi”)
– Mobility: Mobile IP

3 Explain the working of a contention based MAC protocol. Give two examples of
contention based MAC Protocols.
 Contention-based protocols with scheduling mechanisms

• Node scheduling is done in a manner so that all nodes are treated fairly and
no node is starved of bandwidth.
• Scheduling-based schemes are also used for enforcing priorities among
flows whose packets are queued at nodes.
• Some scheduling schemes also consider battery characteristics.
 MACAW: A Media Access Protocol for Wireless LANs is based on MACA
(Multiple Access Collision Avoidance) Protocol
 MACA
• When a node wants to transmit a data packet, it first transmit a RTS
(Request To Send) frame.
• The receiver node, on receiving the RTS packet, if it is ready to receive the
data packet, transmits a CTS (Clear to Send) packet.
• Once the sender receives the CTS packet without any error, it starts
transmitting the data packet.
• If a packet transmitted by a node is lost, the node uses the binary
exponential back-off (BEB) algorithm to back off a random interval of time
before retrying.
 The binary exponential back-off mechanism used in MACA might starves flows
sometimes. The problem is solved by MACAW.
The MACA protocol. (a) A sending an RTS to B. (b) B responding with a CTS to A.
 Variants of this method can be found in IEEE 802.11 as DFWMAC (Distributed

Foundation Wireless MAC),
 MACAW (MACA for Wireless) is a revision of MACA.
• The sender senses the carrier to see and transmits a RTS (Request To Send)
frame if no nearby station transmits a RTS.
• The receiver replies with a CTS (Clear To Send) frame.
• Neighbors
• see CTS, then keep quiet.
• see RTS but not CTS, then keep quiet until the CTS is back to the
sender.
• The receiver sends an ACK when receiving an frame.
• Neighbors keep silent until see ACK.
• Collisions
• There is no collision detection.
• The senders know collision when they don’t receive CTS.
• They each wait for the exponential backoff time.
 Floor acquisition Multiple Access Protocols (FAMA)
• Based on a channel access discipline which consists of a carrier-sensing
operation and a collision-avoidance dialog between the sender and the
intended receiver of a packet.
• Floor acquisition refers to the process of gaining control of the channel. At
any time only one node is assigned to use the channel.
• Carrier-sensing by the sender, followed by the RTS-CTS control packet
exchange, enables the protocol to perform as efficiently as MACA.
• Two variations of FAMA
• RTS-CTS exchange with no carrier-sensing uses the ALOHA protocol
for transmitting RTS packets.
• RTS-CTS exchange with non-persistent carrier-sensing uses non-
persistent CSMA for the same purpose.
 Busy Tone Multiple Access Protocols (BTMA)
• The transmission channel is split into two:
• a data channel for data packet transmissions
• a control channel used to transmit the busy tone signal
• When a node is ready for transmission, it senses the channel to check
whether the busy tone is active.
• If not, it turns on the busy tone signal and starts data transmissions
• Otherwise, it reschedules the packet for transmission after some
random rescheduling delay.
• Any other node which senses the carrier on the incoming data
channel also transmits the busy tone signal on the control channel,
thus, prevent two neighboring nodes from transmitting at the same
time.
 Dual Busy Tone Multiple Access Protocol (DBTMAP) is an extension of the
BTMA scheme.
• a control channel used for control packet transmissions (RTS and CTS
packets) and also for transmitting the busy tones.
 Receiver-Initiated Busy Tone Multiple Access Protocol (RI-BTMA)
• The transmission channel is split into two:
• a control channel used for transmitting the busy tone signal
• A node can transmit on the data channel only if it finds the busy tone to be
absent on the control channel.
• The data packet is divided into two portions: a preamble and the actual data
packet.

 MACA-By Invitation (MACA-BI) is a receiver-initiated MAC protocol.
• By eliminating the need for the RTS packet it reduces the number of control
packets used in the MACA protocol which uses the three-way handshake
mechanism.
Media Access with Reduced Handshake (MARCH) is a receiver-initiated protocol.
4 Name one MAC protocol that is used in mobile adhoc networks. Briefly explain its
working (April 2014) (April 2017)
• FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)
• assign a certain frequency to a transmission channel between a sender and a
receiver
• permanent (e.g., radio broadcast), slow hopping (e.g., GSM), fast hopping
(FHSS, Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum)
• It deals with allocating frequencies to transmission channels according to
the Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM).
• Allocation can be either, Fixed, or Dynamic (demand driven)
Techniques of FDMA
(i) Pure FDMA: Channels assigned to the same frequency at all times.
(ii) FDMA / TDMA: Assigning different frequencies according to a certain
pattern.
Frequency hopping:
o Narrow band interference at certain frequencies known as
frequency hopping.
o Sender and receiver must agree on a hopping pattern
1.15.3. Diagram
t-time,c-code,f-frequency,ki-channel
Assigning individual channel to each users.
1.15.4.Description
 FDM is generally used for simultaneous access to the medium by base station
and mobile station in cellular networks.
 It is shown as,
f
960 124
MH
St. Joseph’s Collegezof Engineering Page 9 of 138
935. 1 20
FDD/FDMA - general scheme, example GSM

 The two partners establish duplex channel, i.e., the simultaneous transmission
in both directions.
 FDD:
o If separate frequency is used for transmission from mobile station to base
station and from base station to mobile station is said to be Frequency Division
Duplex (FDD).
o These two frequencies are termed as
 Uplink: From mobile to base station, and
 Downlink: From base to mobile station.
o Generally, up and down link have a fixed relation.
 If uplink frequency is fu = 890MHz + 0.2(n)MHz downlink frequency is
fd=fu+45MHz.
o Advantages:
 FDMA is more simpler than TDMA.
 The bandwidths of channels are narrow.
o Disadvantages:
 Cell site cost is higher.
 Adjacent Channel Interference (ACI) is high.
5 What is FDMA? Briefly explain its working and its important applications.
• FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)
• assign a certain frequency to a transmission channel between a sender and a
receiver
• permanent (e.g., radio broadcast), slow hopping (e.g., GSM), fast hopping
(FHSS, Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum)
• It deals with allocating frequencies to transmission channels according to
the Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM).
• Allocation can be either, Fixed, or Dynamic (demand driven)
Techniques of FDMA
(i) Pure FDMA: Channels assigned to the same frequency at all times.
(ii) FDMA / TDMA: Assigning different frequencies according to a certain
pattern.

Frequency hopping:
o Narrow band interference at certain frequencies known as
frequency hopping.
o Sender and receiver must agree on a hopping pattern
1.15.3. Diagram
t-time,c-code,f-frequency,ki-channel
Assigning individual channel to each users.
1.15.4.Description
 FDM is generally used for simultaneous access to the medium by base station
and mobile station in cellular networks.
 It is shown as, f
960 124
MH
z
935. 1 20
2 20
0
MHz
915 MH kH
124
MH z z
z
890. 1
2 t
MHz
FDD/FDMA - general scheme, example GSM

 The two partners establish duplex channel, i.e., the simultaneous transmission
in both directions.
 FDD:
o If separate frequency is used for transmission from mobile station to base
station and from base station to mobile station is said to be Frequency Division
Duplex (FDD).
o These two frequencies are termed as
 Uplink: From mobile to base station, and
 Downlink: From base to mobile station.
o Generally, up and down link have a fixed relation.
 If uplink frequency is fu = 890MHz + 0.2(n)MHz downlink frequency is
fd=fu+45MHz.
o Advantages:
 FDMA is more simpler than TDMA.
 The bandwidths of channels are narrow.
o Disadvantages:
 Cell site cost is higher.
 Adjacent Channel Interference (ACI) is high.
6 What is TDMA? Briefly explain its working and its important applications.
TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)
 assign the fixed sending frequency to a transmission channel between a
sender and a receiver for a certain amount of time
Features of TDMA
(i) Handoff process is very simple in TDMA.
(ii) TDMA shares a single carrier frequency
Various TDMA Techniques
The various TDMA Techniques are,
 Fixed TDM
 Classical ALOHA
 Slotted ALOHA
 CSMA
 DAMA
 PRMA
 Reservation TDMA
 MACA
 Polling
 ISMA
Fixed TDM
The simplest algorithm for using TDM is allocating time slots for channels in a fixed
pattern. Fixed access patterns (at least fixed for some period in time) fit perfectly well for
connections with a fixed bandwidth.
Figure shows how these fixed TDM patterns are used to implement multiple access and a
duplex channel between a base station and mobile station. Assigning different slots for
uplink and downlink using the same frequency is called time division duplex (TDD).Up
to 12 different mobile stations can use the same frequency.The pattern is repeated every
10 ms, each slot has a duration of 417 µs
Classical Aloha
 Aloha: Each station can access the medium at any time - random,
distributed (no central arbiter), time-multiplex
 Slotted Aloha additionally uses time-slots, sending must always start at slot
boundaries
Slotted Aloha
Carrier sense multiple access

Channel efficiency only 18% for Aloha, 36% for Slotted Aloha (assuming Poisson
distribution for packet arrival and packet length)
Protocols in which stations listen for a carrier (i.e. transmission) and act accordingly are
called carrier sense protocols.
Non-persistent CSMA:
 Channel Busy - Wait for a random length of time and sense again.
 Channel Idle - Transmit.
 Collision - Wait for a random length of time and try again.
p-persistent CSMA:
 Channel Busy - Continue sensing until free (same as idle).
 Channel Idle - Transmit with probability p, and defer transmitting to the
next slot with probability q = 1-p.
1-persistent CSMA
 Channel Busy - Continue sensing until free and then grab.
 Channel Idle - Transmit with probability 1.
Demand assigned multiple accessDAMA

Reservation can increase efficiency to 80%
 a sender reserves a future time-slot
 sending within this reserved time-slot is possible without collision
 reservation also causes higher delays under a light load but allow higher
throughput
 typical scheme for satellite links
Examples for reservation algorithms:
 Explicit Reservation (Reservation-ALOHA)
 Implicit Reservation (PRMA)

 Reservation-TDMA
Explicit Reservation (Reservation Aloha):
 two modes:
 ALOHA mode for reservation:competition for small reservation slots,
collisions possible
 reserved mode for data transmission within successful reserved slots
(no collisions possible)
 it is important for all stations to keep the reservation list consistent at any
point in time and, therefore, all stations have to synchronize from time to
time
Implicit reservation (PRMA - Packet Reservation MA):

 a certain number of slots form a frame, frames are repeated
 stations compete for empty slots according to the slotted aloha principle
 once a station reserves a slot successfully, this slot is automatically assigned
to this station in all following frames as long as the station has data to send
 competition for this slots starts again as soon as the slot was empty in the
last frame
Reservation Time Division Multiple Access

 every frame consists of N mini-slots and x data-slots
 every station has its own mini-slot and can reserve up to k data-slots using
this mini-slot (i.e. x = N * k).
 other stations can send data in unused data-slots according to a round-robin
sending scheme (best-effort traffic)
MACA (Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance) uses short signaling packets for
collision avoidance
 RTS (request to send): a sender request the right to send from a receiver
with a short RTS packet before it sends a data packet
 CTS (clear to send): the receiver grants the right to send as soon as it is
ready to receive
Signaling packets contain
 sender address
 receiver address
 packet size
MACA avoids the problem of hidden terminals
 A and C want to
send to B
 A sends RTS first
 C waits until it receives
CTS from B
MACA avoids the problem of exposed terminals
 B wants to send to A, C
to another terminal now C does not have to wait for it.it cannot receive CTS
from A.
Polling
 When one station is to heard by all others, Polling scheme can be applied.
 The concept of polling is used in mainframe and terminals.
 Carried out by one master station over many slave stations.
 Many polling schemes are there such as Round-robin, Random and as per
reservation patterns.
Inhibit sense multiple access
Another combination of different schemes is represented by inhibit sense multiple
access (ISMA). This scheme, which is used for the packet data transmission service.
Cellular Digital Packet Data (CDPD) in the AMPS mobile phone system, is also known as
digital sense multiple access (DSMA). Here, the base station only signals a busy medium
via a busy tone on the downlink .After the busy tone stops, accessing the uplink is not
coordinated any further.
7 What is MACA protocol? In which environment is it suitable? Briefly explain .

MACA (Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance) uses short signaling packets for
collision avoidance
 RTS (request to send): a sender request the right to send from a receiver
with a short RTS packet before it sends a data packet
 CTS (clear to send): the receiver grants the right to send as soon as it is
ready to receive
Signaling packets contain
 sender address
 receiver address

 packet size
MACA avoids the problem of hidden terminals
 A and C want to
send to B
 A sends RTS first
 C waits until it receives
CTS from B
MACA avoids the problem of exposed terminals
 B wants to send to A, C
to another terminal now C does not have to wait for it.it cannot receive CTS
from A.
8 What is hidden terminal? What problem does it create during wireless

communications?(April 2012) (April 2017) (Nov 2017)
 Hidden and exposed station problem:
Let three mobiles A, B, C
(i) Transmission range of A reaches B, not C and
(ii) Transmission range of C reaches B, not A
(iii) Transmission range of B reaches both A and C
 It is shown as
A B C
 Problem definition of hidden stations:
 A starts sending to B, and C now wants to transmit data to B thereby senses the
medium, it seems to be free and starts transmission.
 Since, B already commits with A, C's transmission leads to collision.
 Problem definition of exposed stations:
 This won't cause collision, but results in delay.
 If B communicates with A, now, C wants to transmit to some other station D,
before transmission starts, C will sense medium, it finds it to be busy and wait
for the channel to be idle, it is an unnecessary delay, because only B
communicates with A not to D.

9 Explain the basic schemes of the CDMA protocol. What is the role of a pseudo random
sequence generator in the working of the CDMA protocol?
Codes with certain characteristics can be applied to the transmission to enable the use of
code division multiplexing (CDM). Code division multiple access (CDMA) systems use
exactly these codes to separate different users in code space and to enable access to a
shared medium without interference. The main problem is how to find “good” codes and
how to separate the signal from noise generated by other signals and the environment.
By using CDMA Each code is supposed to have
 Good auto co-relation(the value of the inner product should be large)
 Orthogonal to other codes(the value of the inner product is zero)
Consider how CDMA works:
Sender A
 sends Ad = 1, key Ak = 010011 (assign: „0“= -1, „1“= +1)
 sending signal As = Ad * Ak = (-1, +1, -1, -1, +1, +1)
Sender B
 sends Bd = 0, key Bk = 110101 (assign: „0“= -1, „1“= +1)
 sending signal Bs = Bd * Bk = (-1, -1, +1, -1, +1, -1)
Both signals superimpose in space
 interference neglected (noise etc.)
 As + Bs = (-2, 0, 0, -2, +2, 0)
Receiver wants to receive signal from sender A
 apply key Ak bitwise (inner product)
 Ae = (-2, 0, 0, -2, +2, 0) · Ak = 2 + 0 + 0 + 2 + 2 + 0 = 6
 result greater than 0, therefore, original bit was „1“
 receiving B
 Be = (-2, 0, 0, -2, +2, 0) · Bk = -2 + 0 + 0 - 2 - 2 + 0 = -6, i.e. „0“
Result less than 0, therefore original bit was 0
CDMA on signal level I
CDMA on signal level II

CDMA on signal level III
CDMA on signal level IV
CDMA on signal level V

 Spread Aloha Multiple Access.

It combine CDMA spreading with aloha medium access.
Fig shows that each transmitter uses the same PN sequence for
spreading(110.101)
A and B access the medium at the same time(collision occurs)
To resolve collision by transmitting short burst of high power
10 Explain about spread aloha multiple accesses in CDMA.

Advantage to using a single code for all transmitters in a CDMA network, esp. for small
cell sizes and multiple access satellite apps  Choice of a multiple-access protocol depends
on traffic characteristics and state of the technology at deployment time:  DAMA
(demand assigned multiple access): users request on a separate control channel; request
protocol introduces delay and just moves the multiple-access problem to the (lower-
bandwidth) request channel  DAMA w/random access: e.g. INMARSAT uses pure
ALOHA for request channel. OK since allocation tends to be long-lived; no good if
transmissions are bursty or short-lived  Multiple access protocols  Slotted or pure
ALOHA. Efficiency (r): eff. channel capacity divided by capacity of a continuous channel
with same power & bandwidth. For ALOHA, r=.18, asymptotically optimal for the special
case of small values of throughput and S/N ratio.  Spread spectrum: max channel
capacity in bits per Nyquist sample: C = .5 log (1+P/N) based on Shannon & Nyquist
relations. "Spread spectrum" means C << 1.  CDMA. Multiply channel signals by
orthogonal set of spreading signals; multiply by cx conjugate at receiver. Requires
multiple receivers at CDMA BS to demodulate received signal.  Qualcomm CDMA (IS-95
std). Spreading code is dynamically assigned via separate ALOHA channel when call
request is made. Up to 64 codes can be active at once.  We can choose same spreading
code for all CDMA users and the channel will still have multiple-access capability (spread
ALOHA):  Each sub channel's bits will be offset by a constant amount g from the

previous sub channel's bits within the frame  With k sub channels, prob. that 2 bits will
not overlap is (1-1/g)^k; then total traffic G = k/g.  Get the noise-immunity of spread-
spectrum with the nice queuing properties of slotted ALOHA.  Previous studies: no
compelling evidence that there is a clear advantage for multiple-code CDMA systems,
despite their complexity
.
11 Explain the structure of mobile computing application/Describe the architecture of
Mobile Computing (May 2016)(Nov 2017)(April 2018)
A mobile computing application is usually structured In terms of the
functionalities implemented .
As shown in the figures 2.3 and 2.4 the three tiers are named presentation tier, application
tier and data tier.
Presentation tier – The topmost level, concerns the user interface. It facilitates the
users to issue requests and to present the results meaningfully. It includes web
browsers and client programs.
Application tier – It is responsible for making logical decisions and performing

calculations. Implemented using Java, .NET services, cold fusion etc. Implemented
on a fixed server.

Data tier – Responsible for data storage, access and manipulation. Implemented on
a fixed server
12 Explain the various taxonomy of MAC protocols. (May 2016)
13 Differentiate between FDMA, TDMA and CDMA.(Nov/Dec 2016)

Approach SDMA TDMA FDMA CDMA
Idea Segment Space Segment Segment the Spread the
into Sending time frequency spectrum
cells/sectors into disjoint band into using
time-slots, disjoint sub- orthogonal
demand bands codes
driven or fixed
patterns
Terminals Only one All terminals Every terminal All terminals
terminal can are active for has its own can be active at
be active in short periods frequency, the same place
one cell/one of time on the uninterrupted at the same
sector same moment,
frequency uninterrupted
Signal Cell structure Synchronizatio Filtering in the Code plus
Preparation directed n in the time frequency special
antennas domain domain rteceivers
Advantages Very simple, Established, Simple, Flexible, less
increase fully digital, established, planning
capacity per very flexible robust needed, soft
km 2 handover
Disadvantages Inflexible, Guard space Inflexible, Complex
antenna needed, frequencies are receivers,
typically fixed Synchronizatio a scarce needs more
n difficult resource complicated
power control
for senders
Comment Only in Standard in Typically Used in many
combination fixed combined with 3G systems,
with TDMA, networks, TDMA higher
FDMA or together with complexity,
CDMA useful FDMA/SDMA lowered
used in many expectations,
mobile integrated
networks with
TDMA/FDMA
14 Explain the distinguishing features of various generations of wireless networks.(Nov/Dec

2016)
Different Generations of Wireless Networks
It is customary among the cellular telephone manufacturers and service providers to

classify wireless communication systems into several generations. The first- generation
(1G) systems are voice-oriented analog cellular and cordless telephones. The second-
generation (2G) wireless networks are voice-oriented digital cellular and PCS systems and
data-oriented wireless WANs and LANs. The third-generation (3G) networks integrate
cellular and PCS voice services with a variety of packet-switched data services in a
unified network. In parallel to the unified 3G standardization activities, broadband local
and ad hoc networks attracted tremendous attention, and they developed their own
standards. One of the major current differences between these two waves is that the 3G
systems use licensed bands, and broadband and ad-hoc networks operate in unlicensed
bands. The manner in which broadband local access in unlicensed bands and 3G
standards in licensed bands may be integrated forms the core of the forthcoming
generations of wireless networks.
1.2.1 1G Wireless Standards
Systems use two separate frequency bands for forward (from base station to mobile) and
reverse (from mobile to base station) links. Such a system is referred to as a frequency
division duplex (FDD) scheme. The typical allocated overall band in each direction, for
example, for AMPS, TACS, and NMT-900, was 25 MHz in each direction. The dominant
spectra of operation for these systems were the 800 and 900 MHz bands. In an ideal
situation, all countries should use the same standard and the same frequency bands,
however, in practice, as shown in Table 1.3, a variety of frequencies and standards were
adopted all over the world. The reason for the different frequencies of operation is that
the frequency administration agencies in each country have had previous frequency
allocation rulings that restricted the assignment choices. The reason for adopting different
standards was that at that time cellular providers assumed services to be mainly used in
one country, and they did not have a vision for a universal service. The channel spacing
or bandwidth allocated to each user was either 30 kHz or 25 kHz or a fraction of either of
them. The 25 kHz band was previously used for mobile satellite services and the 30 kHz
band was something new used for cellular telephone applications. All the 1G cellular
systems were using analog frequency modulation (FM) for which the transmission power
requirement depends on the transmission bandwidth. On the other hand, power is also
related to the coverage and size of the radios. Therefore, one can compensate for the
reduction in transmission bandwidth per user by reducing the size of a cell in a cellular
network. Reduction in size of the cell increases the number of cells and the cost of
installation of the infrastructure.
1.2.2 2G Wireless Systems
The 2G systems supported a complete set of standards for all four sectors of the wireless
network industry. As we discussed in the history of voice-oriented and data-oriented
networks, we have a number of digital cellular, PCS, mobile data, and WLAN standards
and products that can be classified as 2G systems. In the remainder of this section, we
cover each of these four sectors of 2G systems in a separate subsection.
1.2.2.1 2G Digital Cellular
There are four major standards in this category: GSM, the pan-European digital cellular,
the North American Interim Standard (IS-54) that later on improved into IS-136 and
Japanese digital cellular (JDC)—all of them using TDMA technology and IS-95 in North
America, which uses CDMA technology. Like the 1G analog systems, the 2G systems are
all FDD and operate in the 800–900 MHz bands. The carrier spacing of IS-54 and JDC is
the same as the carrier spacing of 1G analog systems in their respective regions, but GSM
and IS-95 use multiple analog channels to form one digital carrier. GSM supports eight
users in a 200 kHz band; IS-54 and JDC support three users in 30 and 25 kHz bands,
respectively. As we explain in Chapter 4, the number of users for CDMA depends on the
acceptable quality of service; therefore, the number of users in the 1,250 kHz CDMA
channels cannot be theoretically fixed. But this number is large enough to convince the
standards organization to adopt CDMA technology for next generation 3G systems. By
looking into these numbers, one may jump to the conclusion that GSM uses 25 kHz for
each bearer, and IS-54 uses 10 kHz per user. Therefore GSM supports 2.5 times less the
number of users in the given bandwidth. The reader should be warned that this is an
illusive conclusion because when the network is deployed, the ultimate quality of voice
also depends on the frequency reuse factor and signal-to-noise/interference requirements
that will change these calculations significantly.
The channel bit rate of GSM is 270 kbps whereas IS-54 and JDC use 48 and 42 kbps,
respectively. Higher channel bit rates of a digital cellular system allow simple
implementation of higher data rates for data services. By assigning several voice slots to
one user in a single carrier, one can easily increase the maximum supportable data rate for
a data service offered by the network. How the higher channel rate of GSM allows
support of higher data rates is discussed in Chapter 9, when we discuss GPRS mobile
data services. Using a similar argument, one may notice that the 1228.8 kcps channel chip
rate of IS-95 provides a good ground for integration of higher data rates into IS-95. This
fact has been exploited in IMT-2000 systems to support data rates up to 2 Mbps.

The speech coding technique of 2G systems are all around 10 kbps. As shown in Table 1.4,
cellular standards assume large cell sizes and a large number of users per cell, which
necessitates lower speech coding rates. On the other hand, cellular standards were
assuming operation in cars for which power consumption and battery life were not
issues. The peak transmission power of the mobile terminals in these standards can be
between several hundreds of mW up to 1W [PAH95] and on the average they consume
around 100 mW. All of these systems employ central power control, which reduces
battery power consumption and helps in controlling the interference level. In digital
communications, information is transmitted in packets or frames. The duration of a
packet/frame in the air should be short enough so that the channel does not change
significantly during the transmission and long so that the required time interval between
packets is much smaller than the length of the packet. A frame length of around 5 to 40
ms is typically used in 2G networks.
1.2.2.4 WLANs
As shown in Figure 1.5(b), WLANs provide high data rates (minimum of 1 Mbps) in a
local area (< 100 m) to provide access to wired LANs and the Internet. Today all
successful WLANs operate in unlicensed bands that are free of charge and rigorous
regulations. Considering that PCS bands were auctioned at very high prices, in the past
few years WLANs have attracted a renewed attention. IEEE standards include 802.11 and
802.11b operating at 2.4 GHz and 802.11a, which operates at 5 GHz. Both HIPERLAN-1
and -2, developed under the European Telecommunication Standards Institute (ETSI),
operate at 5 GHz. The 2.4 GHz products operate in ISM bands using spread spectrum
technology to support data rates ranging from 1 to 11 Mbps. HIPERLAN-1 uses GMSK
modulation with signal processing at the receiver that supports up to 23.5 Mbps. IEEE
802.11a and HIPERLAN-2 use the orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM)
physical layer to support up to 54 Mbps. The access method for all 802.11 standards is the
same and includes CSMA/CA, PCF, and RTS/CTS, which are described in Chapters 4
and 11. The access method of the HIPERLAN-1 is on the lines of the 802.11, but the access
method for HIPERLAN-2 is a voice-oriented access technique that is suitable for
integration of voice and data services. The details of these transmission techniques and
access methods are described in Chapters 3 and 4. IEEE 802.11, IEEE 802.11b, and
HIPERLAN-1 are completed standards, and IEEE 802.11 and 11.b are today's dominant
products in the market. IEEE 802.11a and HIPERLAN-2 are still under development. The
IEEE 802.11 and HIPERLAN-1 standards can be considered 2G wireless LANs. The
OFDM wireless LANs are forming the next generation of these products.
1.2.3 3G and Beyond
The purpose of migration to 3G networks was to develop an international standard that

combines and gradually replaces 2G digital cellular, PCS, and mobile data services. At the
same time, 3G systems were expected to increase the quality of the voice, capacity of the
network, and data rate of the mobile data services. Among several radio transmission
technology proposals submitted to the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), the
dominant technology for 3G systems was W-CDMA, which is discussed in detail in
Chapter 11. Outside the 3G standards, WLAN and WPAN standards are forming the
future for the broadband and ad hoc wireless networks. Fig illustrates the relative
coverage and data rates of 2G, 3G, WLAN, and WPANs. WPANs, studied in Chapter 13,

are formed under the IEEE 802.15 standard. This community has adopted Bluetooth
technology as its first standard. Bluetooth is a new technology for ad hoc networking
which was introduced in 1998. Like WLANs, ad hoc Bluetooth-type technologies operate
in unlicensed bands. Bluetooth operates at lower data rates than WLANs but uses a voice-
oriented wireless access method that provides a better environment for integration of
voice and data services. The WPAN ad hoc networking technologies are designed to
allow personal devices such as laptops, cellular phones, headsets, speakers, and printers
to connect together without any wiring
15 What are the fixed assignment schemes of MAC protocol? Explain their mechanism in
detail. Compare and contrast them. (April 2017)(Nov 2017)
I. Fixed assignment schemes
- Usually called circuit-switched schemes
- Resources required for a call are assigned for the entire duration of the call
Random Assignment Schemes and reservation schemes - packet switched schemes
Random Assignment Schemes -connection-less packet switching schemes
- No resource reservations are made; nodes simply start to transmit as soon as they
have a packet to send
Reservation schemes
- A node makes explicit reservation of the channel for an entire call for before
transmitting
-Analogous to a connection-based packet-switching scheme
- Suitable to handle calls with widely varying traffic characteristics
Important Categories of fixed assignment MAC protocols:
• Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
• Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
• Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
1. Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
- The available bandwidth (frequency range) is divided in to many narrower
frequency bands called channel.
For Full duplex communication – each user is allocated a forward link (channel) for
communicating from it (mobile handset) to the base station (BS), and a reverse channel for
communication from the BS to it .Thus each user is making a call is allocated two
frequency bands(channels), one for transmitting and the other for receiving signals
during the call. When a call is underway, no other user would be allocated the same
frequency band to make a call. Unused transmission time in a frequency band that occurs
when the allocated caller pauses between transmissions, or when no user is allocated a
band, goes idle and is wasted .FDMA, does not achieve a high channel utilization
960 MHz
124
935.2 MHz 1 200 kHz

20 MHz
915 MHz
2. Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

- Access methods in which nodes are allotted different time slots to access the same
physical channel
- Timeline is divided into fixed-sized time slots and these are divided among
multiple nodes who can transmit in a round robin manner.
- Each user of the channel owns the channel for exclusive use for one time slot at a
time in a round robin fashion
- All sources use the same channel, but take turns in transmitting
Unused time slots go idle, leading to low channel utilization TDD/TDMA- general
scheme, example DECT
2. Good autocorrelation uses the bipolar notation
• For good autocorrelation, binary 0 is represented as -1 and binary 1 is represented
as +1.
let the binary sequence be 1001, then the representation sequence is +1-1-1+1
On the receiving end, only the same PN sequence is able to demodulate the signal to
successfully convert the input data
Pseudorandom sequence generator(PRSG)
• To generate a series of pseudorandom numbers,
 a seed(starting point) is required
 Based on the seed selected, the next number can be generated using a

deterministic mathematical transformation or can be generated
probabilistically
a) In CDMA, a code actually denotes a starting point (seed) for a PSRG.
b) PSRG generates a series of bits at a frequency which is much higher than the actual
user data (such as digitized voice)
c) These bits are XOR d with the user data and subsequently the results are transmitted.
This occurs in the case of multiple transmitters
If someone listens to this signal with the help of a suitable wideband receiver, the person
will hear something similar to what is produced by random noise all other users who are
on the same frequency will send a similar signal, but with a different PSRG seed. So these
apparent random noises will all coexist in the band of frequencies, but would not interfere
with each other. This due to the reason that the exact frequency of any transmitter at any
instant (which is in effect determined by the seed) is almost always unique error
correction takes care of occasional bit errors The receiver is aware of the PRSG seed for
each transmitter. It hears just one of the transmitters by correlating the noise it receives,
against its own PRSG, which is also running with the same seed. It is slightly similar to
FDMA, but the difference is that the transmitters do not stay on one frequency.
They hop around many times per bit of user data.
The pseudorandom sequence determines this hopping, rather than a fixed
assignment to each transmitter
Steps:
1. For simplicity we assume that all nodes transmit on the same frequency at the same
time using the entire bandwidth of the transmission channel.
2. Each sender has a unique random number key, and the sender XORs the signal with
this random number key.
3. The receiver can tune into this signal if it knows the pseudorandom number.
Example:
X, Y - transmitters
Z – receiver
Sender X_data =1 and X_key = (010011)
Its autocorrelation representation is (-1, +1, -1, -1, +1, +1)
Signal to be calculated at sender X is
Xs = X_data * X_key = +1 * X_key = (-1, +1, -1, -1, +1, +1)
Sender Y_data =0 and Y_key = (110101)
Its autocorrelation representation is (+1, +1, -1, +1, -1, +1)
Signal to be calculated at sender Y is
Ys = Y_data * Y_key = -1 * Y_key = (-1, -1, +1, -1, +1, -1)
Signal received at Z is Xs + Ys = (-2, 0, 0, -2, +2, 0)
At the receiver, in order to receive the data sent by sender X, the signal Z is
dispread.
If Z wants to get info of sender X data, then
Z * X_key = (-2, 0, 0, -2, +2, 0) * (-1, +1, -1, -1, +1, +1)
= 2+0+0+2+2+0 = 6 > 0 (positive) that is original bit was 1.
If Z wants to get info of sender Y data, then
Z * Y_key = (-2, 0, 0, -2, +2, 0) * (+1, +1, -1, +1, -1, +1)
= -2+0+0-2-2+0 = -6 < 0 (negative) that is Y data original bit was 0.
Approach SDMA TDMA FDMA CDMA

Idea Segment Space Segment Segment the Spread the
into Sending time frequency spectrum
cells/sectors into disjoint band into using
time-slots, disjoint sub- orthogonal
demand bands codes
driven or fixed
patterns
Terminals Only one All terminals Every terminal All terminals
terminal can are active for has its own can be active at
be active in short periods frequency, the same place
one cell/one of time on the uninterrupted at the same
sector same moment,
frequency uninterrupted
Signal Cell structure Synchronizatio Filtering in the Code plus
Preparation directed n in the time frequency special
antennas domain domain rteceivers
Advantages Very simple, Established, Simple, Flexible, less
increase fully digital, established, planning
capacity per very flexible robust needed, soft
km 2 handover
Disadvantages Inflexible, Guard space Inflexible, Complex
antenna needed, frequencies are receivers,
typically fixed Synchronizatio a scarce needs more
n difficult resource complicated
power control
for senders
Comment Only in Standard in Typically Used in many
combination fixed combined with 3G systems,
with TDMA, networks, TDMA higher
FDMA or together with complexity,
CDMA useful FDMA/SDMA lowered
used in many expectations,
mobile integrated
networks with
TDMA/FDMA
16 Apply mobile computing to design Taxi dispatcher and monitoring service. Explain the
components in detail(April 2018)
1.Customer contacts the Dispatch center via phone (stationary or mobile)
2. Call is handled by a human Operator (sometimes called call-taker) He or she enters
Object details into the (manual or computer) system.
3. Dispatcher broadcasts detailed request to all operating Drivers via radio channel An
Operator may also be a Dispatcher.
4. Every Driver himself estimates time of arrival to the Object and responds to the
Dispatcher 5. Dispatcher assigns the task to the best-matching Driver
6. Operator informs the Customer about service availability, estimated time of arrival
and/or Vehicle detail
Unit should arrive to Object as soon as possible. In order to achieve that, Dispatcher has
to evaluate time of arrival of an array of Units with respect to that Object and select the
best match.
Unit should function as client, and Dispatcher as a server. That results in a client-server
architecture. In terms of application logic, the client should be rather thin. It has to have
communication and user interaction capabilities. While it may have capabilities to
calculate routes to some extent, only the server is able to collect the data of all contextual
parameters from the relevant systems (AVL, GIS, TIS) and provide precise routing.
Therefore the client should receive prepared routes from the server. The client should
employ “pull” strategy and send requests to the server in time intervals. We think this is
easily implemented in the webservice manner. We would use mobile smartphones as the
client (Unit) side hardware. They have no less features than proprietary MDTs: extensive
communication, positioning and programming capabilities and large color displays,
sufficient for user interaction. Moreover, smartphones are relatively cheap and widely
available.
Mobile application (used by the passengers), the taxi terminal and the server.
A simple and efficient taxi booking & management solution
17 What is CSMA?What are the categories of CSMA?Explain their working with

advantages and disadvantages(April 2018)
- Carrier Sense Multiple Access
- a node senses the medium before starting to transmit
- if it senses that some transmission is underway, it defers its transmission
- Sensing the carrier and accessing the medium only if the carrier is idle decreases
the probability of a collision.
- But hidden terminals cannot be detected, so, if a hidden terminal transmits at the
same time as another sender, a collision might occur at the receiver.
- This basic scheme is still used in most wireless LANs
Non-persistent CSMA:
Stations sense the carrier and start sending immediately if the medium is idle. If
the medium is busy, the station pauses a random amount of time before sensing the
medium again and repeating this pattern.
p-persistent CSMA
nodes also sense the medium, but only transmit with a probability of p, with the
station defering to the next slot with the probability 1-p, i.e., access is slotted in addition.
persistent CSMA
all stations wishing to transmit access the medium at the same time, as soon as it
becomes idle.
This will cause many collisions if many stations wish to send and block each other.
To create some fairness for stations waiting for a longer time, back-off algorithms
can be introduced, which are sensitive to waiting time as this is done for standard
Ethernet.
Two popualr extensions of the basic CSMA technique are
1. Collision detection (CSMA/CD) and
2. Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA)
CSMA/CD
- sender starts to transmit if it senses the channel to be free
- even if it senses the channel to be free, there can be a collision during
transmission
- in wireless network, it is very difficult for a transmitting node to detect a
collision, since any received signal from other nodes would be too feeble compared to its
own signal and can easily be masked by noise.
- As result, a transmitting node would continue to transmit frame, and only the
destination node would notice the corrupted frame after it computes checksum.
This leads to retransmission and severe wastage of channel utilization
In a wired network when a node detects a collision, it immediately stops transmitting ,
thereby minimizing channel wastage
In wireless network, CA scheme works much better than CD.
CA scheme - based on the idea that is necessary to prevent collisions at the moment they
are most likely to occur ie., when the bus is released after a pkt transmission
- During the time a node is transmitting, several nodes might be wanting to
transmit
- these nodes would be monitoring the channel and waiting for it to become free
- the moment the transmitting node completes its transmission, these waiting nodes
would sense the channel to be free, and would all start transmitting at the same time
To overcome such collisions, in CD scheme, all nodes are forced to wait for a random time
and then sense the medium again, before starting their transmission. If the medium is
sensed to be busy, a node waiting to transmit waits for a further random amount of time
and so on. Thus, the chance of 2 nodes starting to transmit at the same time would be
greatly reduced
Advantages of CSMA/CA Disadvantages of CSMA/CA

 Effective; Avoids data  Relatively slow; A signal of intent
collisions. must be sent every time a computer
 Reliable; Intent signals wants to transmit causing signal
are sent until the cable is traffic.
clear so that data will  Inappropriate for large/active
travel and reach its networks; The slowdown increases,
destination safely. as the network grows larger.
 Limited; suffers from same distance
limitations as CSMA/CD since it
must listen for the signals of intent.
Advantages of CSMA/CD Disadvantages of CDMA/CD

 Reliable; Collisions are  Limited to 2500 meters/11/2 mile;
detected and packets are The collision detection mechanism
re-sent, so no data is lost. restricts the length of cable segment
 Relatively fast; A that can be used.
computer does not have  Inappropriate for large/active
to wait its "turn" to networks; Collisions slow the
transmit data. network and clog bandwidth with
retransmissions.
UNIT II MOBILE INTERNET PROTOCOL AND TRANSPORT LAYER

Overview of Mobile IP – Features of Mobile IP – Key Mechanism in Mobile IP – route
Optimization. Overview of TCP/IP – Architecture of TCP/IP- Adaptation of TCP Window –
Improvement in TCP Performance.
UNIT-II / PART-A
1 What is meant by mobile IP?
Mobile IP communication protocol refers to the forwarding of Internet traffic with a
fixed IP address even outside the home network. It allows users having wireless or
mobile devices to use the Internet remotely.
2 List out the features of Mobile IP. (Nov 2014, Nov 2011)
 Transparency : Mobile end system should continue to keep its IP address
 Compatibility : It should be compatible with existing internet protocol
 Scalability : It should be scalable to support billions of moving host worldwide.
 Security : provide users with secure communication over the internet
3 Mention 3- types of address assignment policies used in DHCP. (May 2014, 2013)
 Manual configuration – manager can configure a specific address for a specific
computer.
 Automatic configuration – DHCP server assigns permanent address when a
computer
first attaches to the network.
 Dynamic configuration – server loans an address to a computer for a limited time.

4 What are the different terminologies of mobile IP?
 Home Network
 Home address
 Foreign agent
 Foreign Network
 Mobile IP
5 What is meant by care of address and its types? (Nov/Dec 2016)
It is the address that is used to identify the present location of the mobile node in the
foreign network. Its types are
 Foreign agent care of address
 Co-located care of address
6 What is agent advertisement?
Foreign and the home agents advertise their presence through periodic agent
advertisement messages. An agent advertisement message, lists one or more care of
address and a flag indicating whether it is a home agent or a foreign agent.
7 What are the key mechanisms in mobile IP?
 Discovering the care of address
 registering the care of address
 Tunneling to the care of address.
8 What are the Features provided by FTP?
 Interactive Access
 Format (representation) Specification.
 Authentication Control.
9 Mention the service of TCP/IP
TCP/IP services into two groups:
 Services provided to other protocols and services provided to end users directly.
 Services provided to other protocols: at the network layer, IP provides functions
such as addressing, delivery, and datagram packaging, fragmentation and
reassembly. At the transport layer, TCP and UDP are concerned with
encapsulating user data and managing connections between devices.
10 What is SMTP?
SMTP is used to transfer electronic mail messages from one machine to another. Simple
Mail Transfer Protocol specifies how two mail systems interact and the format of control
messages they exchange to transfer mail.
11 What is MIME?
MIME – Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions.
A standard used to encode data such as images as printable ASCII text for
transmission through e-mail. MIME is the shortened form of the complete term i.e.
Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions. It is particular description used to format the non-
ASCII messages in order to send them over the Internet. Nowadays a number of e-mail
clients are supporting MIME that enabled them to received ad send the graphics, MIME
also supports the messaging in the character set in addition to ASCII.

12 What is HTTP?
Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP) used to transfer web documents from a
server to a browser. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS) is a combination of the
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) with SSL/TLS protocol to provide encrypted
communication and secure identification of a network web server. HTTPS connections are
often used for payment transactions on the World Wide Web and for sensitive
transactions in corporate information systems.
13 Define DNS.
It is the on-line distributed database system used to map human-readable machine names
into IP addresses. DNS servers implement a hierarchical namespace that allows sites to
assign names and addresses. The domain name system (DNS) is the way that Internet
domain names are located and translated into Internet Protocol addresses.
14 What is the purpose of IGMP?

Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) is used by IP hosts to register their dynamic
multicast group membership. It is also used by connected routers to discover these group
members.
15 Define Routers
Router is responsible for routing the packets that is receives to their destinations based
on their ip addresses, possibly via other routers.
16 What are the different layers of TCP/IP?
 Application layer
 Transport layer
 Internet layer
 Network access layer
17 What are all the various flavors of TCP available? Explain them in detail? (Nov 2013)
 Indirect TCP- I-TCP segments a TCP connection into a fixed part and a wireless part.
 Snooping TCP- Here the foreign agent buffers all packets with destination mobile host
and additionally snoops the packet flow in both directions to recognize
acknowledgements.
 Mobile TCP- M-TCP wants to improve overall throughput,to lower the delay,to
maintain end to end semantics of TCP,and to provide a more efficient handover.
 Fast Transmit/Fast Recovery
 Transmission/Time-out freezing
 Selective retransmission
 Transaction-oriented TCP.
18 What is the goal of M-TCP? (Nov 2011)
 The goal of M-TCP is to prevent the sender window from shrinking if bit errors or
disconnection but not congestion cause current problems. It wants
 To provide overall throughput
 To lower the delay
 To maintain end-to-end semantics of TCP

 To provide a more efficient handover.
19 What led to the development of Indirect TCP? (Nov 2012, May 2012)
TCP performs poorly together with wireless links
TCP within the fixed network cannot be changed.
This led to the development of I-TCP which segments a TCP connection into a fixed part
and a wireless part.
20 List the disadvantages of I-TCP (April 2015)
It does not maintain the semantics of TCP as the FH gets the acknowledgement before
the packet is delivered at MH.I Tcp does not maintain the end –end semantic of TCp and
assumes that application layer would ensure reliability
21 What is BOOTP? ? Illustrate its use (Nov/Dec 2016)
BOOTP protocol is used for Booting (starting) a diskless computer over a network. Since a
diskless computer does not store the operating system program in its permanent memory,
BOOTP protocol helps to download and boot over a network using the operating system
files stored on a server located in the network.
22 Define Agent solicitation

Mobile node does not receive any COA,then the MN should send an agent solicitation
message. But it is important to monitor that these agent solicitation message do not flood
the network.
23 What is the different operation of mobile IP?
 The remote client sends a datagram to the MN using its home address it reaches the
home agent a usual.
 The home agent encapsulates the datagram in a new packet and sends it to the
foreign agent.
24 Define Home agent
It is located in home network and it provides several services for the Mobile Network
(MN).Home agent maintains a location registry. The location registry keeps track of the
node locations using the current care of address of the mobile network.
25 What is DHCP? (May 2016)(April 2018)
The Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is mainly used to simplify the
installation and maintenance of networked computers. If a new computer is connected
to a network, DHCP can provide it with all the Necessary following information for
full system integration into the network,
 Addresses
 the subnet mask
 the domain name
 IP address.
26 What is encapsulation in mobile IP? (May 2016)
Tunnel -establishes a virtual pipe for data packets between a tunnel entry and a tunnel
endpoint. Packets entering a tunnel are forwarded inside the tunnel and leave the tunnel
unchanged.

Tunneling- sending a packet through a tunnel, is achieved by using encapsulation.
Encapsulation - mechanism of taking a packet consisting of packet header and data and
putting it into the data part of a new packet.
27 What is Route Optimization?(April 2017)

The problem in packet forwarding is Triangular Routing i.e., sender sends all packets via
Home Agent to Mobile Node. This leads to higher latency and network load. For route
optimization in Mobile IP, sender learns the current location of Mobile Node and direct
tunneling is made to this location. Home Agent informs a sender about the location of
Mobile Node called binding information about the Mobile Node, i.e., the current foreign
agent (FA) address of the Mobile Node. Now the sender encapsulates the packets and
establishes the tunnel to the Foreign Agent for transparent transmission.
28 List the modifications proposed in single-hop and Multi-hop Wireless

Networks?(April 2017)
Single-hop ad hoc networks are ad hoc networks where nodes do not act as routers and
therefore communication is possible only between nodes which are within each other's
Radio Frequency (RF) range. On the other hand, multihop ad hoc networks are ad hoc
networks where nodes are willing to act as routers and route or forward the traffic of
other nodes.
29 To which layer do each of the following protocols belong to? What is the functionality?
RARP, DNS(Nov 2017)
RARP – Internet Layer- RARP (Reverse Address Resolution Protocol) is a protocol by
which a physical machine in a local area network can request to learn its IP address from
a gateway server's Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) table or cache. When a new
machine is set up, its RARP client program requests from the RARP server on the router
to be sent its IP address. RARP server will return the IP address to the machine which can
store it for future use.
DNS – Application Layer - It is the on-line distributed database system used to map
human-readable machine names into IP addresses. DNS servers implement a hierarchical
namespace that allows sites to assign names and addresses. The domain name system
(DNS) is the way that Internet domain names are located and translated into Internet
Protocol addresses.
30 Differentiate the functionalities of foreign agent and home agent(Nov 2017)
Foreign Agent - In Mobile Internet Protocol (Mobile IP), a foreign agent is a router serving
as a mobility agent for a mobile node. As specified in IETF RFC 2002), a foreign agent
works in conjunction with another type of mobility agent known as a home agent to
support Internet traffic forwarding for a device connecting to the Internet from any
location other than its home network.
Home agent - It is located in home network and it provides several services for the Mobile
Network (MN).Home agent maintains a location registry. The location registry keeps
track of the node locations using the current care of address of the mobile network.
31 What is the purpose of agent solicitation message(April 2018)
Solicitations should only be sent by the MN in the absence of agent advertisements and
when a care-of address have not been determined by other means.
UNIT-II / PART-B
1 List the requirements for Mobile IP. (Nov 2014, Nov 2011)
Compatibility:
The installed base of Internet computers, i.e., computers running TCP/IP and
connected to the internet, is huge. A new standard cannot introduce changes for
applications or network protocols already in use. People still want to use their favorite
browser for www and do not want to change applications just for mobility, the same
holds for operating systems. Mobile IP has to be integrated into existing operating
systems or at least work with them (today it is available for many platforms). Routers
within the internet should not necessarily require other software. While it is possible to
enhance the capabilities of some routers to support mobility, it is almost impossible to
change all of them. Mobile IP has to remain compatible with all lower layers used for the
standard, non-mobile, IP. Mobile IP must not require special media or MAC/LLC
protocols, so it must use the same interfaces and mechanisms to access the lower layers as
IP does. Finally, end-systems enhanced with a mobile IP implementation should still be
able to communicate with fixed systems without mobile IP. Mobile IP has to ensure that
users can still access all the other servers and systems in the internet. But that implies
using the same address format and routing mechanisms.
Transparency:
Mobility should remain ‘invisible’ for many higher layer protocols and applications.
Besides maybe noticing a lower bandwidth and some interruption in service, higher
layers should continue to work even if the mobile computer has changed its point of
attachment to the network. For TCP this means that the computer must keep its IP
address as explained above. If the interruption of the connectivity does not take too long,
TCP\ connections survive the change of the attachment point. Problems related to the
performance of TCP are discussed in chapter 9. Clearly, many of today’s applications
have not been designed for use in mobile environments, so the only effects of mobility
should be a higher delay and lower bandwidth. However, there are some applications for
which it is better to be ‘mobility aware’. Examples are cost-based routing or video
compression. Knowing that it is currently possible to use different networks, the software
could choose the cheapest one. Or if a video application knows that only a low bandwidth
connection is currently available, it could use a different compression scheme. Additional
mechanisms are necessary to inform these applications about mobility (Brewer, 1998).
Scalability and efficiency:
Introducing a new mechanism to the internet must not jeopardize its efficiency.
Enhancing IP for mobility must not generate too many new messages flooding the whole
network. Special care has to be taken considering the lower bandwidth of wireless links.
Many mobile systems will have a wireless link to an attachment point, so only some
additional packets should be necessary between a mobile system and a node in the
network. Looking at the number of computers connected to the internet and at the growth
rates of mobile communication, it is clear that myriad devices will participate in the
internet as mobile components. Just 306 Mobile communications think of cars, trucks,
mobile phones, every seat in every plane around the world etc. – many of them will have
some IP implementation inside and move between different networks and require mobile
IP. It is crucial for a mobile IP to be scalable over a large number of participants in the
whole internet, worldwide.
Security:
Mobility poses many security problems. The minimum requirement is that of all the
messages related to the management of Mobile IP are authenticated. The IP layer must be
sure that if it forwards a packet to a mobile host that this host receives the packet. The IP
layer can only guarantee that the IP address of the receiver is correct. There are no ways
of preventing fake IP addresses or other attacks. According to Internet philosophy, this is
left to higher layers (keep the core of the internet simple, push more complex services to
the edge).
The goal of a mobile IP can be summarized as: ‘supporting end-system mobility while
maintaining scalability, efficiency, and compatibility in all respects with existing
applications and Internet protocols.
2 Explain in detail about overview of the operation and features of mobile IP
Fig : Mobile IP example network

Mobile node (MN):
A mobile node is an end-system or router that can change its point of attachment to the
internet using mobile IP. The MN keeps its IP address and can continuously communicate
with any other system in the internet as long as link-layer connectivity is given. Mobile
nodes are not necessarily small devices such as laptops with antennas or mobile phones; a
router onboard an aircraft can be a powerful mobile node.
Correspondent node (CN):
At least one partner is needed for communication. In the following the CN represents this
partner for the MN. The CN can be a fixed or mobile node.
Home network:
The home network is the subnet the MN belongs to with respect to its IP address. No
mobile IP support is needed within the home network.
Foreign network:
The foreign network is not the home network but the current subnet that the MN
visits
Foreign agent (FA):
The FA can provide several services to the MN during its visit to the foreign network.
Using CoA(care of Address) it works as conductor of channeling packet delibery to MN.
it is default router for MN and provides security services
Care-of address (COA):
The COA defines the current location of the MN from an IP point of view. All IP
packets sent to the MN are delivered to the COA, Packet delivery to MN is done using a
tunnel
. There are two different possibilities for the location of the COA:
Foreign agent COA:
The COA could be located at the FA, i.e., the COA is an IP address of the FA. The FA is
the tunnel end-point and forwards packets to the MN. Many MN using the FA can share
this COA as common COA.
Co-located COA:
The COA is co-located if the MN temporarily acquired an additional IP address which
acts as COA. Co-located addresses can be acquired using services such as DHCP One
problem associated with this approach is the need for additional addresses if MNs
request a COA. This is not always a good idea considering the scarcity of IPv4 addresses.
Home agent (HA):
The HA provides several services for the MN and is located in the home network. The
tunnel for packets toward the MN starts at the HA. The HA maintains a location registry,
i.e., it is informed of the MN’s location by the current COA. Three alternatives for the
implementation of an HA exist.
● The HA can be implemented on a router at the home network.
● HA can be implemented on an arbitrary node in the subnet.
Home network is not necessary at all. The HA could be again on the ‘router’ but this time
only acting as a manager
3 Discuss in detail about key mechanisms in mobile IP.(Nov/Dec 2016)(April 2018)
1.
Fig : Packet delivery to and from the mobile node
A correspondent node CN wants to send an IP packet to the MN. One of the
requirements of mobile IP was to support hiding the mobility of the MN. CN does not
need to know anything about the MN’s current location and sends the packet as usual to
the IP address of MN (step 1). This means that CN sends an IP packet with MN as a
destination address and CN as a source address. The internet, not having information on
the current location of MN routes the packet to the router responsible for the home
network of MN. This is done using the standard routing mechanisms of the internet. The
HA now intercepts the packet knowing that MN is currently not in its home network. The
packet is not forwarded into the subnet as usual, but encapsulated and tunneled to the
COA. A new header is put in front of the old IP header showing the COA as new
destination and HA as source of the encapsulated packet (step 2). The FA now
decapsulates the packet, i.e., removes the additional header and forwards the original
packet with CN as source and MN as destination to the MN (step 3). Again, for the MN
mobility is not visible. It receives the packet with the same sender and receiver address as
it would have done in the home network.
At first glance, sending packets from the MN to the CN is much simpler. The MN
sends the packet as usual with its own fixed IP address as source and CN’s address as
destination (step 4). The router with the FA acts as default router and forwards the packet
in the same way as it would do for any other node in the foreign network. As long as CN
is a fixed node the remainder is in the fixed internet as usual. If CN were also a mobile
node residing in a foreign network, the same mechanisms as described in steps 1 through
3 would apply now in the other direction.
For the whole operations to take place as explained above some of the requirements are:
 Additional mechanisms.
 Enhancements to the protocol
 Some techniques to take care of efficiency and security problems
2.
Agent advertisement and discovery:
One initial problem of an MN after moving is how to find a foreign agent. For the first
method, foreign agents and home agents advertise their presence periodically using
special agent advertisement messages. These advertisement messages can be seen as a
beacon broadcast into the subnet. For these advertisements Internet control message
protocol (ICMP) messages according to RFC 1256 are used with some mobility extensions.
Routers in the fixed network implementing this standard also advertise their routing
service periodically to the attached links. The agent advertisement packet according to
RFC 1256 with the extension for mobility is shown in Figure 8.3. The upper part
represents the ICMP packet while the lower part is the extension needed for mobility. The
fields necessary on lower layers for the agent advertisement are not shown in this figure.
Clearly, mobile nodes must be reached with the appropriate link layer address. The TTL
field of the IP packet is set to 1 for all advertisements to avoid forwarding them. The IP
destination address according to standard router advertisements can be either set to
224.0.0.1, which is the multicast address for all systems on a link , or to the broadcast
address 255.255.255.255.
Agent advertisement packet (RFC 1256+Mobility extension)

The fields in the ICMP part are defined as follows.
 The type is set to 9,
 The code can be 0, if the agent also routes traffic from non-mobile nodes, or 16, if it
does not route anything other than mobile traffic.
 Checksum is for validity of data
 #addresses: The number of addresses advertised with this packet
 addresses: Addresses of router
 Lifetime denotes the length of time this advertisement is valid.
 Preference levels for each address help a node to choose the router that is the most
eager one to get a new node.
The extension for mobility has the following fields defined:
 Type: 16,
 Length depends on the number of COAs provided with the message.
 Sequence number: number of advertisements sent since initialization
 Registration lifetime the agent can specify the maximum lifetime in seconds a
node can request during registration.
 R, B, H, F, M, G, V: characteristics of an agent in detail.
 The R bit, if a registration with this agent is required
 The B bit, If the agent is currently too busy.
 The H bit, if the agent offers services as a home agent
 the F bit, if the agent offers services as a foreign agent
 Bits M and G specify the method of encapsulation used for the tunnel.
While IP-in-IP encapsulation is the mandatory standard, M can specify
minimal encapsulation and G generic routing encapsulation.
 V bit specifies the use of header compression
 CoAs: CoAs advertised.
Mobile node must be in apposition to receive an advertisement from either a home
agent or a foreign agent depending on its current physical location. If the MN has not
received any advertisement or a CoA by some means, then MN must solicit by; means of
agent solicitations. Care must be taken to avoid flooding of router solicitations. Agent
discovery need not be limited to the time when the MN is disconnected. Even when it is
connected it can solicit agents for better connection. After the process of either
advertisement or agent discovery, MN can receive a CoA. MN also knows its own
location and the capabilities of the agent to which it needs to be connected. Next step is
the registration of MN to tis HA through a foreign agent if is currently located in a foreign
network.
RFC1256 most be the standard for router advertisements. While the norm of three
seconds interval between advertisements is sufficient in wired networks, at times such
interval may not be sufficient in wireless networks.
3.
Encapsulation is the mechanism of taking a packet consisting of packet header and data
and putting it into the data part of a new packet. The reverse operation, taking a packet
out of the data part of another packet, is called decapsulation. Encapsulation and
decapsulation are the operations typically performed when a packet is transferred from a
higher protocol layer to a lower layer or from a lower to a higher layer respectively. Here
these functions are used within the same layer.
Fig: IP Encapsulation
This mechanism is shown in Figure 4.5 and describes exactly what the HA at the
tunnel entry does. The HA takes the original packet with the MN as destination, puts it
into the data part of a new packet and sets the new IP header in such a way that the
packet is routed to the COA. The new header is also called the outer header for obvious
reasons. Additionally, there is an inner header which can be identical to the original
header as this is the case for IP-in-IP encapsulation.
IP-in-IP ENCAPSULATION:
Fig IP-in-IP ENCAPSULATION

Whenever there is tunnel between HA and CoA, encapsulation is required. For mobile
IP, IP-in-IP encapsulation is mandatory. There are two parts in the packet. There is an
outer header, inner header and actual data. The field sof the meter header are as follows:
1. ver: 4 for IPver 4.
2. the internet header length (IHL) denotes the length of the outer header in 32 bit
words.
3. DS(TOS) is just copied from the inner header,
4. the length field covers the complete encapsulated packet.
5. IPID, Flags and Fragments off-set: No significance in mobile IP
6. TTL must be high enough so the packet can reach the tunnel endpoint. T
7. IP-in-IP, is the type of the protocol used in the IP payload 4 for IPver 4.
8. IP checksum is calculated as usual.
9. the IP address of the HA the tunnel entry as source address
10. the COA the tunnel exit point as destination address.
If no options follow the outer header, the inner header starts. This header remains
almost unchanged during encapsulation, thus showing the original sender CN and the
receiver MN of the packet. The only change is TTL which is decremented by 1. This
means that the whole tunnel is considered a single hop from the original packet’s point of
view. Finally, the payload follows the two headers.
4 4 Write short notes on:

a)Telnet b)FTP c)SMTP d)TCP/IP vs ISO/OSI protocol model
a)Telnet
Telnet is an application layer protocol used on the Internet or local area networks to
provide a bidirectional interactive text-oriented communication facility using a virtual
terminal connection. User data is interspersed in-band with Telnet control information
in an 8-bit byte oriented data connection over the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP).
Telnet was developed in 1969 beginning with RFC 15, extended in RFC 854, and
standardized as Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) Internet Standard STD 8, one of
the first Internet standards.

Historically, Telnet provided access to a command-line interface (usually, of an
operating system) on a remote host. Most network equipment and operating systems
with a configuration (including systems based on Windows NT).[clarification needed]
However, because of serious security concerns when using Telnet over an open network
such as the Internet, its use for this purpose has waned significantly in favor of SSH.
The term telnet is also used to refer to the software that implements the client part of the
protocol. Telnet client applications are available for virtually all computer platforms.
Telnet is also used as a verb. To telnet means to establish a connection with the Telnet
protocol, either with command line client or with a programmatic interface. For
example, a common directive might be: "To change your password, telnet to the server,
log in and run the passwd command." Most often, a user will be telnetting to a Unix-like
server system or a network device (such as a router) and obtaining a login prompt to a
command line text interface or a character-based full-screen manager.
b)FTP
The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a standard network protocol used to transfer
computer files between a client and server on a computer network.
FTP is built on a client-server model architecture and uses separate control and data
connections between the client and the server.[1] FTP users may authenticate
themselves with a clear-text sign-in protocol, normally in the form of a username and
password, but can connect anonymously if the server is configured to allow it. For
secure transmission that protects the username and password, and encrypts the content,
FTP is often secured with SSL/TLS (FTPS). SSH File Transfer Protocol (SFTP) is
sometimes also used instead, but is technologically different.
The first FTP client applications were command-line programs developed before
operating systems had graphical user interfaces, and are still shipped with most
Windows, Unix, and Linux operating systems. Many FTP clients and automation
utilities have since been developed for desktops, servers, mobile devices, and hardware,
and FTP has been incorporated into productivity applications, such as Web page
editors.
c)SMTP
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is an Internet standard for electronic mail (email)
transmission. First defined by RFC 821 in 1982, it was last updated in 2008 with the
Extended SMTP additions by RFC 5321—which is the protocol in widespread use today.
SMTP by default uses TCP port 25. The protocol for mail submission is the same, but
uses port 587. SMTP connections secured by SSL, known as SMTPS, default to port 465
(nonstandard, but sometimes used for legacy reasons).
Although electronic mail servers and other mail transfer agents use SMTP to send and
receive mail messages, user-level client mail applications typically use SMTP only for
sending messages to a mail server for relaying. For receiving messages, client
applications usually use either POP3 or IMAP.
Although proprietary systems (such as Microsoft Exchange and IBM Notes) and
webmail systems (such as Outlook.com, Gmail and Yahoo! Mail) use their own non-
standard protocols to access mail box accounts on their own mail servers, all use SMTP

when sending or receiving email from outside their own systems.
d)TCP/IP vs ISO/OSI protocol model
Comparison of OSI Reference Model and TCP/IP Reference Model
Following are some major differences between OSI Reference Model and TCP/IP
Reference Model, with diagrammatic comparison below.
OSI(Open System Interconnection)
1. OSI provides layer functioning and also defines functions of all the layers.
2. In OSI model the transport layer guarantees the delivery of packets
3. Follows horizontal approach
4. OSI model has a separate presentation layer
5. OSI is a general model.
6. Network layer of OSI model provide both connection oriented and connectionless
service.
OSI model has a problem of fitting the protocols in the model
8. Protocols are hidden in OSI model and are easily replaced as the technology changes
9. OSI model defines services, interfaces and protocols very clearly and makes clear
distinction between them.
10.It has 7 layers
TCP/IP(Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol)

TCP/IP model is more based on protocols and protocols are not flexible with other
layers.
2. In TCP/IP model the transport layer does not guarantees delivery of packets.
3.Follows vertical approach.
. 4. TCP/IP does not have a separate presentation layer
5. TCP/IP model cannot be used in any other application.
6. The Network layer in TCP/IP model provides connectionless service.
7. TCP/IP model does not fit any protocol
8. In TCP/IP replacing protocol is not easy.
9.. In TCP/IP it is not clearly separated its services, interfaces and protocols.
10It has 4 layers
5 (i)Write short notes on Architecture of TCP/IP(8) (May 2016)

(ii)Write short notes on improvement in TCP performance(8) (May 2016)(Nov 2017)(April
2018)
TCP/IP Protocol Architecture
While there is no universal agreement about how to describe TCP/IP with a layered
model, it is generally viewed as being composed of fewer layers than the seven used in
the OSI model. Most descriptions of TCP/IP define three to five functional levels in the
protocol architecture. The four-level model illustrated in Figure based on the three layers
(Application, Host-to-Host, and Network Access) shown in the DOD Protocol Model in
the DDN Protocol Handbook - Volume 1 , with the addition of a separate Internet layer. This
model provides a reasonable pictorial representation of the layers in the TCP/IP protocol
hierarchy.
Figure 1.2: Layers in the TCP/IP protocol architecture

As in the OSI model, data is passed down the stack when it is being sent to the network,
and up the stack when it is being received from the network. The four-layered structure
of TCP/IP is seen in the way data is handled as it passes down the protocol stack from the
Application Layer to the underlying physical network. Each layer in the stack
adds control information to ensure proper delivery. This control information is called
a header because it is placed in front of the data to be transmitted. Each layer treats all of
the information it receives from the layer above as data and places its own header in front
of that information. The addition of delivery information at every layer is
called encapsulation . (SeeFigure for an illustration of this.) When data is received, the
opposite happens. Each layer strips off its header before passing the data on to the layer
above. As information flows back up the stack, information received from a lower layer is
interpreted as both a header and data.
Figure 1.3: Data encapsulation
Each layer has its own independent data structures. Conceptually, a layer is unaware of
the data structures used by the layers above and below it. In reality, the data structures of
a layer are designed to be compatible with the structures used by the surrounding layers
for the sake of more efficient data transmission. Still, each layer has its own data structure
and its own terminology to describe that structure.
Figure shows the terms used by different layers of TCP/IP to refer to the data being
transmitted. Applications using TCP refer to data as a stream , while applications using
the User Datagram Protocol (UDP) refer to data as a message . TCP calls data a segment ,
and UDP calls its data structure a packet . The Internet layer views all data as blocks
called datagrams .TCP/IP uses many different types of underlying networks, each of
which may have a different terminology for the data it transmits. Most networks refer to
transmitted data as packets orframes . In figure we show a network that transmits pieces of
data it calls frames .
Figure 1.4: Data structures
1.4 Network Access Layer

The Network Access Layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP protocol hierarchy. The
protocols in this layer provide the means for the system to deliver data to the other
devices on a directly attached network. It defines how to use the network to transmit an
IP datagram. Unlike higher-level protocols, Network Access Layer protocols must know
the details of the underlying network (its packet structure, addressing, etc.) to correctly
format the data being transmitted to comply with the network constraints. The TCP/IP
Network Access Layer can encompass the functions of all three lower layers of the OSI
reference Model (Network, Data Link, and Physical).
The Network Access Layer is often ignored by users. The design of TCP/IP hides the
function of the lower layers, and the better known protocols (IP, TCP, UDP, etc.) are all
higher-level protocols. As new hardware technologies appear, new Network Access
protocols must be developed so that TCP/IP networks can use the new hardware.
Consequently, there are many access protocols - one for each physical network standard.
Functions performed at this level include encapsulation of IP datagrams into the frames
transmitted by the network, and mapping of IP addresses to the physical addresses used
by the network. One of TCP/IP's strengths is its universal addressing scheme. The IP
address must be converted into an address that is appropriate for the physical network
over which the datagram is transmitted.
1.5 Internet Layer
The layer above the Network Access Layer in the protocol hierarchy is the Internet Layer .
The Internet Protocol, RFC 791, is the heart of TCP/IP and the most important protocol in
the Internet Layer. IP provides the basic packet delivery service on which TCP/IP
networks are built. All protocols, in the layers above and below IP, use the Internet
Protocol to deliver data. All TCP/IP data flows through IP, incoming and outgoing,
regardless of its final destination.
1.5.1 Internet Protocol
The Internet Protocol is the building block of the Internet. Its functions include:
 Defining the datagram, which is the basic unit of transmission in the Internet
 Defining the Internet addressing scheme
 Moving data between the Network Access Layer and the Host-to-Host Transport
Layer
 Routing datagrams to remote hosts
 Performing fragmentation and re-assembly of datagrams
Before describing these functions in more detail, let's look at some of IP's characteristics.
First, IP is a connectionless protocol . This means that IP does not exchange control
information (called a "handshake") to establish an end-to-end connection before

transmitting data. In contrast, a connection-oriented protocol exchanges control information
with the remote system to verify that it is ready to receive data before any data is sent.
When the handshaking is successful, the systems are said to have established
a connection . Internet Protocol relies on protocols in other layers to establish the
connection if they require connection-oriented service.
IP also relies on protocols in the other layers to provide error detection and
error recovery. The Internet Protocol is sometimes called an unreliable protocol because it
contains no error detection and recovery code. This is not to say that the protocol cannot
be relied on - quite the contrary. IP can be relied upon to accurately deliver your data to
the connected network, but it doesn't check whether that data was correctly received.
Protocols in other layers of the TCP/IP architecture provide this checking when it is
required.
1.6 Transport Layer
The protocol layer just above the Internet Layer is the Host-to-Host Transport Layer . This
name is usually shortened to Transport Layer . The two most important protocols in the
Transport Layer are Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol(UDP).
TCP provides reliable data delivery service with end-to-end error detection and
correction. UDP provides low-overhead, connectionless datagram delivery service. Both
protocols deliver data between the Application Layer and the Internet Layer.
Applications programmers can choose whichever service is more appropriate for their
specific applications.
1.6.1 User Datagram Protocol
The User Datagram Protocol gives application programs direct access to a datagram
delivery service, like the delivery service that IP provides. This allows applications to
exchange messages over the network with a minimum of protocol overhead.
UDP is an unreliable, connectionless datagram protocol. As noted previously, "unreliable"
merely means that there are no techniques in the protocol for verifying that the data
reached the other end of the network correctly. Within your computer, UDP will deliver
data correctly. UDP uses 16-bit Source Port and Destination Port numbers in word 1 of the
message header, to deliver data to the correct applications process.
Why do applications programmers choose UDP as a data transport service? There are a
number of good reasons. If the amount of data being transmitted is small, the overhead of
creating connections and ensuring reliable delivery may be greater than the work of re-
transmitting the entire data set. In this case, UDP is the most efficient choice for a
Transport Layer protocol. Applications that fit a query-response model are also excellent
candidates for using UDP. The response can be used as a positive acknowledgment to the
query. If a response isn't received within a certain time period, the application just sends
another query. Still other applications provide their own techniques for reliable data
delivery, and don't require that service from the transport layer protocol. Imposing
another layer of acknowledgment on any of these types of applications is inefficient.
1.6.2 Transmission Control Protocol
Applications that require the transport protocol to provide reliable data delivery use TCP
because it verifies that data is delivered across the network accurately and in the proper
sequence. TCP is a reliable , connection-oriented , byte-stream protocol. Let's look at each of
the terms - reliable, connection-oriented, and byte-stream - in more detail.
TCP provides reliability with a mechanism called Positive Acknowledgment with Re-
transmission (PAR). Simply stated, a system using PAR sends the data again, unless it
hears from the remote system that the data arrived okay. The unit of data exchanged
between cooperating TCP modules is called a segment . Each segment contains a

checksum that the recipient uses to verify that the data is undamaged. If the data segment
is received undamaged, the receiver sends a positive acknowledgment back to the sender. If
the data segment is damaged, the receiver discards it. After an appropriate time-out
period, the sending TCP module re-transmits any segment for which no positive
acknowledgment has been received.
1.7 Application Layer
At the top of the TCP/IP protocol architecture is the Application Layer . This layer includes
all processes that use the Transport Layer protocols to deliver data. There are many
applications protocols. Most provide user services, and new services are always being
added to this layer.
B.Improvements of TCP
I-TCP segments a TCP connection into a fixed part and a wireless part. A good place for
segmenting the connection between mobile host and correspondent host is at the foreign
agent. If the correspondent host sends a packet, the foreign agent acknowledges this
packet, then the foreign tries to forward the packet to the mobile host. If the mobile host
receives the packet, it acknowledges the packet.
Advantages of I-TCP
 I-TCP does not require in the TCP protocol
 Due to strict partitioning into two connections, transmission errors on the wireless
link, i.e, lost packets, cannot propagate into the fixed network.
 The short delay between the mobile host and foreign agent can be determined. An
optimized TCP can use precise time-outs to guarantee retransmission as fast as
possible. Even standard TCP benefits from the short RTT, thus recovering faster
from packet loss.
 Partitioning into two connections also allows the use different transport layer
protocol between the foreign agent and the mobile host are the use of compressed
header etc.
Disadvantages of I-TCP
 The loss of end-to-end semantics of TCP might cause problems if the foreign agent
partitioning the TCP connection crashes. If a sender receives an acknowledgement,
it assumes that the receiver got the packet. Receiving an acknowledgement now
only means (for the mobile host and a correspondent host) that the foreign agent
received the packet. The correspondent node does not know anything about the
partitioning.
 Increased hand-over latency may be much more problematic.
 A foreign agent must be a truster entity
2. M-TCP approach has the same goals as I-TCP and S-TCP: to prevent the sender
window from shrinking if bit errors are disconnection but not congestion cause current
problems. M-TCP wants to improve overall throughput, to lower the delay, to maintain
end-to-end semantics of TCP and to provide a more efficient handover. Additionally, M-
TCP is especially adopted to the problems arising from lengthy or frequent
disconnections.
Advantages
 M-TCP maintains the TCP end-to-end semantics. The SH does not send any ACK
itself but forwards the ACKs from the MH.
 If the MH is disconnected, M-TCP avoids useless retransmissions, slow starts or
breaking connections by simply shrinking the senders window to zero.
 Since M-TCP doesnot buffer data in the SH as I-TCP does, it does not necessary to
forward buffers to a new SH. Lost packets will be automatically retransmitted to
the new SH.
Disadvantage
 As the SH does not act as proxy as in I-TCP, packet loss on the wireless link due to
bit errors is propagated to the sender. M-TCP assumes low bit error rats, which is
not always a valid assumption.
A modified TCP on the wireless link not only requires modifications to the MH protocol
software but also new network elements like the bandwidth manager
3. The foreign agent buffers all packets with destination mobile host and additionally
‘snoops’ the packet flow in both directions to recognize acknowledgement. The reason for
buffering packets toward the mobile node is to enable the foreign agent to perform a local
retransmission in case of packet loss on the wireless link.
Advantages:
 It is the preservation of the end-to-end TCP semantic.
 No correspondent needs to be changed, most of the enhancements are in the
foreign agent.
 It needs know handover of state as soon as the mobile host moves to another
foreign agent.
 It does not matter if the next foreign agent uses the enhancements or not. If not, the
approach automatically falls back to the standard solution.
Disadvantage:
Snooping TCP does not isolate the behavior of the wireless link as good as I-TCP.
Using negative acknowledgement between the foreign agent and the mobile host assumes
the additional mechanisms on the mobile host. Thus, this approach is no longer
transparent for arbitrary mobile hosts.
All efforts for snooping and buffering data may be useless, if certain encryptions are
applied end-to-end between the correspondent host and mobile host.
6 Discuss in detail about terminologies of TCP/IP

Congestion control:
Congestion may appear from time to time. If the buffers of the router are filled and if the
router cannot forward packets to output link, congestion occurs. As result of congestion,
it drop packets.
Exponential growth of congestion window
Suppose congestion window size = n, if a sender receives acknowledgement from this
window, then it doubles the congestion window size as to n, if the congestion window
size < congestion threshold, this is called exponential growth.
Slow start:
TCP’s reaction to a missing ack is quite drastic, but it is necessary to get rid of congestion
quickly. The behavior TCP shows after the detection of congestion is called slow start.
Fast retransmit
A sender receives continuous acknowledgement for the same packet. It informs that the
gap in packet stream is not due to severe congestion but a simple packet lost due to
transmission error. The sender can now re-transmit the missing packet before the timer
expires. This behavior is called fast retransmit.
Fast recovery
A sender receives continuous acknowledgement for the same packet. It informs that the
gap in the packet stream is not due to severe congestion but a simple packet lost due to
transmission error. The sender can continue with same window. The sender can now re-
transmit the missing packet and now recover fastly from the packet loss. This behavior is
called fast recovery
7 Explain about structure of a TCP segment

Transmission Control Protocol
Applications that require the transport protocol to provide reliable data delivery use TCP
because it verifies that data is delivered across the network accurately and in the proper
sequence. TCP is a reliable , connection-oriented , byte-stream protocol. Let's look at each of
the terms - reliable, connection-oriented, and byte-stream - in more detail.
TCP provides reliability with a mechanism called Positive Acknowledgment with Re-
transmission (PAR). Simply stated, a system using PAR sends the data again, unless it
hears from the remote system that the data arrived okay. The unit of data exchanged
between cooperating TCP modules is called a segment
Figure 1.9: TCP segment format
TCP is connection-oriented. It establishes a logical end-to-end connection between the

two communicating hosts. Control information, called a handshake , is exchanged between
the two endpoints to establish a dialogue before data is transmitted. TCP indicates the
control function of a segment by setting the appropriate bit in the Flags field in word 4 of
the segment header .
The type of handshake used by TCP is called a three-way handshake because three
segments are exchanged. fig shows the simplest form of the three-way handshake.
Host A begins the connection by sending host B a segment with the "Synchronize
sequence numbers" (SYN) bit set. This segment tells host B that A wishes to set up a
connection, and it tells B what sequence number host A will use as a starting number for
its segments. (Sequence numbers are used to keep data in the proper order.)
Host B responds to A with a segment that has the "Acknowledgment" (ACK) and SYN
bits set. B 's segment acknowledges the receipt of A 's segment, and informs A which
Sequence Number host B will start with. Finally, host A sends a segment that
acknowledges receipt of B 's segment, and transfers the first actual data.
Figure 1.10: Three-way handshake

After this exchange, host A 's TCP has positive evidence that the remote TCP is alive and
ready to receive data. As soon as the connection is established, data can be transferred.
When the cooperating modules have concluded the data transfers, they will exchange a
three-way handshake with segments containing the "No more data from sender" bit
(called the FIN bit) to close the connection. It is the end-to-end exchange of data that
provides the logical connection between the two systems.
TCP views the data it sends as a continuous stream of bytes, not as independent packets.
Therefore, TCP takes care to maintain the sequence in which bytes are sent and received.
The Sequence Number and Acknowledgment Number fields in the TCP segment header
keep track of the bytes.
The TCP standard does not require that each system start numbering bytes with any
specific number; each system chooses the number it will use as a starting point. To keep
track of the data stream correctly, each end of the connection must know the other end's
initial number. The two ends of the connection synchronize byte-numbering systems by
exchanging SYN segments during the handshake. The Sequence Number field in the SYN
segment contains the Initial Sequence Number (ISN), which is the starting point for the
byte-numbering system. For security reasons the ISN should be a random number,
though it is often 0.
Each byte of data is numbered sequentially from the ISN, so the first real byte of data sent
has a sequence number of ISN+1. The Sequence Number in the header of a data segment
identifies the sequential position in the data stream of the first data byte in the segment.
For example, if the first byte in the data stream was sequence number 1 (ISN=0) and 4000
bytes of data have already been transferred, then the first byte of data in the current
segment is byte 4001, and the Sequence Number would be 4001.
The Acknowledgment Segment (ACK) performs two functions: positive
acknowledgment andflow control . The acknowledgment tells the sender how much data has
been received, and how much more the receiver can accept. The Acknowledgment
Number is the sequence number of the next byte the receiver expects to receive. The
standard does not require an individual acknowledgment for every packet. The
acknowledgment number is a positive acknowledgment of all bytes up to that number.
For example, if the first byte sent was numbered 1 and 2000 bytes have been successfully
received, the Acknowledgment Number would be 2001.
The Window field contains the window , or the number of bytes the remote end is able to
accept. If the receiver is capable of accepting 6000 more bytes, the window would be 6000.
The window indicates to the sender that it can continue sending segments as long as the
total number of bytes that it sends is smaller than the window of bytes that the receiver
can accept. The receiver controls the flow of bytes from the sender by changing the size of
the window. A zero window tells the sender to cease transmission until it receives a non-
zero window value.
Fig shows a TCP data stream that starts with an Initial Sequence Number of 0. The
receiving system has received and acknowledged 2000 bytes, so the current
Acknowledgment Number is 2001. The receiver also has enough buffer space for another
6000 bytes, so it has advertised a window of 6000. The sender is currently sending a
segment of 1000 bytes starting with Sequence Number 4001. The sender has received no
acknowledgment for the bytes from 2001 on, but continues sending data as long as it is
within the window. If the sender fills the window and receives no acknowledgment of the
data previously sent, it will, after an appropriate time-out, send the data again starting
from the first unacknowledged byte.
TCP data stream
8 (i)With a diagram explain DHCP and its protocol architecture.(8) (May 2016)
(ii)Explain IP-in-IP,Minimal IP and GRE encapsulation methods.(8) (May 2016)
DHCP stands for Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol.
As the name suggests, DHCP is used to control the network configuration of a host through a
remote server. DHCP functionality comes installed as a default feature in most of the
contemporary operating systems. DHCP is an excellent alternative to the time-consuming
manual configuration of network settings on a host or a network device.
DHCP works on a client-server model. Being a protocol, it has it’s own set of messages that
are exchanged between client and server. Here is the header information of DHCP :
OCTET
FIELD DESCRIPTION
S
op 1 Type of message
htype 1 type of hardware address
hlen 1 length of hardware address
hops 1 used in case of relay agents. Clients sets them to 0.
xid 4 Transaction ID used by the client and server for a session.
Time elapsed (in seconds) since the client requested the
secs 2
process
flags 2 Flags
ciaddr 4 Client IP address.
yiaddr 4 The IP address assigned by server to the client
siaddr 4 Server IP address.
giaddr 4 IP address of the relay agent.
chadd
16 Hardware address of the client.
r
sname 64 Host name of the server.
file 128 Boot file name.
option
var Additional options
s
Working of DHCP
1. DHCPDISCOVER
It is a DHCP message that marks the beginning of a DHCP interaction between client and
server. This message is sent by a client (host or device connected to a network) that is
connected to a local subnet. It’s a broadcast message that uses 255.255.255.255 as destination
IP address while the source IP address is 0.0.0.0
2. DHCPOFFER
It is DHCP message that is sent in response to DHCPDISCOVER by a DHCP server to DHCP

client. This message contains the network configuration settings for the client that sent the
DHCPDISCOVER message.
3. DHCPREQUEST
This DHCP message is sent in response to DHCPOFFER indicating that the client has
accepted the network configuration sent in DHCPOFFER message from the server.
4. DHCPACK
This message is sent by the DHCP server in response to DHCPREQUEST recieved from the
client. This message marks the end of the process that started with DHCPDISCOVER. The
DHCPACK message is nothing but an acknowledgement by the DHCP server that authorizes
the DHCP client to start using the network configuration it received from the DHCP server
earlier.
5. DHCPNAK
This message is the exact opposite to DHCPACK described above. This message is sent by
the DHCP server when it is not able to satisfy the DHCPREQUEST message from the client.
6. DHCPDECLINE
This message is sent from the DHCP client to the server in case the client finds that the IP
address assigned by DHCP server is already in use.

7. DHCPINFORM
This message is sent from the DHCP client in case the IP address is statically configured on
the client and only other network settings or configurations are desired to be dynamically
acquired from DHCP server.
8. DHCPRELEASE
This message is sent by the DHCP client in case it wants to terminate the lease of network
address it has be provided by DHCP server.
Now as we know about the various DHCP messages, it’s time to go through the the complete
DHCP process to give a better Idea of how DHCP works. Note that the steps mentioned
below assume that DHCP functionality is enabled by default on the client side.
Here are the steps :
 Step 1: When the client computer (or device) boots up or is connected to a network, a
DHCPDISCOVER message is sent from the client to the server. As there is no network
configuration information on the client so the message is sent with 0.0.0.0 as source
address and 255.255.255.255 as destination address. If the DHCP server is on local
subnet then it directly receives the message or in case it is on different subnet then a
relay agent connected on client’s subnet is used to pass on the request to DHCP
server. The transport protocol used for this message is UDP and the port number used
is 67. The client enters the initializing stage during this step.
 Step 2: When the DHCP server receives the DHCPDISCOVER request message then it
replies with a DHCPOFFER message. As already explained, this message contains all
the network configuration settings required by the client. For example, the yaddr field
of the message will contain the IP address to be assigned to client. Similarly the the
subnet mask and gateway information is filled in the options field. Also, the server
fills in the client MAC address in the chaddr field. This message is sent as a broadcast
(255.255.255.255) message for the client to receive it directly or if DHCP server is in
different subnet then this message is sent to the relay agent that takes care of whether
the message is to be passed as unicast or broadcast. In this case also, UDP protocol is
used at the transport layer with destination port as 68. The client enters selecting stage
during this step
 Step 3: The client forms a DHCPREQUEST message in reply to DHCPOFFER message
and sends it to the server indicating it wants to accept the network configuration sent
in the DHCPOFFER message. If there were multiple DHCP servers that received
DHCPDISCOVER then client could receive multiple DHCPOFFER messages. But, the
client replies to only one of the messages by populating the server identification field
with the IP address of a particular DHCP server. All the messages from other DHCP
servers are implicitly declined. The DHCPREQUEST message will still contain the
source address as 0.0.0.0 as the client is still not allowed to use the IP address passed
to it through DHCPOFFER message. The client enters requesting stage during this
step.
 Step 4: Once the server receives DHCPREQUEST from the client, it sends the
DHCPACK message indicating that now the client is allowed to use the IP address
assigned to it. The client enters the bound state during this step.
ii)
Three types of encapsulation protocols are specified for Mobile IP:

IP-in-IP encapsulation: required to be supported. Full IP header added to the original IP
packet. The new header contains HA address as source and Care of Address as destination.
Minimal encapsulation: optional. Requires less overhead but requires changes to the original
header. Destination address is changed to Care of Address and Source IP address is
maintained as is.
Generic Routing Encapsulation (GRE): optional. Allows packets of a different protocol suite
to be encapsulated by another protocol suite.
Type of tunneling/encapsulation supported is indicated in registration.

IP-within-IP Encapsulation
Minimal Encapsulation
9 Explain in detail a about application layer protocols of TCP.

Application Layer
At the top of the TCP/IP protocol architecture is the Application Layer . This layer includes
all processes that use the Transport Layer protocols to deliver data. There are many
applications protocols. Most provide user services, and new services are always being
added to this layer.
The most widely known and implemented applications protocols are:
telnet
The Network Terminal Protocol, which provides remote login over the network.
FTP
The File Transfer Protocol, which is used for interactive file transfer.
SMTP
The Simple Mail Transfer Protocol, which delivers electronic mail.
HTTP
The Hypertext Transfer Protocol, which delivers Web pages over the network.
While HTTP, FTP, SMTP, and telnet are the most widely implemented TCP/IP
applications, you will work with many others as both a user and a system administrator.
Some other commonly used TCP/IP applications are:
Domain Name Service (DNS)
Also called name service , this application maps IP addresses to the names assigned to
network devices. DNS is discussed in detail in this book.
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
Routing is central to the way TCP/IP works. OSPF is used by network devices to
exchange routing information. Routing is also a major topic of this book.
Network Filesystem (NFS)
This protocol allows files to be shared by various hosts on the network.
Some protocols, such as telnet and FTP, can only be used if the user has some knowledge
of the network.
10 Write short notes on TCP in multi-hop wireless networks.

TCP was originally designed for wired networks. Packet loss is considered to be the result
of network congestion and the congestion window size is reduced dramatically as a
precaution. However, wireless links are known to experience sporadic and usually
temporary losses due to fading, shadowing, hand off, and other radio effects, that should
not be considered congestion. After the (erroneous) back-off of the congestion window
size, due to wireless packet loss, there may be a congestion avoidance phase with a
conservative decrease in window size. This causes the radio link to be underutilized.
Extensive research on combating these harmful effects has been conducted. Suggested
solutions can be categorized as end-to-end solutions, which require modifications at the
client or server, link layer solutions, such as RLP in cellular networks, or proxy-based
solutions which require some changes in the network without modifying end nodes.
A number of alternative congestion control algorithms, such as Vegas, Westwood, Veno
and Santa Cruz, have been proposed to help solve the wireless problem.
11 (i)Explain the agent discovery process in mobile-IP(April2015)(April 2018)

(ii)Explain how snooping TCP ensures end to end connectivity
For this purpose mobile IP describes two methods which are in fact router discovery
methods plus extensions. They are
 Agent advertisement
 Agent Solicitation.
Agent advertisement and discovery:
address 255.255.255.255.


 Type: 16,
network.
(ii)Explain how snooping TCP ensures end to end connectivity
Snooping TCP
 Transparent extension of TCP within the foreign agent
 buffering of packets sent to the mobile host
 lost packets on the wireless link (both directions!) will be retransmitted
immediately by the mobile host or foreign agent, respectively (so called “local”
retransmission)
 the foreign agent therefore “snoops” the packet flow and recognizes
acknowledgements in both directions, it also filters ACKs
 changes of TCP only within the foreign agent (+min. MH change)
 Data transfer to the mobile host
o FA buffers data until it receives ACK of the MH, FA detects packet loss via
duplicated ACKs or time-out
o fast retransmission possible, transparent for the fixed network
 Data transfer from the mobile host
o FA detects packet loss on the wireless link via sequence numbers, FA
answers directly with a NACK to the MH
o MH can now retransmit data with only a very short delay
Advantages:
 It is the preservation of the end-to-end TCP semantic.
 No correspondent needs to be changed, most of the enhancements are in the
foreign agent.
 It needs know handover of state as soon as the mobile host moves to another
foreign agent.
 It does not matter if the next foreign agent uses the enhancements or not. If not, the
approach automatically falls back to the standard solution.
Disadvantage:
Snooping TCP does not isolate the behavior of the wireless link as good as I-TCP.
Using negative acknowledgement between the foreign agent and the mobile host assumes
the additional mechanisms on the mobile host. Thus, this approach is no longer
transparent for arbitrary mobile hosts.
All efforts for snooping and buffering data may be useless, if certain encryptions are
applied end-to-end between the correspondent host and mobile host.
12 Give the Comparison of various TCP advantages and disadvantages in wireless

networking.( Nov/Dec 2016)

13 With a neat diagram explain how packet delivery to and from a mobile node is
transferred in Mobile IP. (April 2017)(Nov 2017)
Illustrate packet delivery mechanism in mobile IP network with a neat diagram.(16)
Fig : Packet delivery to and from the mobile node

A correspondent node CN wants to send an IP packet to the MN. One of the
requirements of mobile IP was to support hiding the mobility of the MN. CN does not
need to know anything about the MN’s current location and sends the packet as usual to
the IP address of MN (step 1). This means that CN sends an IP packet with MN as a
destination address and CN as a source address. The internet, not having information on
the current location of MN routes the packet to the router responsible for the home
network of MN. This is done using the standard routing mechanisms of the internet. The
HA now intercepts the packet knowing that MN is currently not in its home network. The
packet is not forwarded into the subnet as usual, but encapsulated and tunneled to the
COA. A new header is put in front of the old IP header showing the COA as new
destination and HA as source of the encapsulated packet (step 2). The FA now
decapsulates the packet, i.e., removes the additional header and forwards the original
packet with CN as source and MN as destination to the MN (step 3). Again, for the MN
mobility is not visible. It receives the packet with the same sender and receiver address as
it would have done in the home network.
At first glance, sending packets from the MN to the CN is much simpler. The MN
sends the packet as usual with its own fixed IP address as source and CN’s address as
destination (step 4). The router with the FA acts as default router and forwards the packet
in the same way as it would do for any other node in the foreign network. As long as CN
is a fixed node the remainder is in the fixed internet as usual. If CN were also a mobile
node residing in a foreign network, the same mechanisms as described in steps 1 through
3 would apply now in the other direction.
For the whole operations to take place as explained above some of the requirements are:
 Additional mechanisms.
 Enhancements to the protocol
 Some techniques to take care of efficiency and security problems
2. Agent advertisement and discovery:
address 255.255.255.255.


 Type: 16,
network.
3.Encapsulation is the mechanism of taking a packet consisting of packet header and data

words.
14 What is encapsulation? Explain in detail the various encapsulation techniques in mobile

IP. (April 2017)
Encapsulation is the mechanism of taking a packet consisting of packet header and data

words.
15 i)Explain Indirect TCP(I-TCP) with the help of a suitable schematic diagram.(April 2018)
I-TCP socket and state migration
access point1
socket migration
and state transfer Internet
access point2
mobile host
Wireless Networks Spring 2005
I-TCP: Indirect TCP (I-TCP) protocol was proposed by Bakre and Badrinath.
It segments the connection between the fixed host and the mobile host into two different
connections: the wired part and the wireless part .The wired connection exists between
the fixed host (FH) and the base station (BS) and the wireless part connection exists
between the BS and the mobile host (MH) .Thus, the base station maintains two separate
TCP connections: one over the fixed network and the other over the wireless link. The
wireless link usually has poor quality communication, but it gets hidden from the fixed
network at the BS. When a packet is sent by FH to MH, the packet is received by BS first
and then BS transmits it to the MH over the whole connection, information and
responsibilities that are with the current BS are transferred to the new BS.
The advantage of the split connection approach of I-TCP is that it does not need any
changes to be made to the standard TCP protocol. By partitioning errors in the wireless
part would not propagate into the fixed network, thereby effectively achieving an
increase in bandwidth over the fixed network .An important disadvantage of this scheme
is that I-TCP does not maintain the semantics of TCP as the FH gets the acknowledgement
before the packet is delivered at MH.I-TCP does not maintain the end-to-end semantics of
and TCP assumes that the application layer would ensure reliability.
ii)Briefly explain about the adaptation of TCP window(April 2018)

The TCP primarily deploys a flow control technique to control congestion in a network.
Traffic congestion occurs when the rate at which data can be injected by the network. A
flow control technique helps adapt the rate of data transmission by the TCP at the
sending host end. The flow control technique helps to prevent the buildup of congestion
in the network and at the same time helps to prevent buffer overrun for slow receivers.
If data transmissions occur at a much faster rate than what the network infrastructure can
comfortably support, then data packets get buildup at the routers. When the buffer at
routers start to overflow, the packet start getting lost. Additionally, if data transmissions
by a sender takes place at a faster rate than what a slower receiver can handle, then the
receiver's buffer start to get flooded and hence the packet get lost. TCP handles both these
causes of packet loss by reducing the rate at which data is transmitted at the sender's end.
Thus, a receiver uses the flow control mechanism to restrict how fast a sender can
transmit. However, to provide an acceptably fast data transmission service, once
congestion disappears the transmission rate at the sender's end needs to be increased to a
suitable value. Thus, we can say that the flow control technique helps TCP dynamically
adjust the transmission rate at the sender's end, reducing the transmission rate as
congestion starts to develop and increasing it as congestion starts to disappear. The flow
control mechanical deployed by TCP (called the sliding window protocol) is primarily
based on the concepts of congestion window and advertised window. We can brief
describe these techniques.
When a sender starts to send data packets, the receiver indicates an advertised
window (or receiver window) to the server while sending acknowledgments. The
advertised window is usually set equal to the size of the receive buffer at the receiver. The
sender uses the advertised window size obtained from the receiver to determine the
maximum amount of data that it can transmit to the receiver without causing buffer
overflow at the receiver. In other words, to prevent buffer overflow at the receiver, the
data packets transmitted by a sender without having received acknowledgement for them
should not exceed the size of buffer available at the receiving end.
For each segment sent, a sending host expects to receive acknowledgements. A
congestion window indicates the maximum number of segments that can be outstanding
without the receipt of the corresponding acknowledgment before the TCP at the sender's
end pauses transmitting and waits for an acknowledgement to arrive. The TCP at the
sender's end pauses if the number of segments for which the acknowledgement is
outstanding becomes equal to the congestion window. A sender sets the congestion
window size to 1 and keeps on increasing it until duplicate acknowledgement are
received or until the number of outstanding packets becomes equal to the size of
advertised window.
Upon receipt of an acknowledgement, TCP detects packet loss using
Retransmission timer out (RTO) and duplicate acknowledgement. After transmitting a
segment, a TCP sender sets the retransmission timer for only one packet. If an
acknowledgement for the packet is not received before the timer goes off, the packet is
assumed to be lost. Again the TCP sender assumes that a packet loss has occurred if it
receives three duplicate acknowledgements consecutively. In TCP, when a receiver does
not get a packet that it expects in a sequence but gets an out if order packet, it considers
that the expected packet might have got lost and it indicates this to the sender by
transmitting an acknowledgement for the last packet that was received in order. Thus,
three duplicate acknowledgement are also generated if a packet is delivered at least three
places beyond it’s in- sequence location.
UNIT III MOBILE TELECOMMUNICATION SYSTEM
Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM) – General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) –
Universal Mobile Telecommunication System (UMTS).
UNIT-III/ PART-A
1 What is the frequency range of uplink, downlink in GSM network? (April 2018)
GSM stands for Global System for Mobile Communications.
GSM 900 : Uplink – 890 – 915 MHz Downlink – 935 – 960 MHz.
GSM 1800: Uplink – 1710-1785MHz Downlink – 1805-1880 MHz
GSM 1900: Uplink – 1850-1910MHz, Downlink – 1930-1990 MHz
2 What are the different services offered by GSM? (April 2014)
 Bearer services
 Tele Services
 Supplementary services.
3 What is transparent bearer service and non-transparent bearer services of GSM?
Transparent bearer services only use the functions of the physical layer to transmit data.
Non transparent bearer services use protocols of the layers 2 and 3 to implement error
correction and flow control.
4 What is voice oriented teleservices?
GSM mainly focus on voice oriented teleservices. These comprise encrypted voice
transmission, message services and basic data communication with terminals as known
from the public switching Telephone Network (PSTN) or Integrated Services Digital
Network (ISDN).
5 What are Tele services provided by GSM?(April 2017)
 Telephony
 Emergency number
 Short message service
 Enhanced message service
 Multimedia message service
 Group 3 fax
6 What are the supplementary services provided by GSM? (Nov/Dec 2016)
The supplementary services provided by GSM are
 User Identification
 Call redirection or
 Forwarding of original calls
 Closed user groups
 Multi party communication
7 What is the significance of digits in MSISDN?
The MSISDN categories follow the international ISDN (Integrated Systems Data
Network) numbering plan as:
• Country Code (CC): 1 to 3 decimal digits of country code
• National Destination Code (NDC): Typically 2 to 3 decimal digits

• Subscriber Number (SN): maximum 10 decimal digits.
8 Mention the GSM Subsystem.
A GSM system consists of three subsystems namely
 Radio subsystem (RSS) : It comprises of radio specific entities Mobile
station(MS),Base station subsystem(BSS), base transceiver station(BTS), Base station
controller(BSC)
 Network and switching subsystem (NSS) : It connect wireless networks to standard
public networks. It consist of Mobile switching Centre(MSC), Home location
register(HLR), Visitor location Register(VLR)
 Operation Subsystem (OSS): It contains all functions necessary for network
operation and maintenance. It consist of operation maintenance
Centre(OMC),Authentication Centre(AuC), Equipment identity Register(EIR)
9 What are the reasons for the delay in a GSM system for packet data transfer?
 Different data rates provided by traffic channels are low
 Authentication and encryption makes the data transmission low
 Various interferences and noises from the channel also cause delay.
10 Define Burst? What are the types of bursts?
Data is transmitted in small portions called bursts. Different types are normal
burst, synchronization burst, access burst and dummy burst.
11 Name the MAC protocol used in GPRS?
Master slave Dynamic Rate Access (MSDRA). Master initiates the packet transfer,
slave initiate user data and dedicated signal information.
12 What is a super frame & hyper frame?
 Super frame: By combining 26 multi frames with 51 frames or 51 multi frames with
26 frames to form a super frame.
 Hyper Frame: 2048 super frames build a hyper frame with duration of almost 3.5
hours
13 To locate MS what are the numbers are required for GSM?
 MSISDN :Mobile station international ISDN Number
 IMSI: International subscriber identity
 TMSI : Temporary Mobile subscriber identity
 MSRN: Mobile station roaming number
14 What is MSRN and TMSI?
 Mobile Station Roaming Number (MSRN): When a subscriber is roaming in
another network a temporary ISDN number is assigned to the subscriber. This ISDN
number is assigned by the local VLR in charge of the mobile station. The MSRN has the
same structure as the MSISDN.
 Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI): This a temporary identifier
assigned by the serving VLR. in place of the IMSI for identification and addressing. TMSI
is assigned in a VLR The TMSI is never stored in the HLR. However, it is stored in the
SIM card. Together with the current location area, a TMSI allows a subscriber to be
identified uniquely. For an ongoing communication the IMSI is replaced by the 2-tuple

LAI, TMSI code.
15 What are the four possible handover in GSM? (Nov 2014)
 Intra-cell hand over
 Inter cell, intra BSC hand over
 Inter BSC, intra MSC handover
 Inter MSC hand over
16 What are the 2 basic reasons for handover?
 The mobile station moves out of range of a BTS. Thus the received signal level
continuously until it falls below the minimal requirements for communication.
 The wired infrastructure may decide the traffic in one cell is too high and shifts
some MS to other cells with a lower load.
17 List the three important features of GSM security. (May 2016)
The security services offered by GSM are explained below:
Access control and Authentication: To authenticate a valid user for the SIM. The
user needs a secret PIN to access the SIM.
Confidentiality: After authentication, BTS and MS apply encryption to voice, data
and signaling.
18 What are the different control channels possible in GSM?
 Broadcast control channel
 Common control channel
 Dedicated control channel.
19 What is meant by GGSN, SGSN, BSSGP?
 Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN): It is similar to MSC of GSM network. Data
compression , Authentication of GPRS subscribers, Routing of data to the
corresponding GGSN , Mobility management ,Traffic statistics collections.
 Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN): GGSN is the gateway to external networks
such as PDN (packet data network) or IP network. It does two main functions. It is
similar to GMSC of GSM network ,- Routes mobile destined packet coming from
external IP networks to the relevant SGSN within the GPRS network, Routes
packets originated from a user to the respective external IP network
 BSSGP: The BSSGP layer ensures the transmission of upper-layer data (LLC PDUs)
from the BSS to the SGSN or from the SGSN to the BSS. It ensures the transmission
of GMM signaling and NM signaling
20 What is LLC, LLPDU?
Logical Link Control (LLC) which provides a logical link and framing structure for
communication between the MS and the SGSN. Any data between MS and SGSN is sent
as Logical Link – Protocol Data Units (LLPDU ). LLC supports management of this
transfer, including mechanism for the detection and recovery from, lost or corrupted LL-
PDU, ciphering and flow control.
21 State the advantages of UMTS.
UMTS stands for Universal Mobile Telecommunications System. UMTS is one of the
emerging mobile phone technologies known as third-generation, or 3G. Third-generation
systems are designed to include such traditional phone tasks as calls, voice mail, and
paging, but also new technology tasks such as Internet access, video, and SMS, or text
messaging. One of the main benefits of UMTS is its speed. This speed makes possible the

kind of streaming video that can support movie downloads and video conferencing.
22 Differentiate handover from handoff.
In cellular telecommunications, the term handover or handoff refers to the process of
transferring an ongoing call or data session from one channel connected to the core
network to another. In satellite communications it is the process of transferring satellite
control responsibility from one earth station to another without loss or interruption of
service.
23 What are the main elements of UMTS? (May 2016)
Three major categories of network elements:
 GSM phase 1/2 core network elements—Mobile services switching center (MSC),
visitor location register (VLR), home location register (HLR), authentication center
(AuC), and equipment identity register (EIR)
 GPRS network elements—Serving GPRS support node (SGSN) and gateway GPRS
support node (GGSN)
 UMTS-specific network elements—User equipment (UE) and UMTS terrestrial
radio access network (UTRAN) elements
24 Write the suggestions of mobile phone with respect to human body. (April 2017)
Mobile phones use electromagnetic radiation in the microwave range 450–2100 MHz. Cell
phone radiation effects have been the topic of careful study for more than the last decade.
Although controversial, many studies have shown that the effects of cell phone radiation
and over-exposure to the human body can have adverse effects on cells. The
electromagnetic radiation (or EMR) emitted from cell phones can cause the cells exposed
to its waves to become heated and it can damage them over time.
25 List the services of GPRS.(Nov 2017)
GPRS offers end-to-end packet-switched data transfer services which can be categorized
into the following two types:
1. Point-To-Point Service (PTP): It is between two users and can either be connectionless
or connection-oriented.
2. Point-To-Multipoint Service (PTM): It is a data transfer service from one user to
multiple users.
26 Define Handoff. What are its types?(Nov 2017)
Handoff refers to a process of transferring an ongoing call or data session from one
channel connected to the core network to another. The channel change due to handoff
may be through a time slot, frequency band, code word, or combination of these for time-
division multiple access (TDMA), frequency-division multiple access (FDMA), code-
division multiple access (CDMA), or a hybrid scheme. Handoff is also called as
‘Handover’. Two basic types of handoff are hard handoff and soft handoff.
27 What are the information are stored in SIM?(April 2018)
A SIM card, also known as a subscriber identity module, is a smart card that stores data
for GSM cellular telephone subscribers. Such data includes user identity, location
and phone number, network authorization data, personal security keys, contact lists and
stored text messages.
UNIT-III / PART-B
1 Draw and explain the functions of GSM system architecture. (May-2012,Nov-2011,Nov-2012,
May/June 2014, Nov/Dec 2014,April-15,May 2016)(April 2017)(Nov 2017)
A GSM network is composed of several functional entities. Following figure shows the
layout of a generic GSM network. The GSM network can be divided into three broad
parts. The Mobile Station is carried by the subscriber. The Base Station Subsystem
controls the radio link with the Mobile Station. The Network Subsystem, the main part of
which is the Mobile services Switching Center (MSC), performs the switching of calls
between the mobile users, and between mobile and fixed network users. The MSC also
handles the mobility management operations. Not shown is the Operations and
Maintenance Center, which oversees the proper operation and setup of the network. The
Mobile Station and the Base Station Subsystem communicate across the Um interface, also
known as the air interface or radio link. The Base Station Subsystem communicates with
the Mobile services Switching Center across the A interface.
Base Station Subsystem.The Base Station Subsystem is composed of two parts, the Base
Transceiver Station (BTS) and the Base Station Controller (BSC). These communicate
across the standardized Abis interface, allowing (as in the rest of the system) operation
between components made by different suppliers.
The Base Transceiver Station houses the radio tranceivers that define a cell and
handles the radio-link protocols with the Mobile Station. In a large urban area, there will
potentially be a large number of BTSs deployed, thus the requirements for a BTS are
ruggedness, reliability, portability, and minimum cost.
The Base Station Controller manages the radio resources for one or more BTSs. It
handles radio-channel setup, frequency hopping, and handovers, as described below. The
BSC is the connection between the mobile station and the Mobile service Switching Center
(MSC).
Network Subsystem. The central component of the Network Subsystem is the Mobile

services Switching Center (MSC). It acts like a normal switching node of the PSTN or
ISDN, and additionally provides all the functionality needed to handle a mobile
subscriber, such as registration, authentication, location updating, handovers, and call
routing to a roaming subscriber. These services are provided in conjuction with several
functional entities, which together form the Network Subsystem. The MSC provides the
connection to the fixed networks (such as the PSTN or ISDN). Signalling between
functional entities in the Network
Subsystem uses Signalling System Number 7 (SS7), used for trunk signalling in ISDN
and widely used in current public networks.
The Home Location Register (HLR) and Visitor Location Register (VLR), together with
the MSC, provide the call-routing and roaming capabilities of GSM. The HLR contains all
the administrative information of each subscriber registered in the corresponding GSM
network, along with the current location of the mobile. The location of the mobile is
typically in the form of the signalling address of the VLR associated with the mobile
station. The actual routing procedure will be described later. There is logically one HLR
per GSM network, although it may be implemented as a distributed database.
The Visitor Location Register (VLR) contains selected administrative information from
the HLR, necessary for call control and provision of the subscribed services, for each
mobile currently located in the geographical area controlled by the VLR. Although each
functional entity can be implemented as an independent unit, all manufacturers of
switching equipment to date implement the VLR together with the MSC, so that the
geographical area controlled by the MSC corresponds to that controlled by the VLR, thus
simplifying the signaling required. Note that the MSC contains no information about
particular mobile stations --- this information is stored in the location registers.
The other two registers are used for authentication and security purposes.
• The Equipment Identity Register (EIR) is a database that contains a list of all valid
mobile equipment on the network, where each mobile station is identified by its
International Mobile Equipment
• Identity (IMEI). An IMEI is marked as invalid if it has been reported stolen or is

not type approved.
The Authentication Center (AuC) is a protected database that stores a copy of the secret
key stored in each subscriber's SIM card, which is used for authentication and encryption
over the radio channel.
Operation and Support Subsystem (OSS).It is connected to components of the NSS and the
BSC, in order to control and monitor the GSM system. It is also in charge of controlling the traffic
load of the BSS. It must be noted that as the number of BS increases with the scaling of the
subscriber population some of the maintenance tasks are transferred to the BTS, allowing
savings in the cost of ownership of the system

2 Explain in detail about GSM Radio Subsystem
GSM Radio - The base Station Substation
The BSS is composed of two parts:

 The Base Transceiver Station (BTS)
 The Base Station Controller (BSC)
The BTS and the BSC communicate across the specified Abis interface, enabling
operations between components that are made by different suppliers. The radio
components of a BSS may consist of four to seven or nine cells. A BSS may have one or
more base stations. The BSS uses the Abis interface between the BTS and the BSC. A
separate high-speed line (T1 or E1) is then connected from the BSS to the Mobile MSC.
The Base Transceiver Station (BTS)
The BTS houses the radio transceivers that define a cell and handles the radio link
protocols with the MS. In a large urban area, a large number of BTSs may be deployed.
The BTS corresponds to the transceivers and antennas used in each cell of the network. A
BTS is usually placed in the center of a cell. Its transmitting power defines the size of a
cell. Each BTS has between 1 and 16 transceivers, depending on the density of users in the
cell. Each BTS serves as a single cell. It also includes the following functions:

 Encoding, encrypting, multiplexing, modulating, and feeding the RF signals to the
antenna
 Transcoding and rate adaptation
 Time and frequency synchronizing
 Voice through full- or half-rate services
 Decoding, decrypting, and equalizing received signals
 Random access detection
 Timing advances
 Uplink channel measurements
The Base Station Controller (BSC)
The BSC manages the radio resources for one or more BTSs. It handles radio channel
setup, frequency hopping, and handovers. The BSC is the connection between the mobile
and the MSC. The BSC also translates the 13 Kbps voice channel used over the radio link
to the standard 64 Kbps channel used by the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSDN)
or ISDN.
It assigns and releases frequencies and time slots for the MS. The BSC also handles
intercell handover. It controls the power transmission of the BSS and MS in its area. The
function of the BSC is to allocate the necessary time slots between the BTS and the MSC. It
is a switching device that handles the radio resources. Additional functions include:
 Control of frequency hopping
 Performing traffic concentration to reduce the number of lines from the MSC
 Providing an interface to the Operations and Maintenance Center for the BSS
 Reallocation of frequencies among BTSs
 Time and frequency synchronization
 Power management
 Time-delay measurements of received signals from the MS
3 Write short notes on GSM protocol layers for signaling
GSM architecture is a layered model that is designed to allow communications between

two different systems. The lower layers assure the services of the upper-layer protocols.
Each layer passes suitable notifications to ensure the transmitted data has been formatted,
transmitted, and received accurately.
The GMS protocol stacks diagram is shown below:

MS Protocols
Based on the interface, the GSM signaling protocol is assembled into three general layers:
 Layer 1 : The physical layer. It uses the channel structures over the air interface.
 Layer 2 : The data-link layer. Across the Um interface, the data-link layer is a
modified version of the Link access protocol for the D channel (LAP-D) protocol
used in ISDN, called Link access protocol on the Dm channel (LAP-Dm). Across
the A interface, the Message Transfer Part (MTP), Layer 2 of SS7 is used.
 Layer 3 : GSM signalling protocol’s third layer is divided into three sublayers:
o Radio Resource Management (RR),
o Mobility Management (MM), and
o Connection Management (CM).
MS to BTS Protocols
The RR layer is the lower layer that manages a link, both radio and fixed, between the MS
and the MSC. For this formation, the main components involved are the MS, BSS, and
MSC. The responsibility of the RR layer is to manage the RR-session, the time when a
mobile is in a dedicated mode, and the radio channels including the allocation of
dedicated channels.
The MM layer is stacked above the RR layer. It handles the functions that arise from the
mobility of the subscriber, as well as the authentication and security aspects. Location
management is concerned with the procedures that enable the system to know the current
location of a powered-on MS so that incoming call routing can be completed.
The CM layer is the topmost layer of the GSM protocol stack. This layer is responsible for
Call Control, Supplementary Service Management, and Short Message Service
Management. Each of these services are treated as individual layer within the CM layer.
Other functions of the CC sublayer include call establishment, selection of the type of
service (including alternating between services during a call), and call release.
BSC Protocols
The BSC uses a different set of protocols after receiving the data from the BTS. The Abis
interface is used between the BTS and BSC. At this level, the radio resources at the lower
portion of Layer 3 are changed from the RR to the Base Transceiver Station Management
(BTSM). The BTS management layer is a relay function at the BTS to the BSC.
The RR protocols are responsible for the allocation and reallocation of traffic channels
between the MS and the BTS. These services include controlling the initial access to the
system, paging for MT calls, the handover of calls between cell sites, power control, and
call termination. The BSC still has some radio resource management in place for the
frequency coordination, frequency allocation, and the management of the overall network
layer for the Layer 2 interfaces.
To transit from the BSC to the MSC, the BSS mobile application part or the direct
application part is used, and SS7 protocols is applied by the relay, so that the MTP 1-3 can
be used as the prime architecture.
MSC Protocols
At the MSC, starting from the BSC, the information is mapped across the A interface to
the MTP Layers 1 through 3. Here, Base Station System Management Application Part
(BSS MAP) is said to be the equivalent set of radio resources. The relay process is finished
by the layers that are stacked on top of Layer 3 protocols, they are BSS MAP/DTAP, MM,
and CM. This completes the relay process. To find and connect to the users across the
network, MSCs interact using the control-signalling network. Location registers are
included in the MSC databases to assist in the role of determining how and whether
connections are to be made to roaming users.
Each GSM MS user is given a HLR that in turn comprises of the user’s location and
subscribed services. VLR is a separate register that is used to track the location of a user.
When the users move out of the HLR covered area, the VLR is notified by the MS to find
the location of the user. The VLR in turn, with the help of the control network, signals the
HLR of the MS’s new location. With the help of location information contained in the
user’s HLR, the MT calls can be routed to the user.
4 Explain the signal required for MOC?
MTC/MOC
MS MTC BTS MS MOC BTS
paging request
channel request channel request
immediate assignment immediate assignment
paging response service request
authentication request authentication request
authentication response authentication response
ciphering command ciphering command
ciphering complete ciphering complete
setup setup
call confirmed call confirmed
assignment command assignment command
assignment complete assignment complete
alerting alerting
connect connect
connect acknowledge connect acknowledge
data/speech exchange data/speech exchange
5 Explain the Localization, calling and handover in GSM.(May/June 2013, 2014, Nov/Dec
16) (or) Write in detail about the various types of handover in GSM. Also discuss the
timeline diagram of the Intra MSC handover.(April 2018)

One of the main features of GSM system is the automatic, worldwide localisation of it's
users. The GSM system always knows where a user is currently located, and the same
phone number is valid worldwide. To have this ability the GSM system performs periodic
location updates, even if the user does not use the MS, provided that the MS is still logged
on to the GSM network and is not completely switched off. The HLR contains information
about the current location, and the VLR that is currently responsible for the MS informs
the HLR about the location of the MS when it changes. Changing VLRs with
uninterrupted availability of all services is also called roaming. Roaming can take place
within the context of one GSM service provider or between two providers in one country,
however this does not normally happen but also between different service providers in
different countries, known as international roaming.
To locate an MS and to address the MS, several numbers are needed:
MSISDN (Mobile Station International ISDN Number)16. The only important number for
the user of GSM is the phone number, due to the fact that the phone number is only
associated with the SIM, rather than a certain MS. The MSISDN follows the E.164, this
standard is also used in fixed ISDN networks.
IMSI (International Mobile Subscriber Identity). GSM uses the IMSI for internal unique
identification of asubscriber.
TMSI (Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity). To disguise the IMSI that would give the
exact identity of the user which is signaling over the radio air interface, GSM uses the 4
byte TMSI for local subscriber identification. The TMSI is selected by the VLR and only
has temporary validity within the location area of the VLR. In addition to that the VLR
will change the TMSI periodically.
MSRN (Mobile Station [Subscriber] Roaming Number)17. This is another temporary

address that disguises the identity and location of the subscriber. The VLR generates this
address upon request from the MSC and the address is also stored in the HLR. The MSRN
is comprised of the current VCC (Visitor Country Code), the VNDC (Visitor National
Destination Code) and the identification of the current MSC together with the subscriber
number, hence the MSRN is essential to help the HLR to find a subscriber for an incoming
call.

All the numbers described above are needed to find a user within the GSM system, and to
maintain the connection with a mobile station. The following scenarios below shows a
MTC (Mobile Terminate Call) and a MOC (Mobile Originated Call).
Mobile Terminated Call
Mobile Originated
Call

6 How security is implemented in GSM (April 2015)
Explain GSM Authentication and security.(May 2016,Nov/Dec 2016)
Explain GSM Authentication and security.(May 2016, Nov/Dec 2016)
The security services offered by GSM are explained below:
Access control and Authentication: To authenticate a valid user for the SIM. The user
needs a secret PIN to access the SIM.
Confidentiality: After authentication, BTS and MS apply encryption to voice, data and
signaling.
Anonymity: To provide user anonymity, all data is encrypted before transmission
Three algorithms have been specified to provide security services in GSM
 Algorithm A3 is used for authentication
 Algorithm A5 is used for encryption
 Algorithm A8 is used to generate a cipher key
Authentication
Before a subscriber can use any service from the GSM network, he or she must be
authenticated. Authentication is based on the SIM, which stores the individual
authentication key Ki, the user identification IMSI, and the algorithm used for
authentication A3. Authentication uses a challenge-response method:
Key generation and encryption
To ensure privacy, all messages containing user-related information are encrypted in

GSM over the air interface. After authentication, MS and BSS can start using encryption
by applying the cipher key Kc (the precise location of security functions for encryption,
BTS and/or BSC are vendor dependent). Kc is generated using the individual key Ki and
a random value by applying the algorithm A8. Note that the SIM in the MS and the
network both calculate the same Kc based on the random value RAND. The key Kc itself
is not transmitted overthe air interface.
7 Explain GSM frame format and frame hierarchy

GSM - TDMA/FDMA
935-960 MHz
124 channels (200 kHz)
downlink
890-915 MHz
124 channels (200 kHz)
uplink
higher GSM frame structures
time
GSM TDMA frame
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
4.615 ms
GSM time-slot (normal burst)

guard guard
space tail user data S Training S user data tail space
3 bits 57 bits 1 26 bits 1 57 bits 3
546.5 µs
577 µs
GSM hierarchy of frames

hyperframe
0 1 2 ... 2045 2046 2047 3 h 28 min 53.76 s
superframe
0 1 2 ... 48 49 50
6.12 s
0 1 ... 24 25
multiframe
0 1 ... 24 25 120 ms
0 1 2 ... 48 49 50 235.4 ms
frame
0 1 ... 6 7 4.615 ms
slot
burst 577 µs
8 Write the Connection Establishment between PSTN and Cellular Architecture? (Nov/Dec
2013)

Mobile Terminated Call

• 1: calling a GSM subscriber
• 2: forwarding call to GMSC 4
• 3: signal call setup to HLR HLR
5
VLR
•
8 9
4, 5: request MSRN from VLR 3 6 14 15
• 6: forward responsible calling
PSTN GMSC
7
MSC
MSC to GMSC station 1 2
• 7: forward call to 10 10 13 10
16
• current MSC BSS BSS BSS
• 8, 9: get current status of 11 11 11
MS
11 12
• 10, 11: paging of MS 17
• 12, 13: MS answers MS
• 14, 15: security checks

• 16, 17: set up connection
9 Draw and explain the GPRS and its protocol architecture (Nov-2011,May/June 2014,
Nov/Dec 2014,April2015,May 2016, Nov/Dec 2016)(April 2017)
GPRS architecture works on the same procedure like GSM network, but, has additional
entities that allow packet data transmission. This data network overlaps a second-generation
GSM network providing packet data transport at the rates from 9.6 to 171 kbps. Along with
the packet data transport the GSM network accommodates multiple users to share the same
air interface resources concurrently.
Following is the GPRS Architecture diagram:

GPRS attempts to reuse the existing GSM network elements as much as possible, but to
effectively build a packet-based mobile cellular network, some new network elements,
interfaces, and protocols for handling packet traffic are required.
Therefore, GPRS requires modifications to numerous GSM network elements as summarized

below:
GSM Network Element Modification or Upgrade Required for GPRS.

New Mobile Station is required to access GPRS services.
Mobile Station (MS) These new terminals will be backward compatible with
GSM for voice calls.
A software upgrade is required in the existing Base
BTS
Transceiver Station(BTS).
The Base Station Controller (BSC) requires a software
upgrade and the installation of new hardware called the
BSC packet control unit (PCU). The PCU directs the data
traffic to the GPRS network and can be a separate
hardware element associated with the BSC.
The deployment of GPRS requires the installation of
new core network elements called the serving GPRS
GPRS Support Nodes (GSNs)
support node (SGSN) and gateway GPRS support node
(GGSN).
All the databases involved in the network will require
Databases (HLR, VLR, etc.) software upgrades to handle the new call models and
functions introduced by GPRS.
GPRS Mobile Stations
New Mobile Stations (MS) are required to use GPRS services because existing GSM phones
do not handle the enhanced air interface or packet data. A variety of MS can exist, including
a high-speed version of current phones to support high-speed data access, a new PDA device
with an embedded GSM phone, and PC cards for laptop computers. These mobile stations
are backward compatible for making voice calls using GSM.
GPRS Base Station Subsystem
Each BSC requires the installation of one or more Packet Control Units (PCUs) and a
software upgrade. The PCU provides a physical and logical data interface to the Base Station
Subsystem (BSS) for packet data traffic. The BTS can also require a software upgrade but
typically does not require hardware enhancements.
When either voice or data traffic is originated at the subscriber mobile, it is transported over
the air interface to the BTS, and from the BTS to the BSC in the same way as a standard GSM
call. However, at the output of the BSC, the traffic is separated; voice is sent to the Mobile
Switching Center (MSC) per standard GSM, and data is sent to a new device called the SGSN
via the PCU over a Frame Relay interface.
GPRS Support Nodes

Following two new components, called Gateway GPRS Support Nodes (GSNs) and, Serving
GPRS Support Node (SGSN) are added:
Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN)
The Gateway GPRS Support Node acts as an interface and a router to external networks. It
contains routing information for GPRS mobiles, which is used to tunnel packets through the
IP based internal backbone to the correct Serving GPRS Support Node. The GGSN also
collects charging information connected to the use of the external data networks and can act
as a packet filter for incoming traffic.
Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN)
The Serving GPRS Support Node is responsible for authentication of GPRS mobiles,
registration of mobiles in the network, mobility management, and collecting information on
charging for the use of the air interface.
Internal Backbone
The internal backbone is an IP based network used to carry packets between different GSNs.
Tunnelling is used between SGSNs and GGSNs, so the internal backbone does not need any
information about domains outside the GPRS network. Signalling from a GSN to a MSC,
HLR or EIR is done using SS7.
Routing Area
GPRS introduces the concept of a Routing Area. This concept is similar to Location Area in
GSM, except that it generally contains fewer cells. Because routing areas are smaller than
location areas, less radio resources are used While broadcasting a page message.
The flow of GPRS protocol stack and end-to-end message from MS to the GGSN is displayed
in the below diagram. GTP is the protocol used between the SGSN and GGSN using the Gn
interface. This is a Layer 3 tunneling protocol.
The process that takes place in the application looks like a normal IP sub-network for the
users both inside and outside the network. The vital thing that needs attention is, the

application communicates via standard IP, that is carried through the GPRS network and out
through the gateway GPRS. The packets that are mobile between the GGSN and the SGSN
use the GPRS tunneling protocol, this way the IP addresses located on the external side of the
GPRS network do not have deal with the internal backbone. UDP and IP are run by GTP.
SubNetwork Dependent Convergence Protocol (SNDCP) and Logical Link Control (LLC)
combination used in between the SGSN and the MS. The SNDCP flattens data to reduce the
load on the radio channel. A safe logical link by encrypting packets is provided by LLC and
the same LLC link is used as long as a mobile is under a single SGSN.
In case, the mobile moves to a new routing area that lies under a different SGSN; then, the
old LLC link is removed and a new link is established with the new Serving GSN X.25.
Services are provided by running X.25 on top of TCP/IP in the internal backbone.
10 Explain in detail about UMTS architecture.(8)(May 2016, Nov/Dec 2016)(Nov 2017)(April

2018)
The Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) is a third generation
mobile cellular system for networks based on the GSM standard. Developed and
maintained by the 3GPP (3rd Generation Partnership Project), UMTS is a
component of the International Telecommunications Union IMT-2000 standard set
and compares with the CDMA2000 standard set for networks based on the
competing cdmaOne technology. UMTS uses wideband code division multiple
access (W-CDMA) radio access technology to offer greater spectral efficiency and
bandwidth to mobile network operators.
Features
UMTS specifies a complete network system, which includes the radio access
network (UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network, or UTRAN), the core network
(Mobile Application Part, or MAP) and the authentication of users via SIM
(subscriber identity module) cards.
The technology described in UMTS is sometimes also referred to as Freedom of

Mobile Multimedia Access (FOMA)[1] or 3GSM.
Unlike EDGE (IMT Single-Carrier, based on GSM) and CDMA2000 (IMT Multi-
Carrier), UMTS requires new base stations and new frequency allocations.
UMTS supports maximum theoretical data transfer rates of 42 Mbit/s when

Evolved HSPA (HSPA+) is implemented in the network.[2] Users in deployed
networks can expect a transfer rate of up to 384 kbit/s for Release '99 (R99)
handsets (the original UMTS release), and 7.2 Mbit/s for High-Speed Downlink
Packet Access (HSDPA) handsets in the downlink connection. These speeds are
significantly faster than the 9.6 kbit/s of a single GSM error-corrected circuit
switched data channel, multiple 9.6 kbit/s channels in High-Speed Circuit-

Switched Data (HSCSD) and 14.4 kbit/s for CDMAOne channels.
Since 2006, UMTS networks in many countries have been or are in the process of
being upgraded with High-Speed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA), sometimes
known as 3.5G. Currently, HSDPA enables downlink transfer speeds of up to 21
Mbit/s. Work is also progressing on improving the uplink transfer speed with the
High-Speed Uplink Packet Access (HSUPA). Longer term, the 3GPP Long Term
Evolution (LTE) project plans to move UMTS to 4G speeds of 100 Mbit/s down
and 50 Mbit/s up, using a next generation air interface technology based upon
orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing.
The first national consumer UMTS networks launched in 2002 with a heavy
emphasis on telco-provided mobile applications such as mobile TV and video
calling. The high data speeds of UMTS are now most often utilised for Internet
access: experience in Japan and elsewhere has shown that user demand for video
calls is not high, and telco-provided audio/video content has declined in
popularity in favour of high-speed access to the World Wide Web—either directly
on a handset or connected to a computer via Wi-Fi, Bluetooth or USB
Technology:
UMTS combines three different air interfaces, GSM's Mobile Application Part
(MAP) core, and the GSM family of speech codecs.
Air interfaces
UMTS provides several different terrestrial air interfaces, called UMTS Terrestrial
Radio Access (UTRA).[3] All air interface options are part of ITU's IMT-2000. In the
currently most popular variant for cellular mobile telephones, W-CDMA (IMT
Direct Spread) is used.
Please note that the terms W-CDMA, TD-CDMA and TD-SCDMA are misleading.
While they suggest covering just a channel access method (namely a variant of
CDMA), they are actually the common names for the whole air interface
standards.[4]
W-CDMA (UTRA-FDD)
3G sign shown in notification bar on an Android powered smartphone.
W-CDMA uses the DS-CDMA channel access method with a pair of 5 MHz wide
channels. In contrast, the competing CDMA2000 system uses one or more available
1.25 MHz channels for each direction of communication. W-CDMA systems are
widely criticized for their large spectrum usage, which has delayed deployment in
countries that acted relatively slowly in allocating new frequencies specifically for
3G services (such as the United States).

The specific frequency bands originally defined by the UMTS standard are 1885–
2025 MHz for the mobile-to-base (uplink) and 2110–2200 MHz for the base-to-
mobile (downlink). In the US, 1710–1755 MHz and 2110–2155 MHz are used
instead, as the 1900 MHz band was already used.[5] While UMTS2100 is the most
widely deployed UMTS band, some countries' UMTS operators use the 850 MHz
and/or 1900 MHz bands (independently, meaning uplink and downlink are within
the same band), notably in the US by AT&T Mobility, New Zealand by Telecom
New Zealand on the XT Mobile Network and in Australia by Telstra on the Next G
network. Some carriers such as T-Mobile use band numbers to identify the UMTS
frequencies. For example, Band I (2100 MHz), Band IV (1700/2100 MHz), and Band
V (850 MHz).
W-CDMA is a part of IMT-2000 as IMT Direct Spread.
UMTS-FDD, is an acronym for Universal Mobile Telecommunications System

(UMTS) - frequency-division duplexing (FDD) and a 3GPP standardized version of
UMTS networks that makes use of frequency-division duplexing for duplexing
over an UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access (UTRA) air interface.[6]
W-CDMA or WCDMA (Wideband Code Division Multiple Access), along with

UMTS-FDD, UTRA-FDD, or IMT-2000 CDMA Direct Spread is an air interface
standard found in 3G mobile telecommunications networks. It supports
conventional cellular voice, text and MMS services, but can also carry data at high
speeds, allowing mobile operators to deliver higher bandwidth applications
including streaming and broadband Internet access.[7]
W-CDMA is the basis of Japan's NTT DoCoMo's FOMA service and the most-
commonly used member of the Universal Mobile Telecommunications System
(UMTS) family and sometimes used as a synonym for UMTS.[8] It uses the DS-
CDMA channel access method and the FDD duplexing method to achieve higher
speeds and support more users compared to most previously used time division
multiple access (TDMA) and time division duplex (TDD) schemes.
While not an evolutionary upgrade on the airside, it uses the same core network as the 2G
GSM networks deployed worldwide, allowing dual mode mobile operation along with
GSM/EDGE; a feature it shares with other members of the UMTS family.
UNIT IV MOBILE AD-HOC NETWORKS
Ad-Hoc Basic Concepts – Characteristics – Applications – Design Issues – Routing – Essential
of Traditional Routing Protocols –Popular Routing Protocols – Vehicular Ad Hoc networks (
VANET) – MANET Vs VANET – Security.
UNIT-IV / PART-A
1 What is the difference between fixed infrastructure network and an Ad-hoc network ?
Fixed Infra structure Network Ad-hoc network

A fixed infrastructure network uses An ad-hoc network is a network in which
access-points, base stations, and the locations of the switches, hubs, or
gateways. routers can be mobile.
Remote systems are networked using The number of routers available at an
switches, hubs, and routers. The locations instant can increase or decrease and the
of these switches hubs, or routers are available routing paths can vary in an ad-
fixed. hoc network.
2 Define MANET (Nov 2012)
Temporary or Adhoc networks that are established and maintained and work without
the support of any form of fixed infrastructure such as base station are known as
Mobile Adhoc Networks(MANET). It is traditionally defined as self configuring
networks set up among handheld devices of mobile users.
3 Why the routing is complex in MANET
 Very difficult to assign a global identifier assigned to every node due to mobility.
 MANET the topology of the network and consequently the routes between
different device changes dynamically as nodes move away or fail.
 link breakage
 Centralized approaches will not work. Many nodes need routing capabilities
4 List out the characteristics of MANET.
 Lack of fixed infrastructure, Dynamic Topologies
 The speed of the movement of a mobile device can vary with time of the day,
Bandwidth constrains such as fading, noise, interference, variable capacity links,
 Energy constrained operation, increased vulnerability, Autonomous terminal,
Multi hop environment.
5 Write the applications of MANET
 Communications among portable computer: To reduce the mobility of the device
 Environmental monitoring: continuous data collection from remote location,
 Military: information network among the soldiers, vehicles and military
information
 Emergency operation: quickly setup to provide network connectivity to rescue
personnel in order to facilitate the rescue operation.
6 List out the MANET design issues
 Network size and node density: geographical coverage area of the network and
network density refers to the number of network in the area.
 Connectivity: bandwidth of the link
 Network topology: connectivity among the various nodes to the network
 User traffic: Bursty traffic, large packet sent periodically
 Operational environment: LOS
 Energy constraint: Allow the node to go into sleep mode whenever possible
7 Write the steps involved in transferring the packet in MANET
Forward the packet to the next hop
While forwarding, the sender needs to ensure that
 The packet moves towards its destination
 The number of hop/path length is minimized.
 Delay is minimized
 The packet loss is minimized

 The packet does not move around the network endlessly.
8 Write the essentials of traditional routing protocols
 Require a node to determine the next hop along the shortest path towards a given
destination.
 The shortest path is computed according to some specific cost metric such as
number of hops in the route.
 Example: distance vector, link state routing
9 What is LSPDB? and its advantages.
 A router in the network receives the link state advertisement; it stores the packet in
a data base called LSPDB.
 Each router constructs the connectivity information for the entire network as a
graph using shortest path algorithm.
10 Write the basic characteristics of LSP
 Every router construct a graph representing the connectivity between the various
nodes in the network based on the information received from other routers.
 The graph representing the network is usually constructed in the form of a tree
with local router forming the root of the tree.
 The graph captures the shortest path route from the root to any other router.
11 Write the contents of LSP advertisement message
 The identity of the router originating message, Identity of its entire neighbors
 The delay along various links to its neighbors, A unique sequence number, which
is formed by increasing the count every time the router forms a new link state
advertisement.
 This link state advertisement is then flooded throughout the network as follows:
send a copy of a state advertisement to all of its neighbors
 A router receiving this message examines the sequence number of the last link state
advertisement from the originating router by consulting its LSPDB.
12 What is routing and MANET routing?
 Routing: To find the best path between the source and destination for forwarding
packets in any store and forward network.
 MANET Routing: Each node in an adhoc network needs to have routing capability
and also need s to participate in routing to keep the network operational.
13 What is distance vector routing protocol
The term vector means that routes are advertised as a vector such as distance direction.
Where distance the number of hops between the two nodes and direction is defined in
terms of the next hop router to which the packets need to be forward.. It is based on
Bellman ford algorithm.. Based on calculating the distance and direction to any router in a
network.. The cost is calculated using various route metrics.
14 Compare routing in MANET vs routing in traditional network(April 2018)
MANET Traditional Network
Each node act as a router Do not participate in routing packet
Topology is dynamic Topology is static

No IP based addressing IP based addressing
15 Write the three types of communication
 Unicast: Message is sent to single destination
 Multicast: Message is sent to a selected subset of the network.
 Broadcast: Message is sent to all the nodes in the network
 MANET can broadly be classified into unicast and multicast types.
16 Write a classification of Unicast MANET routing protocol. (Nov 2014, June 2013)
The classification is based on how a protocol manages to determine the route correctly in
the presence of topology changes. They are proactive and reactive protocols
 Proactive: they are table driven routing protocol. It maintains information about
routes to every other node in the network. E.g. Destination sequenced Distance
Vector.
 Reactive protocols: On demand routing protocol EG Dynamic source routing, Adhoc
on demand distance vector routing.
17 What is destination sequenced distance vector Routing Protocol?
 It maintains a routing table in which all of the possible destinations and number of
hops to each destination are recorded.
 Each node maintains information regarding routes to all the known destinations.
 The routing information is updated periodically.
 To maintain a traffic overhead ,each node maintain routes which they may never use.
18 What is dynamic source routing?
It maintains a routing cache which contains the list of all routes that the node has learnt.
When a node finds a new route it adds the new route to its cache.. each mobile node also
maintain sequence counter called request id to uniquely identify the last request it had
generated.. It works in two phase: (i)Route discovery (ii) route maintenance.
19 What is VANET?
Vehicular Adhoc Network (VANET).It is a special type of MANET in which moving
automobiles from the nodes of the network. Vehicle communicates with other vehicles
that are within a range about 100m to 300 mts.
20 List the characteristics of VANET. (May 2016)
 Lack of fixed infrastructure, Dynamic Topologies
 The speed of the movement of a mobile device can vary with time of the day,
Bandwidth constrains such as fading, noise, interference, variable capacity links,
 Energy constrained operation, increased vulnerability, Autonomous terminal, Multi
hop environment.
21 Explain MANET VS VANET (May 2016) (Nov/Dec 2016)
MANET VANET
Collection of mobile nodes communicates Can communicate with certain roadside
with each other over bandwidth infrastructure or base station
constrained wireless links
Mobility is more random. Node mobility is considered to the road
Topology
Battery power is major constrain Battery power is adequate.
22 Write the characteristics of secure ad hoc networks
 Availability: to service DOS attacks
 Confidentiality: preventing its access by unauthorized users
 Integrity: No transferred message has been tampered
 Authentication: True identification of a peer node
 Non repudiation: sent message cannot deny it
23 Write the attacks on different Layers
 Application Layer: Malicious code, repudiation, data corruption
 Transport Layer: session hijacking, SYN flooding
 Network Layer: Wormhole, black hole, fabrication attack
 Data Link Layer: Resource consumption
 Physical layer: Traffic analysis, monitoring, disruption
 Multilayer: DOS, impersonation, replay
24 Write any two factors that affect the performance of ADHOC networking? (Nov
2013)
Node speed, pause-time, network size, number of traffic sources, and type of routing
(source Versus distributed), that affect the performance of ad hoc networks.
25 What do you mean by zone routing protocol? (Nov 2013)
ZRP is a hybrid Wireless Networking routing protocol that uses both proactive and
reactive routing protocols when sending information over the network. ZRP was
designed to speed up delivery and reduce processing overhead by selecting the most
efficient type of protocol to use throughout the route.
26 List the applications of Mobile Adhoc Network(April 2017)

Environmental monitoring -Traffic, habitat, security
Industrial sensing and diagnostics-Manufacturing, supply chains
Context-aware computing-Intelligent homes
Military applications: Multi-target tracking
Infrastructure protection: Power grids.
27 What is multicasting?(Nov/Dec 2016)
Multicast (one-to-many or many-to-many distribution) is group communication where
information is addressed to a group of destination computers simultaneously. Group
communication may either be application layer multicast or network assisted multicast,
where the latter makes it possible for the source to efficiently send to the group in a single
transmission. Copies are automatically created in other network elements, such as
routers, switches and cellular network base stations, but only to network segments that
currently contain members of the group.
28 Outline the concept of RTT? (Nov/Dec 2016)
Round-trip time (RTT), also called round-trip delay, is the time required for a signal pulse
or packet to travel from a specific source to a specific destination and back again. In this
context, the source is the computer initiating the signal and the destination is a remote
computer or system that receives the signal and retransmits it.
29 Distinguish Proactive and Reactive protocols. (April 2017)

Proactive protocols
a. Determine routes independent of traffic pattern
b. Traditional link-state and distance-vector routing protocols are proactive
c. Examples:
i. DSDV (Dynamic sequenced distance-vector)
ii. OLSR (Optimized Link State Routing)
Reactive protocols
a. Maintain routes only if needed
b. Examples:
i. DSR (Dynamic source routing)
ii. AODV (on-demand distance vector)
30 Compare AODV and DSR protocols.(Nov 2017)
Ad-hoc on-demand distance vector (AODV) routing protocol is a reactive protocol even
though it still uses characteristics of a proactive protocol. AODV uses the concept of route
discovery and route maintenance of DSR and the concept of sequence number’s and
sending of periodic beacon’s from DSDV. AODV uses three types of control messages.
They are Route Request (RREQ), Route Reply (RREP) and Route Error (RERR) messages
The key feature of DSR is source routing . The source or the sender knows the complete
hop-by-hop route to the destination. These routes are stored in route cache. It uses a route
discovery process to dynamically determine the unknown route. It does not use periodic
hello message unlike AODV. RREQ and RRER message is used to discover the route
similar to AODV.
31 What are the contents of link state advertisement (LSA) message?(Nov 2017)
The contents of LSA message are as follows
1. The identity of the router originating the message _ Source address
2. The identities of all its neighbours – Network addresses
3. The delays along various links to its neighbours – Transmission delay
4. A unique sequence, which is formed by increasing the count every time the router
forms a new link state advertisement – The ID of the neighbor router.
32 Differentiate cellular with adhoc networks(April 2018)

Cellular Networks Ad-Hoc Networks
Fixed Infrastructure Infrastructure Independent
Single Hop Wireless Links Multihop Wireless Links
Circuit Switched Packet Switched
Seamless Connectivity Frequent Path Breaks
Frequency Reuse Spectrum Dynamic Frequency Reuse
UNIT-IV / PART-B
1 1 What are the characteristics to design on a MANET? Explain its implications
Characteristics to design on a MANET
Lack of fixed infrastructure: A MANET is an autonomous system of mobile nodes. The
system may operate in isolation, or may have gateways to and interface with a fixed
network. MANET nodes are equipped with wireless transmitters and receivers using
antennas which may be omni directional (broadcast), highly- directional (point-to-
point). At a given point in time, depending on the nodes' positions and their transmitter
and receiver coverage patterns, transmission power levels and co-channel interference
levels, a wireless connectivity in the form of a random, multi hop graph or "ad hoc"
network exists between the nodes. This ad hoc topology may change with time as the
nodes move or adjust their transmission and reception parameters.
Dynamic topologies: Nodes are free to move arbitrarily; thus, the network topology--
which is typically multihop--may change randomly and rapidly at unpredictable
times, and may consist of both bidirectional and unidirectional links.
Bandwidth-constrained, variable capacity links: Wireless links will continue to have
significantly lower capacity than their hardwired counterparts. In addition, the realized
throughput of wireless communications--after accounting for the effects of multiple
access, fading, noise, and interference conditions, etc.--is often much less than a radio's
maximum transmission rate.
Energy-constrained operation: Some or all of the nodes in a MANET may rely on
batteries or other exhaustible means for their energy. For these nodes, the most
important system design criteria for optimization may be energy conservation due to
substantial amount of energy causing the batteries to get
rapidly drained out unless the protocol is carefully designed.
Increased vulnerability: Limited physical security: Mobile wireless networks are
generally more prone to physical security threats than are fixed- cable nets. The
increased possibility of eavesdropping, spoofing, and denial-of-service attacks
should be carefully considered. Existing link security techniques are often applied
within wireless networks to reduce security threats. As a benefit, the decentralized
nature of network control in MANETs provides additional robustness against the
single points of failure of more centralized approaches.
2 Explain characteristics, Applications of MANET (8) (May 2016)(April 2018)
Characteristics of MANET
 In MANET, each node act as both host and router. That is it is autonomous in
behavior.
 Multi-hop radio relaying- When a source node and destination node for a message
is out of the radio range, the MANETs are capable of multi-hop routing.
 Distributed nature of operation for security, routing and host configuration. A
centralized firewall is absent here.
 The nodes can join or leave the network anytime, making the network topology
dynamic in nature.
 Mobile nodes are characterized with less memory, power and light weight
features.
 The reliability, efficiency, stability and capacity of wireless links are often inferior
when compared with wired links. This shows the fluctuating link bandwidth of
wireless links.
 Mobile and spontaneous behavior which demands minimum human intervention
to configure the network.
 All nodes have identical features with similar responsibilities and capabilities and
hence it forms a completely symmetric environment.
 High user density and large level of user mobility.
 Nodal connectivity is intermittent.

MANET Applications
Some of the typical applications include:
1)Military battlefield:
Ad- Hoc networking would allow the military to take advantage of commonplace
network technology to maintain an information network between the soldiers, vehicles,
and military information head quarter.
2) Collaborative work:
For some business environments, the need for collaborative computing might be more
important
outside office environments than inside and where people do need to have outside
meetings to cooperate and exchange information on a given project.
3) Local level
Ad-Hoc networks can autonomously link an instant and temporary multimedia netw ork
using notebook computers to spread and share information among participants at a e.g.
conference or classroom. Another appropriate local level application might be in home
networks where devices can communicate directly to exchange information.
4) Personal area network and bluetooth :
A personal area network is a short range, localized network where nodes are usually
associated with a given person. Short - range MANET such as Bluetooth can simplify the
inter
communication between various mobile devices such as a laptop, and a mobile phone.
5) Commercial Sector
Ad hoc can be used in emergency/rescue operations for disaster relief efforts, e.g. in fire,
flood, or earthquake. Emergency rescue operations must take place where non existing or
damaged communications infrastructure and rapid deployment of a communication
network is needed
3 (i) Explain in detail about MANET design issue(April 2017)(April 2018)

(ii) Write about routing
Network Size and Node Density: Network size refers to the geographical coverage area
of the network and network density refers to the number of nodes present per unit
geographical area. The cluster size
Depend on node density.
Connectivity: The Term connectivity of a node usually refers to the number of neighbors
it has. Connectivity between two nodes also sometimes used to refer to a link between
the two nodes. The term link capacity denotes the bandwidth of the link.
Network Topology: The topology of a network denoted connectivity among the various
nodes of thee network. The mobility of the nosed affects a network topology. Other than
mobility nodes can become in operative due to discharge batteries or hardware failures,
and thereby causing changes topology. It should be appropriate in design of Network.
User Traffic: The traffic in a network can be various types: They are Bursty Traffic, Large
packet sent periodically, Combinations of the above two Types.
Operational Environment: The operational environment supports the Line of Sight (LOS)
Communication. But there can be significant difference in the node density and mobility
values in different operational environments requiring different design of mobile network
to suit an operational environment.
Energy constraint: There is no fixed infrastructure exist in a MANET. The Mobile node
themselves store and forward packets. This additional role of mobile nodes as routers
leads to nodes incurring perennial routing related workload and this consequently results
in continual battery drainage. Though this overhead is indispensible if the network is to
be kept operational the energy spent can be substantially reduced by allowing the nodes
to go into a sleep node whenever possible.
(ii) Write about routing

The purpose of routing is to find the best path between the source and destination for
forwarding packets in any store and forward network. It is necessary to find a new route
each time a node needs to transmit a message making routing an expensive and difficult
task. Routing is usually performed by a dedicated device called a router. Routing is a key
feature of the Internet because it enables messages to pass from one computer to another
and eventually reach the target machine. Each intermediary computer performs routing
by passing along the message to the next computer. Part of this process involves
analyzing a routing table to determine the best path
Forward the packet to the next hop
While forwarding, the sender needs to ensure that
 The packet moves towards its destination
 The number of hop/path length is minimized.
 Delay is minimized
 The packet loss is minimized
 The packet does not move around the network endlessly
4 Explain in detail about LSP with example

The term link denotes the connection of one router to its neighboring router. A
neighbor of a router is one with which it can directly communicate without taking any
help from any of the intervening routers. Each router determines its local connectivity
information and flood the network with this information with Link state advertisement.
As a router in the network receives this Link state advertisement it stores this packet in a
link state packet Data Base (LSPDB).. The storage of link state advertisement in an LSPDB
is in addition to the routing table that each router maintains. All routers in the network
have identical LSPBDs.. Based on the bits and piece of information stored in the LSPDB,
each router construct the connectivity information for the entire network as a graph using
Dijastras Shortest Path Algorithm.. Once a router construct this graph it computes the
routing table from this and uses in all its routing decision. Thus Routing in the LSP bases
its routing decision on message s received from other routers in the network regarding
their link state or the state of this connectivity with other routers. The basic characteristics
of LSP is that every router construct a graph representing the connectivity between the
various nodes in the network based on the information received from other routers.
In a Link state protocol each router periodically determines the state of its
neighbors by exchanging hello packets with them across all its network interfaces.. A
router is connected to the other routers through link established by its network interface.
Based on the reply received from its neighbors the router determines the state of the link
in terms of the delay and other characteristics. Subsequently the router forms a short
message called the link state advertisement and sends to its neighbors.. A link state
advertisement is also sent by router whenever it experiences any connectivity changes.
The Link state advertisement messages are usually the following:
The identity of the router originating the message
The identities of all its neighbors
The delay along various links to its neighbors
A unique sequence number formed by increasing the count every time the router
forms a new link state advertisement.
The LS advertisement is then flooded throughout the Network as follows
A router sends a copy of a link state advertisement to all of its neighbors. A router
receiving this message examines the sequence number of the last link state advertisement
from the originating router by consulting its LSPDB. It is recent it replaces the last
message with the currently received message in its LSPDB and also forwards a copy of
this link state advertisement to each of its neighbors.
Construction of Link state Tree: A router maintains two data structure tree
containing nodes which are done and a list of candidates..This tree is essentially ashotest
path first (SPF) tree.
 Greedy iterative Algorithm: All routes are connected to the router just
added to the tree excepting any routers which are either already present in
the tree or in the candidate list are added to the candidate list.
 The delay from each router in the candidate list to every other router in the
tree is compared. The candidate router having the shortest delay is moved
into the tree and attached to the appropriate neighbor router. Whenever a
router is moved from the candidate list into the tree it is removed from the
candidate list.
The above two steps are repeated till there are no more routers left in the candidate
list.. If different routers somehow have maps that are inconsistent the routing loops can
form.
Example:

5 Write short notes on Distance Vector protocol

Distance Vector Routing :Each node constructs a one-dimensional array (a vector)
containing the “distances” (costs) to all other nodes.
distributes that vector to its immediate neighbors.
 Each node knows the cost of the link to each of its directly connected neighbors.
 A link that is down/unknown is assigned an infinite cost.
PRINCIPLE: Constructing RIP message
Step 1: Each node sets a cost of 1 (one) to all directly connected neighbors
and cost of ∞ to others in the neighbors.
Step 2: Each node sends a message to its directly connected neighbor s
containing its knowledge of distances of all nodes in the network.
Repeat the following steps for each advertised destination:
1. If (destination not in the routing table)
Add the advertised information to the table by adding
the two costs
2. Else (
one. (Because this may be new)
Else (next-hop field destination in the routing table)
If (next-hop field is the same) Replace entry in the
table with the advertised is not the same)
If (advertised hop count smaller than one in
the table) Replace entry in the routing table. (better one
3. Return.
 Initially, each node sets a cost of 1 to its directly connected neighbors and ∞ to all
other nodes.
 Thus, A initially believes that it can reach B ,C, E, F in one hop and that D is
unreachable.
6 Explain in detail about proactive routing protocol with (Nov 2014, June 2013)
Proactive protocols: In networks utilizing a proactive routing protocol, every node
maintains one or more tables representing the entire topology of the network. These
tables are updated regularly in order to maintain a up-to-date routing information from
each node to every other node.
DESTINATION SEQUENCE DISTANCE VECTOR (DSDV) routing is an
enhancement to distance vector routing for ad-hoc networks (Perkins, 1994). DSDV can be
considered historically, however, an on-demand version (ad-hoc on-demand distance
vector, AODV) is among the protocols currently discussed (see section 8.3.5). Distance
vector routing is used as routing information protocol (RIP) in wired networks. It
performs extremely poorly with certain network changes due to the count-to-infinity
problem. Each node exchanges its neighbor table periodically with its neighbors. Changes
at one node in the network propagate slowly through the network (step-by-step with
every exchange). The strategies to avoid this problem which are used in fixed networks
(poisoned-reverse/splithorizon (Perlman, 1992)) do not help in the case of wireless ad-
hoc networks, due to the rapidly changing topology. This might create loops or
unreachable regions within the network.
DSDV now adds two things to the distance vector algorithm:
● Sequence numbers: Each routing advertisement comes with a sequence number.
Within ad-hoc networks, advertisements may propagate along many paths. Sequence
numbers help to apply the advertisements in correct order. This avoids the loops that are
likely with the unchanged distance vector algorithm.
● Damping: Transient changes in topology that are of short duration should not
destabilize the routing mechanisms. Advertisements containing changes in the topology
currently stored are therefore not disseminated further. A node waits with dissemination
if these changes are probably unstable. Waiting time depends on the time between the
first and the best announcement of a path to a certain destination.
For each node N1 stores

 the toward this node,
 the metric (next hop here number of hops),
 the sequence number of the last advertisement for this node,
 the time at which the path has been installed first.
The table contains flags and a settling time helping to decide when the path can be
assumed stable. Router advertisements from N1 now contain data from the first, third,
and fourth column: destination address, metric, and sequence number. Besides being
loop-free at all times, DSDV has low memory requirements and a quick convergence via
triggered updates
7 Explain about Dynamic source routing protocol/Discuss route discovery and route
maintenance mechanisms in DSR with illustrations. List its merits and demerits.
(May/June 2013,April 15, May 2016)(Nov 2017)
DYNAMIC SOURCE ROUTING:
Imagine what happens in an ad-hoc network where nodes exchange packets from time
to time, i.e., the network is only lightly loaded, and DSDV or one of the traditional
distance vector or link state algorithms is used for updating routing tables. Although only
some user data has to be transmitted, the nodes exchange routing information to keep
track of the topology. These algorithms maintain routes between all nodes, although there
may currently be no data exchange at all. This causes unnecessary traffic and prevents
nodes from saving battery power.
 Dynamic source routing (DSR), therefore, divides the task of routing into two separate
problems:
 Route discovery: A node only tries to discover a route to a destination if it has to send
something to this destination and there is currently no known route.
 Route maintenance: If a node is continuously sending packets via a route, it has to make
sure that the route is held upright. As soon as a node detects problems with the current
route, it has to find an alternative. The basic principle of source routing is also used in

fixed networks, e.g. token rings.
Dynamic source routing eliminates all periodic routing updates and works as follows.
If a node needs to discover a route, it broadcasts a route request with a unique identifier
and the destination address as parameters. Any node that receives a route request does
the following.
 If the node has already received the request (which is identified using the unique
identifier), it drops the request packet.
● If the node recognizes its own address as the destination, the request has reached its
target.
● Otherwise, the node appends its own address to a list of traversed hops in the packet
and broadcasts this updated route request.
Using this approach, the route request collects a list of addresses representing a
possible path on its way towards the destination. As soon as the request reaches the
destination, it can return the request packet containing the list to the receiver using this
list in reverse order. One condition for this is that the links work bi-directionally. If this is
not the case, and the destination node does not currently maintain a route back to the
initiator of the request, it has to start a route discovery by itself. The destination may
receive several lists containing different paths from the initiator. It could return the best
path, the first path, or several paths to offer the initiator a choice. Applying route
discovery to the example in Figure 8.20 for a route from N1 to N3 at time t1 results in the
following.
● N1 broadcasts the request ((N1), id = 42, target = N3), N2 and N4 receive this request.
● N2 then broadcasts ((N1, N2), id = 42, target = N3), N4 broadcasts ((N1, N4), id = 42,
target = N3). N3 and N5 receive N2’s broadcast, N1, N2, and N5 receive N4’s broadcast.
● N3 recognizes itself as target, N5 broadcasts ((N1, N2, N5), id = 42, target = N3). N3 and
N4 receive N5’s broadcast. N1, N2, and N5 drop N4’s broadcast packet, because they all
recognize an already received route request (and N2’s broadcast reached N5 before N4’s
did). N4 drops N5’s broadcast, N3 recognizes (N1, N2, N5) as an alternate, but longer
route.
● N3 now has to return the path (N1, N2, N3) to N1. This is simple assuming symmetric
links working in both directions. N3 can forward the information using the list in reverse
order.
The assumption of bi-directional links holds for many ad-hoc networks. However, if
links are not bi-directional, the scenario gets more complicated. The algorithm has to be
applied again, in the reverse direction if the target does not maintain a current path to the
source of the route request.
● N3 has to broadcast a route request ((N3), id = 17, target = N1). Only N5 receives this
request.
● N5 now broadcasts ((N3, N5), id = 17, target = N1), N3 and N4 receive the broadcast.
● N3 drops the request because it recognizes an already known id. N4 broadcasts ((N3,
N5, N4), id = 17, target = N1), N5, N2, and N1 receive the broadcast.
● N5 drops the request packet, N1 recognizes itself as target, and N2 broadcasts ((N3, N5,

N4, N2), id = 17, target = N1). N3 and N5 receive N2’s broadcast.
● N3 and N5 drop the request packet.
Now N3 holds the list for a path from N1 to N3, (N1, N2, N3), and N1 knows the path
from N3 to N1, (N3, N5, N4, N1). But N1 still does not know how to send data to N3! The
only solution is to send the list (N1, N2, N3) with the broadcasts initiated by N3 in the
reverse direction. This example shows clearly how much simpler routing can be if links
are symmetrical. The basic algorithm for route discovery can be optimized in many ways.
● To avoid too many broadcasts, each route request could contain a counter. Every node
rebroadcasting the request increments the counter by one. Knowing the maximum
network diameter (take the number of nodes if nothing else is known), nodes can drop a
request if the counter reaches this number.
● A node can cache path fragments from recent requests. These fragments can now be
used to answer other route requests much faster (if they still reflect the topology!).
● A node can also update this cache from packet headers while forwarding other packets.
● If a node overhears transmissions from other nodes, it can also use this information for
shortening routes.
After a route has been discovered, it has to be maintained for as long as the node
sends packets along this route. Depending on layer two mechanisms, different
approaches can be taken. If the link layer uses an acknowledgement the node can
interpret this acknowledgement as an intact route.
● If possible, the node could also listen to the next node forwarding the packet, so getting
a passive acknowledgement.
● A node could request an explicit acknowledgement. Again, this situation is complicated
if links are not bi-directional. If a node detects connectivity problems,
 It has to inform the sender of a packet, initiating a new route discovery starting
from the sender.
 Alternatively, the node could try to discover a new route by itself.
Although dynamic source routing offers benefits compared to other algorithms by
being much more bandwidth efficient, problems arise if the topology is highly dynamic
and links are asymmetrical
8 Explain the following (i) AODV (ii) Zone routing (iii) Multicast routing (Nov/Dec 2016)
i) AODV
 Ad Hoc On-demand Distance Vector
 Source floods route request in the network.
 Reverse paths are formed when a node hears a route request.
 AODV does make use of hop- by-hop routing, sequence numbers and beacons.
 The node that needs a route to a specific destination generates a route request. The
route request
Is forwarded by intermediate nodes which also learn a reverse route from the
source to themselves.
 Each node forwards the request only once (pure flooding).
 Each route has a lifetime after which the route expires if it is not used.
 A route is used.

only when it is used and hence old and expired routes are never ns only one route
between a source-destination pair.
(ii) Zone routing

Zone Routing is a hybrid protocol. It incorporates the merits of both on demand and
proactive routing protocols.
 Routing zone comprise a few MANET notes within a few hops from the central
zone.
Zone Routing is a hybrid protocol. It incorporate the merits of both on demand and
proactive routing protocol. A routing zone is similar to a cluster. A routing zone
comprises a few MANET nodes within a few hops from the central zone. Within a central
zone, table-driven routing protocol is used. Each node therefore has a route to all other
nodes within the zone. If a destination node happens to be outside the sources zone’s
employs an on demand route discovery procedure which works.
 If a packet's destination is in the same zone as the origin, the proactive protocol
using an already stored routing table is used to deliver the packet immediately.
 If the route extends outside the packet's originating zone, a reactive protocol takes
over to check each successive zone in the route to see whether the destination is
inside that zone.
 This reduces the processing overhead for those routes. Once a zone is confirmed as
containing the destination node, the proactive protocol, or stored route-listing
table, is used to deliver the packet.
Multicast routing
 Multicast is communication between a single sender and multiple receivers on a

network. Typical uses include the updating of mobile personnel from a home office
and the periodic issuance of online newsletters
 Efficient delivery to multiple destinations
 (e.g. video broadcast)
 IP Multicast service model
 Communications based on groups
 Special IP addresses (Class D in IPv4) represent “multicast groups”
 Anyone can join group to receive packets Anyone can send to groupSender need
not be part of group
 Dynamic group membership – can join and leave at will Unreliable datagram
service
 Extension to unicast IP
 Group membership not visible to hosts
 No synchronization
9 i) Draw and explain the architecture of VANET. (8) (May 2016)(April 2018)
ii) Explain the various security and attacks on VANET. (8) (May2016)
In VANETs, wireless communication has been a critical technology to support the
achievement of many applications and services. However, due to the characteristics of
VANETs such as high dynamic topology and intermittent connectivity, the existing

routing algorithms in MANETs are not available for most application scenarios in
VANETs.
 Driver and Vehicle Model. This model aims to reflect the behavior of a single
vehicle. This behavior needs to consider two main factors: different driving styles
and the vehicle characteristics, such as an aggressive or passive driver and a sports
car.
 Traffic Flow Model. This model aims to reflect interactions between vehicles,
drivers, and infrastructures and develop an optimal road network. In [31],
according to various criteria (level of detail, etc.), the authors discuss three classes
of traffic flow models: microscopic, microscopic, and macroscopic.
 Communication Model. This model is a pretty important part of research
methodologies to address the data exchange among the road users. Thanks to the
constraints of many factors (the performance of the different communication
layers, communication environment, and the routing strategies), communication
model plays an important role in the research. The authors in [17] give a detailed
overview in the research field.(iv)Application Model. This model is very useful for
the market introduction because it can address the behavior and quality of
cooperative VANETs applications.
Characteristics Of VANET
• High node mobility, solution scalability requirements and wide variety of
environmental conditions are three of the most important challenges of these
decentralized self-organizing networks. A particular problem that has to be faced comes
from the high speeds of vehicles in some scenarios such as highways. These
characteristics collude with most iterative algorithms intended to optimize the use of
the channel bandwidth or of predefined routes.
• Security and privacy requirements in VANET shave to be balanced. On the one hand,
receivers want to make sure that they can trust the source of information but on the
other hand, this might disagree with privacy requirements of the sender.
• The radio channel in VANET scenarios present critical features for developing wireless
communications, which degrade strength and quality of signals.
• The need for standardization of VANET communications should allow flexibility as
these networks have to operate with many different brands of equipment and vehicle
manufacturers.
• Real-time communication is a necessary condition because no delay can exist in the
transmission of safety-related information. This implies that VANET communication
requires fast processing and exchange of information.
• The existence of a central registry of vehicles, possible periodic contact with it, and
qualified mechanisms for the exigency of fulfillment of the law are three usual
assumptions that are necessary for some proposed solutions.
• Communication for information exchange is based on node-to-node connections. This
distributed nature of the network implies that nodes have to relay on other nodes to make
decisions, for instance about route choice, and also that any node in a VANET can act
either as a host requesting information or a router distributing data, depending on the
circumstances. tt
10 Explain in detail about security issues in MANET
There are several general security requirements, such as authenticity, scalability, privacy,
anonymity, cooperation, stability and low delay of communications, which must be
considered in any wireless network, and which in VANETs are even more

challengingbecause of their specific characteristics such as high mobility, no fixed
infrastructure andfrequently changing topology that range from rural road scenarios with
little traffic to citiesor highways with a huge number of communications. The lack of a
centralized infrastructure in charge of synchronization and coordination of transmissions
makes that one of the hardest tasks in the resulting decentralized and self-organizing
VANETs is the management of the wireless channel to reach an efficient use of its
bandwidth.
Security issues in MANET
• Lack of physical boundary
Each mobile node functions as a router and forwards packets from other nodes. As a
result network boundaries become blurred. The distinction between nodes that are
internal or external to a network becomes meaningless, making it difficult to deploy
firewalls or monitor the incoming traffic.
• Low owner RF Transmissions:
It is possible for a malicious node having high power RF transmission capability to
continuously transmit and monopolies the medium and cause its neighbors nodes or the
entire targeted MANET to wait endlessly for transmitting their messages.
• Limited computational capabilities:
Nodes in an adhoc network usually have limited computational capabilities. It therefore
becomes difficult to deploy compute intensive security solutions such as setting up a
public key cryptosystems.
• Limited power Supply:
Since nodes normally rely on battery power an attacker might attempt to exhaust
batteries by causing unnecessary transmissions to take lace pat the targeted node or might
cause excessive computations to be carriedout by the targeted nodes.
11 Explain in detail about the attacks in MANET of various layers
• Dropping attacks: Here data packets that are transmitted are dropped at
compromised or selfish
node.
• Modification attacks: In this type of attack they alter the packets and disrupt the
communication
• between the nodes in the network
• Fabrication attacks: Here the attacker node send fake message without getting any
related message.and this can be called as forge reply.
• Timing attacks: Here attacker attack other nodes to it by advertising itself as node
near to actual
node Indicate that it is having a fresh shortest path to destination.
Network layer: Network layer contains the following attacks they are:
• Black hole attack: In this type of attack node advertises itself having shortest route
to destination and thus attracts the data in the network.
• Wormhole attack: This type of attack makes a tunnel between two malicious nodes
and attracts
the data flow through these attacker nodes.
• Internal Attacks
Internal attacks are directly leads to the attacks on nodes presents in network and
links interface between them. Internal attacks are sometimes more difficult to handle
as compare to external attacks, because internal attacks occurs due more trusted
nodes. B. External attacks.
• External attacks
• These types of attacks try to cause congestion in the network, denial of
services (DoS), and advertising wrong routing information etc. . External attacks
prevent thenetwork from normal communication and producingadditional overhead
to the network. External attacks can classify into two categories:
• Passive attacks
MANETs are more susceptible to passive attacks. A passive attack does not alter the data
transmitted within the network. But it includes the unauthorized “listening” to the
network
traffic or accumulates data from it.
• Active Attacks
Active attacks are very severe attacks on the network that prevent message flow
between the nodes. However activeattacks can be internal or external. Active
external attacks
can be carried out by outside sources that do not belong to the network.
• Gray-Hole Attack
Gray-Hole attack has its own characteristic behavior. It too drops DATA packets,
but node’s malicious activity is limited to certain conditions or trigger. Two most
common type of behavior:
• Node dependent attack – drops DATA packets destined towards a certain
victim node or coming from certain node while for other nodes it behaves normallyby
routing DATA packets to the destinationnodes correctly.
• Time dependent attack – drops DATA packets based on some
predetermined/trigger
time while behaving normally during the other instances.
12 What are reactive and proactive protocols? Specify its advantages and disadvantages.
(Nov/Dec 2016)
Table-driven (proactive) routing
This type of protocols maintains fresh lists of destinations and their routes by periodically
distributing routing tables throughout the network. The main disadvantages of such
algorithms are:
1. Respective amount of data for maintenance.

2. Slow reaction on restructuring and failures.
Examples of proactive algorithms are:
 Optimized Link State Routing Protocol (OLSR) RFC 3626, RFC 7181.
 Babel RFC 6126
 Destination Sequence Distance Vector (DSDV)
 DREAM
On-demand (reactive) routing
This type of protocol finds a route on demand by flooding the network with Route
Request packets. The main disadvantages of such algorithms are:
1. High latency time in route finding.

2. Excessive flooding can lead to network clogging.
Examples of on-demand algorithms are:
 ABR - Associativity-Based Routing

 Ad hoc On-demand Distance Vector(AODV) (RFC 3561)
 Dynamic Source Routing (RFC 4728)
 Flow State in the Dynamic Source Routing
 Power-Aware DSR-based
13 Explain the Traditional Routing Protocols.( Nov/ Dec 2016)

Distance-vector routing protocol
In computer communication theory relating to packet-switched networks, a distance-

vector routing protocol is one of the two major classes of routing protocols, the other
major class being the link-state protocol. A distance-vector routing protocol uses the
Bellman-Ford algorithm to calculate paths.
A distance-vector routing protocol requires that a router informs its neighbors of

topology changes periodically and, in some cases, when a change is detected in the
topology of a network. Compared to link-state protocols, which require a router to inform
all the nodes in a network of topology changes, distance-vector routing protocols have
less computational complexity and message overhead.
Distance Vector means that Routers are advertised as vector of distance and direction.
'Direction' is represented by next hop address and exit interface, whereas 'Distance' uses
metrics such as hop count.
Routers using distance vector protocol do not have knowledge of the entire path to a
destination. Instead DV uses two methods:
1. Direction in which or interface to which a packet should be forwarded.
2. Distance from its destination.
Examples of distance-vector routing protocols include Routing Information Protocol

Version 1 & 2, RIPv1 and RIPv2 and IGRP. EGP and BGP are not pure distance-vector
routing protocols because a distance-vector protocol calculates routes based only on link
costs whereas in BGP, for example, the local route preference value takes priority over the
link cost.
Method
The methods used to calculate the best path for a network are different between different
routing protocols but the fundamental features of distance-vector algorithms are the same
across all DV based protocols.
Distance Vector means that Routers are advertised as vector of distance and Direction.
Direction is simply next hop address and exit interface and Distance means such as hop
count.
Routers using distance vector protocol do not have knowledge of the entire path to a
destination. Instead DV uses two methods:
1. Direction in which or interface to which a packet should be forwarded.
2. Distance from its destination.
As the name suggests the DV protocol is based on calculating the direction and distance
to any link in a network. The cost of reaching a destination is calculated using various
route metrics. RIP uses the hop count of the destination whereas IGRP takes into account
other information such as node delay and available bandwidth.
Updates are performed periodically in a distance-vector protocol where all or part of a
router's routing table is sent to all its neighbors that are configured to use the same
distance-vector routing protocol. RIP supports cross-platform distance vector routing
whereas IGRP is a Cisco Systems proprietary distance vector routing protocol. Once a
router has this information it is able to amend its own routing table to reflect the changes
and then inform its neighbors of the changes. This process has been described as ‘routing
by rumor’ because routers are relying on the information they receive from other routers
and cannot determine if the information is actually valid and true. There are a number of
features which can be used to help with instability and inaccurate routing information.
Distance-vector routing protocol 2
Limitations
The Bellman-Ford algorithm does not prevent routing loops from happening and suffers
from the count-to-infinity problem. The core of the count-to-infinity problem is that if A
tells B that it has a path somewhere, there is no way for B to know if the path has B as a
part of it. To see the problem clearly, imagine a subnet connected like as A-B-C-D-E-F,
and let the metric between the routers be "number of jumps". Now suppose that A goes
down (out of order). In the vector-update-process B notices that the route to A, which was
distance 1, is down - B does not receive the vector update from A. The problem is, B also
gets an update from C, and C is still not aware of the fact that A is down - so it tells B that
A is only two jumps from C (C to B to A) , which is false. This slowly propagates through
the network until it reaches infinity (in which case the algorithm corrects itself, due to the
"Relax property" of Bellman Ford).
Partial solutions
RIP uses Split Horizon with Poison Reverse technique to reduce the chance of forming
loops and uses a maximum number of hops to counter the 'count-to-infinity' problem.
These measures avoid the formation of routing loops in some, but not all, cases. The
addition of a hold time (refusing route updates for a few minutes after a route retraction)
avoids loop formation in virtually all cases, but causes a significant increase in
convergence times.
A number of loop-free distance vector protocols, such as EIGRP and DSDV, have been
developed. These avoid loop formation in all cases, but suffer from increased complexity,
and their deployment has been slowed down by the success of link-state protocols such as
OSPF.
Link State Routing:

Also known as Shortest path Routing algorithm.
Link states:
Information about the state of (Router interfaces) links is known as link-states. As you can
see in the figure, this information includes:
• The interface's IP address and subnet mask.
• The type of network, such as Ethernet (broadcast) or Serial point-to-point link.
• The cost of that link.
• Any neighbor routers on that link.
Dijkstra's Shortest Path first algorithm
So exactly how does a link-state routing protocol work? All routers will complete the
following generic link-

state routing process to reach a state of convergence:
1. Each router learns about its own links, its own directly connected networks. This is
done by detecting that an interface is in the up state.
2. Each router is responsible for meeting its neighbors on directly connected

networks. link state routers do this by exchanging Hello packets with other link-state
routers on directly connected networks.
3. Each router builds a Link-State Packet (LSP) containing the state of each directly
connected link.
This is done by recording all the pertinent information about each neighbor, including
neighbor ID, link type, and bandwidth.
4. Each router floods the LSP to all neighbors, who then store all LSPs received in a
database.
Neighbors then flood the LSPs to their neighbors until all routers in the area have
received the LSPs. Each router stores a copy of each LSP received from its neighbors in a
local database.
5. Each router uses the database to construct a complete map of the topology and
computes the best path to each destination network. Like having a road map, the router
now has a complete map of all destinations in the topology and the routes to reach them.
The SPF algorithm is used to construct the map of the topology and to determine the best
path to each network.
Advantages of Link state Routing protocol:
Build the topological map:
Link-state routing protocols create a topological map, or SPF tree of the network
topology. Distance vector routing protocols do not have a topological map of the network.
Faster Convergence:
When receiving a Link-state Packet (LSP), link-state routing protocols immediately flood
the LSP out all interfaces except for the interface from which the LSP was received. This
way, it achieve the faster convergence. With distance vector routing algorithm, router
needs to process each routing update and update its routing table before flooding them
out other interfaces.

Event Driven Updates:
After the initial flooding of LSPs, link-state routing protocols only send out an LSP when
there is a change in the topology. The LSP contains only the information regarding the
affected link. Unlike some distance vector routing protocols, link-state routing protocols
do not send periodic updates.
Distance vector vs. Link state:
Sno. Distance Vector Link State
1 Uses hop count as Metric. Uses shortest path.
2 View the network from the perspective of Gets common view of entire network
topology. neighbor.
3 Has frequent and periodic updates Has event triggered updates.
4 Slow convergence Faster convergence

5
Susceptible to routing loops. Not as susceptible to routing loops.
6 Easy to configure and administer. Difficult to configure and administer.
7 Requires less memory and processing power Requires more precessing power
and memory
of routers. than distance vector.
8 Consumes a lot of Bandwidth. Consumes less BW than distance vector.
9 Passes copies of routing table to neighbor Passes link-state routing updates to other
routers. routers.
10 Eg. RIP Eg. OSPF
Flow based routing:
A flooding algorithm is an algorithm for distributing material to every part of a connected

network. The name derives from the concept of inundation by a flood. Its implemented
by the ospf:
Advantages of Flooding
The main advantage of flooding the increased reliability provided by this routing method.
Since the message will be sent at least once to every host it is almost guaranteed to reach
its destination. In addition, the message will reach the host through the shortest possible
path.
Disadvantages of Flooding
There are several disadvantages with this approach to routing. It is very wasteful in terms
of the networks total bandwidth. While a message may only have one destination it has to
be sent to every host. This increases the maximum load placed upon the network.
Messages can also become duplicated in the network further increasing the load on the
networks bandwidth as well as requiring an increase in processing complexity to
disregard duplicate messages.
A variant of flooding called selective flooding partially addresses these issues by only
sending packets to routers in the same direction.
14 Explain any two VANET routing protocol with an example. (April 2017)
b) Explain any two VANET routing protocol with an example.
Two Topological-based reactive Vanet routing Protocols:

a) AODV
b) DSR

AODV – Ad Hoc On Demand Distance Vector Protocol
 Source floods route request (RREQ) in the network.
 Reverse paths are formed when a node hears a route request.
 AODV does make use of hop- by-hop routing, sequence numbers and beacons.
 The node that needs a route to a specific destination generates a route request. The
route request Is forwarded by intermediate nodes which also learn a reverse route
from the source to themselves.
 Each node forwards the request only once (pure flooding).
 Route Request (RREQ) includes the last known sequence number for the
destination
 An intermediate node may also send a Route Reply (RREP) provided that it knows
a more recent path than the one previously known to sender
 Intermediate nodes that forward the RREP, also record the next hop to destination
 A routing table entry maintaining a reverse path is purged after a timeout interval
 A routing table entry maintaining a forward path is purged if not used for a
active_route_timeout interval
Route Requests in AODV
Reverse Path Setup in AODV
 Each route has a lifetime after which the route expires if it is not used.
 A route is used only when it is used and hence old and expired routes are never ns
only one route between a source-destination pair.
 When the intended destination receives a Route Request, it replies by sending a
Route Reply (RREP)
 Route Reply travels along the reverse path set-up when Route Request is
forwarded
Dynamic Source Routing (DSR)

 When node S wants to send a packet to node D, but does not know a route to D,
node S initiates a route discovery
 Source node S floods Route Request (RREQ)
 Each node appends own identifier when forwarding RREQ
Route Discovery in DSR

 Destination D on receiving the first RREQ, sends a Route Reply (RREP)
 RREP is sent on a route obtained by reversing the route appended to received

RREQ
 RREP includes the route from S to D on which RREQ was received by node D
Route Reply in DSR

 Node S on receiving RREP, caches the route included in the RREP
 When node S sends a data packet to D, the entire route is included in the packet
header
– hence the name source routing
– Intermediate nodes use the source route included in a packet to determine

to whom a packet should be forwarded
Data Delivery in DSR
Consider the network given below. Here ‘S’ is source node and ‘D’ is target node.
Illustrate the process of route discovery, route reply, data delivery and route catching
using DSR. Explain the approach.(April 2018)
 Dynamic source routing (DSR), divides the task of routing into two separate problems:

 Route discovery: A node only tries to discover a route to a destination if it has to send
something to this destination and there is currently no known route.
 Route maintenance: If a node is continuously sending packets via a route, it has to make
sure that the route is held upright. As soon as a node detects problems with the current
route, it has to find an alternative. The basic principle of source routing is also used in
fixed networks, e.g. token rings.
Dynamic source routing eliminates all periodic routing updates and works as follows.
If a node needs to discover a route, it broadcasts a route request with a unique identifier
and the destination address as parameters. Any node that receives a route request does
the following.
If the node has already received the request (which is identified using the unique
identifier), it drops the request packet.
● If the node recognizes its own address as the destination, the request has reached its

target.
● Otherwise, the node appends its own address to a list of traversed hops in the packet
and broadcasts this updated route request.
Using this approach, the route request collects a list of addresses representing a possible
path on its way towards the destination. As soon as the request reaches the destination, it
can return the request packet containing the list to the receiver using this list in reverse
order. One condition for this is that the links work bi-directionally
15 Describe the architecture of VANET with the functionality of the components. Compare
VANET with MANET.(Nov 2017)
In VANETs, wireless communication has been a critical technology to support the
achievement of many applications and services. However, due to the characteristics of
VANETs such as high dynamic topology and intermittent connectivity, the existing
routing algorithms in MANETs are not available for most application scenarios in
VANETs.
car.
manufacturers.
circumstances.
MANET is the short form of Mobile AdHoc Network. In ad-hoc networks all the nodes
are mobile in nature and hence they can be interfaced dynamically in arbitrary fashion.
As we know any wireless transmission has distance coverage limitation, wireless node
will utilize its neighboring nodes to transmit the packet beyond its distance limitation. To
overcome this limitation, MANET nodes require ad-hoc type routing protocols. They are
of two types viz. table driven routing protocols and On demand routing protocols.
Following are the features of MANET network:
• Dynamic topologies
• variable capacity links
• Energy constrained operation
• Limited physical security
VANET is the short form of Vehicular Adhoc Network. It is subclass of network of

MANET type.
The routing protocols of MANET are not feasible to be used in the VANET network. If
they are used then also they will not be able to deliver required throughput as it has fast
changing adhoc network.
In VANET, the communication nodes are moving on pre-defined roads as finalized

initially.
The VANET architecture consists of three type of categories as mentioned below:
• cellular and WLAN network
• Pure Ad hoc (network between vehicles and fixed gateways)
• hybrid(combination of both infrastructure and adhoc networks), as shown in figure.
In the first type, fixed gateways and WiMaX/WiFi APs are used at traffic junctions to
connect with the internet, to obtain traffic information and used for routing.
The VANET nodes are not subject to storage and power limitation. In VANETs, wireless

communication has been a critical technology to support the achievement of many
applications and services. However, due to the characteristics of VANETs such as high
dynamic topology and intermittent connectivity, the existing routing algorithms in
MANETs are not available for most application scenarios in VANETs.
car.
manufacturers.
circumstances.
MANET is the short form of Mobile AdHoc Network. In ad-hoc networks all the nodes
are mobile in nature and hence they can be interfaced dynamically in arbitrary fashion.
As we know any wireless transmission has distance coverage limitation, wireless node
will utilize its neighboring nodes to transmit the packet beyond its distance limitation. To
overcome this limitation, MANET nodes require ad-hoc type routing protocols. They are
of two types viz. table driven routing protocols and On demand routing protocols.
Following are the features of MANET network:
• Dynamic topologies
• variable capacity links
• Energy constrained operation
• Limited physical security
VANET is the short form of Vehicular Adhoc Network. It is subclass of network of

MANET type.
The routing protocols of MANET are not feasible to be used in the VANET network. If
they are used then also they will not be able to deliver required throughput as it has fast
changing adhoc network.
In VANET, the communication nodes are moving on pre-defined roads as finalized

initially.
The VANET architecture consists of three type of categories as mentioned below:
• cellular and WLAN network
• Pure Ad hoc (network between vehicles and fixed gateways)
• hybrid(combination of both infrastructure and adhoc networks), as shown in figure.
In the first type, fixed gateways and WiMaX/WiFi APs are used at traffic junctions to
connect with the internet, to obtain traffic information and used for routing.
The VANET nodes are not subject to storage and power limitation.
UNIT V MOBILE PLATFORMS AND APPLICATIONS

Mobile Device Operating Systems – Special Constrains & Requirements – Commercial Mobile
Operating Systems – Software Development Kit: iOS, Android, BlackBerry, Windows Phone –
M-Commerce – Structure – Pros & Cons – Mobile Payment System – Security Issues.
UNIT-V / PART-A
1. What is Mobile OS?
 The OS of mobile device is to facilitate efficient utilization of the resources of the
device by performing multiple tasks.
 It manages processor, memory, files, and attached devices such as camera, speaker,

keyboard, and screen.
2. Give four examples of mobile OS. (May 2016)
 Windows mobile: Graphics/windows/event manager handles all input and output
 Palm OS: It is single tasking operating system.
 Symbian OS: Real time multitasking,pre-emptive,32 bit operating system
 IOS:
 Android OS: Code is structured into four different layers
 Blackberry OS: High level of security
3. What are the problems in Monolithic Kernel design

The traditional OS such as UNIX, Windows are known to have monolithic kernel design.
It makes the kernel massive, non modular, hard to tailor, maintain, extend, and
configure.
4. What is micro kernel?
 Microkernel tries to minimize the size of the kernel code.
 Only the basic hardware dependent functionalities and a few critical functionalities
are implemented in a kernel mode and all other functionalities are implemented in
the user mode.
 It is easier to port, extend, and maintain os code.
5. List the special constraints under which the mobile device needs to operate? (Nov 2017)
/ What are the special constraints and requirements of Mobile OS (April 2017)
 Limited memory: Less permanent and volatile storage
 Limited screen Size: Limits the size of the display screen.
 Miniature Keyboard: typing in the document and entering the string commands is
difficult
 Limited processing Power: ARM based processor with restricted processor power,
storage, and battery power, Limited battery power,Flucating bandwidth of the
wireless medium.
6. Give example for mobile OS and its features
 Windows mobile: Graphics/windows/event manager handles all input and output
 Palm OS: It is single tasking operating system.
 Symbian OS: Real time multitasking,pre-emptive,32 bit operating system
 IOS: contetual OS
 Android OS: Code is structured into four different layers
 Blackberry OS: High level of security
7. What is HDML?
Handheld Markup Language(HDML). A HDML consist of many cards. So its is called
deck. An advantage of the card and deck model in the context of mobile networks is that
a click on a web page causes downloading of the entire deck associated with the web
page on to the mobile device. This reduces latency of access.
8. List out the protocols used in Wap
 Application Layer: WAE( Wireless application environment
 Session Layer: WAP( wireless session protocol
 Transaction layer: WTP( Wireless transaction protocol)

 Security Layer: WTLS( Wireless Transport layer security)
 Transport Layer: WDP( wireless Data ram protocol)
 Network Layer: Bearer interfaces.
9. Write the important capabilities of J2ME programs
 Opening UDP connections between two device
 Establishing HTTP connections with a server
 Making socket connections
 Bluetooth programming
 Barcode scanning
10. What is writing once run everywhere?
J2ME is meant for tiny devices such as mobile phones which includes a miniature version
of JVM called KVM which can run small java programs on mobile device. They are
lightweight programs
11. What are the two configurations of J2ME?
 Connected limited device configuration for handheld devices: Low range of
consumer electronic device using 16-32 bit small computing device.eg device .eg
pager, cell phones
 Connected device configuration for plug in device: Higher end device e.g. Set top
box, smart phones.
12. What is Android SDK ?
 The Android SDK (Software Development Kit) is a set of development tools used to
develop applications for Android platform.
 The Android SDK includes the following: Required libraries.
13. What do you meant by Broadcast receivers?
Simply respond to broadcast messages from other applications or from the system itself.
These messages are sometime called events or intents. For example, applications can also
initiate broadcasts to let other applications know that some data has been downloaded to
the device and is available for them to use, so this is broadcast receiver who will intercept
this communication and will initiate appropriate action.
14. What are the key components of android architecture?
Activities They dictate the UI and handle the user interaction to the smart
phone screen
Services They handle background processing associated with an
application.
Broadcast Receivers They handle communication between Android OS and
applications.
Content Providers They handle data and database management issues.
15. What is the use of log message in android?
The Android logging system provides a mechanism for collecting and viewing system
debug output. Log cat dumps a log of system messages, which include things such as
stack traces when the emulator throws an error and messages that you have written from

your application by using the Log class.
16. Give the important Android API’s
 Android Graphics
 Android media
 Android opengl
 Android telephony
 Android widget
17. What is the use of Content providers?
Content providers are used for reading and writing data that are either private to an
application or shared across applications. By using the content provider, an application
can query or modify the stored data.
18. What are the different android broadcast classes?
 Normal broadcasts (sent with Context.sendBroadcast) are completely asynchronous.
All receivers of the broadcast are run in an undefined order, often at the same time.
This is more efficient, but means that receivers cannot use the result or abort APIs
included here.
 Ordered broadcasts (sent with Context.sendOrderedBroadcast) are delivered to one
receiver at a time. As each receiver executes in turn, it can propagate a result to the
next receiver, or it can completely abort the broadcast so that it won't be passed to
other receivers.
19. What are the different features of SDK
 A client program which runs on the developers machine.
 A daemon program which runs as a process on each emulator or device instance.
 A server program which runs as a background process on the host machine
20. Define MIDP
 The Mobile Information Device Profile (MIDP) is a key element of the Java 2
Platform, Mobile Edition (J2ME).
 When combined with the Connected Limited Device Configuration (CLDC), MIDP
provides a standard Java runtime environment for today's most popular mobile
information devices, such as cell phones and mainstream personal digital assistants
(PDAs).
21. What is M- commerce? List its disadvantages.(May 2016)(April 2018)
 It carries out any activity related to buying and selling of commodities, services or
information using the mobile handheld device.
 It is how payment can be made securely and rapidly as soon as a buyer decides to
make a purchase
Disadvantages:
 Do not generously offer graphics or processing power of the PC
 The small screen of the mobile devices limit the complexity of applications
 Underlying network may impose severer types of restrictions and Security
22. List out the applications of M Commerce
 Business to consumer application: advertising, shopping comparison, mobile

ticketing, Information about a product, interactive advertisement and catalogue
shopping
 Business to Business : ordering and delivery confirmation, stock tracking and
control, supply chain management, Mobile inventory management
23. Write the structure of mobile commerce
Content provider implements an application by providing two sets of programs
 Client side: Run on micro browser installed on the users mobile device
 Server side: Performing database access and computation reside on the host
computer.
24. Define POS?(Nov/Dec 2016)
The point of sale (POS) or point of purchase (POP) is the time and place where a retail
transaction is completed. At the point of sale, the merchant would calculate the amount
owed by the customer and indicate the amount, and may prepare an invoice for the
customer (which may be a cash register printout), and indicate the options for the
customer to make payment.
25. Differentiate E-Commerce and M-Commerce.(Dec 2016)
E-Commerce M-Commerce
E-commerce stands for Electronic M-commerce stands for Mobile Commerce
Commerce wherein business transactions wherein commercial transactions are done
are done over the Internet. Usually using cellular or mobile phones that have
transactions are done using a computer or access to the Internet.
a laptop.
Not possible to carry devices everywhere m-commerce devices are easy to carry
anywhere because they are light weighted
26. Explain the Pros and Cons of M-commerce (April 2017)
Advantages
 For the business organization the benefits of using M commerce includes customer
convenient, cost saving and new business opportunities
 It provides flexibility, Anywhere any time shopping using a light weight device
 Mobile device can be highly personalized, They provide additional level of
convenience to the customer
Disadvantages:
 Do not generously offer graphics or processing power of the PC
 The small screen of the mobile devices limit the complexity of applications
 Underlying network may impose severer types of restrictions
 Security
27. What are the advantages and disadvantages of BlackBerry OS?(Nov 2017)
 Advantages
 Secure send and receive email using proprietary encryption
 Multi-tasking
 Phones available form most service Providers

 Disadvantages
 Closed architecture
 Limited number of devices to choose from – all from Research In Motion
 Limited number of applications available
 Application development is more complex and difficult than other Operating
Systems
 Applications tend to be more costly
28. What are the constraints of Mobile device OS?(April 2018)

 Limited memory: Less permanent and volatile storage
 Limited screen Size: Limits the size of the display screen.
 Miniature Keyboard: typing in the document and entering the string commands is
difficult
 Limited processing Power: ARM based processor with restricted processor power,
storage, and battery power, Limited battery power Flucating bandwidth of the
wireless medium.
UNIT-V / PART-B
1. Explain monolithic design versus microkernel design of an operating system
Basic OS services such as process management, memory management, interrupt handling, IO
communication, file system, device drivers, networking, etc all run in kernel space. Entire
services are loaded on boot up and reside in memory and work is done using system calls.
Linux is an example on a monolithic kernel based OS.
Microkernel
The idea behind microkernel OS is to reduce the kernel to only basic process communication
and IO control and let other system services run in user space just like any other normal
processes. These services are called servers and kept separate and run in different address
spaces. Contrary to monolithic OS where services are directly invoked, communication in a
microkernel is done via message passing (inter process communication IPC). Mac OS and
WinNT are two examples on microkernel OS architecture.
Microkernel Advantages
Monolithic kernel is a single large process running entirely in a single address space.
It is a single static binary file. All kernel services exist and execute in the kernel
address space. The kernel can invoke functions directly. Examples of monolithic
kernel based OSs: Unix, Linux.
In microkernels, the kernel is broken down into separate processes, known as

servers. Some of the servers run in kernel space and some run in user-space. All
servers are kept separate and run in different address spaces. Servers invoke
"services" from each other by sending messages via IPC (Interprocess
Communication). This separation has the advantage that if one server fails, other
servers can still work efficiently. Examples of microkernel based OSs: Mac OS X and
Windows NT.
2. Write short notes on special constraints and requirements of mobile OS

Enables an application to run by simply abstracting the mobile system hardware •
Enables the programmer to abstract the devices such that the application need not know
full details of the font and font size of the mobile device display • Application need not
know how the message will be displayed by the LCD hardware
PalmOS • Windows CE • Symbian • Android─ released in 2008 by Google
Facilitates execution of software components on diversified mobile device hardware •
Application need not be aware of the details of the LCD driver and memory at which the
CPU will send the message for display
Provides interfaces for communication between processes, threads, and ISRs at the
application and middleware layers • Provides middleware for the system hardware •
Provides management functions (such as creation, activation, deletion, suspension, and
delay) for tasks
Provides memory management • Enables running of processes • Helps the processes in
obtaining access to system resources
Application tasks • The OS provides the functions used for scheduling the multiple tasks
in a system • Synchronization of the tasks by using semaphores (tokens) • A task may
have multiple threads
Provides for synchronization of the threads and their priority allocation • Accomplishes
real-time execution of the application tasks and threads
Mobile OS─ An OS which enables running of application tasks taking into account mobile
system constraints of hardware and network • Enables a programmer to develop
application without considering the specifications, drivers, and functionalities of the
hardware of the system
3. Explain the components of Mobile Operating Systems. (May 2016)

A mobile OS is a software platform on top of which other programs called application
programs, can run on mobile devices such as PDA, cellular phones, smartphone and etc.
Operating System Structure
Applications
OS Libraries
• Device
Features of Mobile OS Operating System Base, Kernel
– Multitasking
Low-Level Hardware, Manufacturer Device Drivers
– Scheduling
– Memory Allocation
– File System Interface
– Keypad Interface
– I/O Interface
– Protection and Security
– Multimedia features
4. Write in detail about a survey of commercial mobile operating system / Explain various
operating systems for mobile computing (April 2017)
Windows OS
Symbian OS
IOS

5. Explain in detail about WAP architecture

WAP stands for Wireless Application Protocol ,WAP is an application communication
protocol
WAP is used to access services and information ,WAP is inherited from Internet
standards
WAP is for handheld devices such as mobile phones ,WAP is a protocol designed for
micro browsers ,WAP enables the creating of web applications for mobile devices.
WAP uses the mark-up language WML (not HTML) WML is defined as an XML 1.0
application
It gives an overview of the WAP architecture, its protocols and components, and
compares this architecture with the typical internet architecture when using the World
Wide Web. This comparison is often cited by the WAP Forum and it helps to understand
the architecture (WAP Forum, 2000a). This comparison can be misleading as not all
components and protocols shown at the same layer are comparable For consistency
reasons with the existing specification, the following stays with the model as shown in
Figure.
The basis for transmission of data is formed by different bearer services WAP
does not specify bearer services, but uses existing data services and will integrate further
services. Examples are message services, such as short message service (SMS) of GSM,
circuit-switched data, such as high-speed circuit switched data (HSCSD) in GSM, or
packet switched data, such as general packet radio service (GPRS) in GSM. Many other
bearers are supported, such as CDPD, IS-136, PHS. No special interface has been specified
between the bearer service and the next higher layer, the transport layer with its
wireless datagram protocol (WDP) and the additional wireless control message protocol
(WCMP), because the adaptation of these protocols are bearer specific (WAP Forum,
2000u). The transport layer offers a bearer independent, consistent datagram-oriented
service to the higher layers of the WAP architecture. Communication is done
transparently over one of the avail-able bearer services. The transport layer service access
point (T-SAP) is the common interface to be used by higher layers independent of the
underlying net-work.
The next higher layer, the security layer with its wireless transport layer security
protocol WTLS offers its service at the security SAP (SEC-SAP).WTLS is based on the
transport layer security (TLS, formerly SSL, secure sockets layer) already known from the
www. WTLS has been optimized for use in wireless net-works with narrow-band
channels. It can offer data integrity, privacy, authentication, and (some) denial-of-service

protection
The WAP transaction layer with its wireless transaction protocol (WTP) offers a
lightweight transaction service at the transaction SAP (TR-SAP) This service efficiently
provides reliable or unreliable requests and asynchronous transactions as explained in
section 10.3.4. Tightly coupled to this layer is the next higher layer, if used for connection-
oriented service The session layer with the wireless session protocol (WSP) currently
offers two services at the session-SAP (S-SAP), one connection-oriented and one
connectionless if used directly on top of WDP. A special service for browsing the web
(WSP/B) has been defined that offers HTTP/1.1 functionality, long-lived session state,
session suspend and resume, session migration and other features needed for wireless
mobile access to the web.
Finally the application layer with the wireless application environment (WAE)
offers a framework for the integration of different www and mobile telephony
applications. It offers many protocols and services with special service access points. The
main issues here are scripting languages, special markup languages, interfaces to
telephony applications, and many content formats adapted to the special requirements of
small, handheld, wireless devices.
The WAP transport layer together with the bearers can be (roughly) compared to
the ser-vices offered by TCP or UDP over IP and different media in the internet. If a
bearer in the WAP architecture already offers IP services (e.g., GPRS, CDPD) then UDP is
used as WDP. The TLS/SSL layer of the internet has also been adopted for the WAP
architecture with some changes required for optimization. The functionality of the session
and transaction layer can roughly be compared with the role of HTTP in the web
architecture. However, HTTP does not offer all the additional mechanisms needed for
efficient wireless, mobile access (e.g., session migration, suspend/resume). Finally, the
application layer offers similar features as HTML and Java. Again, special formats and
features optimized for the wireless scenario have been defined and telephony access has
been added.
WAP does not always force all applications to use the whole protocol architecture.
Applications can use only a part of the architecture as shown in Figure10.9. For example,
this means that, if an application does not require security but needs the reliable transport
of data, it can
directly use a service of the trans-action layer. Simple applications can directly use WDP.
Different scenarios are possible for the integration of WAP components into
existing wireless and fixed networks On the left side, different fixed networks, such as the
traditional internet and the public switched telephone network (PSTN), are shown. One
cannot change protocols and services of these existing networks so several new elements
will be implemented between these networks and the WAP-enabled wireless, mobile
devices in a wireless net-work on the right-hand side.

The current www in the internet offers web pages with the help of HTML and web
servers. To be able to browse these pages or additional pages with hand-held devices, a
wireless markup language (WML) has been defined in WAP. Special filters within the
fixed network can now translate HTML into WML, web server scan already provide
pages in WML, or the gateways between the fixed and wireless network can translate
HTML into WML. These gateways not only filter pages but also act as proxies for web
access, as explained in the following sections.WML is additionally converted into binary
WML for more efficient transmission.
In a similar way, a special gateway can be implemented to access traditional telephony
services via binary WML. This wireless telephony application (WTA) server translates,
e.g., signaling of the telephone network (incoming call etc.) into WML events displayed at
the handheld device. It is important to notice the integrated view for the wireless client of
all different services; telephony and web, via the WAE
6. Write notes on J2ME configuration

To make it applicable devices with a specific range of capabilities. Parameters
1.Availability of memory space and memory type
2.Specification of processor in terms of speed and type.
3.Network connectivity of the device
Two configurations
1. Connected limited device configuration for hand held device: It usually have
low memory powered by battery, low bandwidth, Network wireless
connection. It includes pagers, PDA,Cellphones,Dedicated Terminal,
Handheld Devices.
2. Connected Device configuration foe plug-in device
These are high end device used in 32 bit processor ,2 GB memory, implemented
by JVM.It included Digital Set top boxes, Home Appliance, Navigation System,
Smart Phones

J2ME Connected, Limited Device Configuration (CLDC) Specifies Java environment for
mobile phone, pager, and PDA class devices CLDC devices are usually wireless J2ME
Connected Device Configuration (CDC) Specifies Java environment for digital television
settop boxes, high end wireless devices, and automotive telematics systems. CDC devices
may be wired (DTV cable, etc.)
A set of Java based APIs which supplements a Configuration to provide capabilities for a
specific vertical market or device type Subject to compatibility tests The specification
may not be completely implemented UI and presentation capabilities are generally
defined at this layer EX: CLDC => MIDP (Mobile Information Device Profile) CDC =>
Personal Profile CDC => Foundation Profile
CLDC provides the lowest common denominator for small and resource-constrained
devices.
Mobile Information Device Profile (MIDP) Profile for wireless devices implementing
CLDC J2ME Foundation Profile Profile for non-GUI networked devices implementing
CDC J2ME Personal Basis, Personal, RMI Profiles Basic graphics, next generation
PersonalJava environment, and RMI support for CDC & Foundation Profile based devices
7. Explain in detail about Android SDK (May 2016)(Nov 2017)

The Android SDK (software development kit) is a set of development tools used to
develop applications for Android platform. The Android SDK includes the following:
 Required libraries
 Debugger
 An emulator
Relevant documentation for the Android application program interfaces (APIs)
Sample source code
Tutorials for the Android OS
A software development kit that enables developers to create applications for
the Android platform. The Android SDK includes sample projects with source code,
development tools, an emulator, and required libraries to build Android applications.
8. Briefly write how an application can be developed using the android SDK
Android is an Operating System for mobile devices developed by Google, which is built
upon Linux kernel. Android competes with Apple's iOS (for iPhone/iPad), RIM's
Blackberry, Microsoft's Windows Phone, Symbian OS, and many other proprietary
mobile OSes.
setup a working environment using the Android SDK, Eclipse IDE, and ADT Plugin.
To compile your application against a particular version of Android, you must use
the SDK Manager to download and install the SDK Platform for that release. Launch
Android Studio.
1. Choose "Start a new Android Studio Project".
2. In "Create New Project" dialog ⇒ Set "Application Name" to "Hello Android"
(which is the title in your app menu) ⇒ Set your "Company Domain" to
"example.com" ⇒ Take note of your "Project Location" ⇒ Next.
3. In "Target Android Devices" dialog ⇒ Check "Phone and Tablet" ⇒ For minimum
SDK, choose "API 14: Android 4.0 (IceCreamSandwich)" ⇒ Next.
4. In "Add an activity to Mobile" dialog ⇒ Select "Blank Activity" ⇒ Next.
5. In "Customize the Activity" dialog ⇒ Set "Activity Name" to "MainActivity" ⇒ Set
"Layout Name" to "activity_main" ⇒ Set "Title" to "MainActivity" ⇒ Set "Menu
Resource Name" to "menu_main" (These are actually the default values) ⇒ Finish.
6. Take a while to set up the "first" app. The app appears after "Indexing..."
completes. By default, a hello-world app is created.
9. Write short notes on Android software stack and Android application components(Nov
2017)
They are four components
Activity
Content providers
Service
Broadcast receiver
Components Description
Activities They dictate the UI and handle the user interaction to the smart phone
screen
Services They handle background processing associated with an application.
Broadcast Receivers They handle communication between Android OS and applications.
Content Providers They handle data and database management issues.
Activities
An activity represents a single screen with a user interface,in-short Activity performs
actions on the screen. For example, an email application might have one activity that
shows a list of new emails, another activity to compose an email, and another activity for
reading emails. If an application has more than one activity, then one of them should be
marked as the activity that is presented when the application is launched.
An activity is implemented as a subclass of Activity class as follows −
• public class Main Activity extends Activity {}
Services
A service is a component that runs in the background to perform long-running
operations. For example, a service might play music in the background while the user is
in a different application, or it might fetch data over the network without blocking user
interaction with an activity.

A service is implemented as a subclass of Service class as follows −
public class MyService extends Service {}
Broadcast Receivers
Broadcast Receivers simply respond to broadcast messages from other applications or
from the system. For example, applications can also initiate broadcasts to let other
applications know that some data has been downloaded to the device and is available for
them to use, so this is broadcast receiver who will intercept this communication and will
initiate appropriate action.
A broadcast receiver is implemented as a subclass of BroadcastReceiverclass and each
message is broadcaster as an Intent object.
public class MyReceiver extends BroadcastReceiver {
public void onReceive(context,intent){}}
Content Providers
A content provider component supplies data from one application to others on request.
Such requests are handled by the methods of the ContentResolverclass. The data may be
stored in the file system, the database or somewhere else entirely.
A content provider is implemented as a subclass of ContentProvider class and must
implement a standard set of APIs that enable other applications to perform transactions.
public class MyContentProvider extends Cont
10. What do you understand by M-Commerce
i) What are the advantages and Disadvantages of M-Commerce
ii) Applications of M-Commerce (8) (May 2016, Nov/Dec 2016 )
A content provider implements on application by providing two sets of programs (i)
server side(II) client side
. The client side programs run on the micro Brower installed on the user mobile device
.The server side programs performing data base accesses and computation reside on the
host computers
i)What are the advantages and Disadvantages of M-Commerce
Advantages
4. For the business organization the benefits of using M commerce includes customer
convenient, cost saving and new business opportunities
5. It provides flexibility, Anywhere any time shopping using a light weight device
6. Mobile device can be highly personalized, They provide additional level of
convenience to the customer
Disadvantages:
1. Do not generously offer graphics or processing power of the PC
2. The small screen of the mobile devices limit the complexity of applications
3. Underlying network may impose severer types of restrictions
4. Security
ii) Applications of M-Commerce
Business to consumer application
 Advertisement,
 Comparison Shopping,
 Info about the product,
 Mobile ticketing,
 Loyalty and payment services,
 Interactive advertisement
Business to Business application
 Ordering and delivery conformation
 Stock track-in and control
 Supply chain management
 Mobile Inventory Management
11 Explain the following

i) Structure of mobile Commerce / Write detailed notes on mobile commerce(April
2017)
ii) Mobile Payment System scheme and security issues/Illustrate the process of
mobile payment. Compare and contrast mobile payment schemes. (May 2016)(
Nov/Dec 2016)(Nov 2017)(April 2018)
i) Structure of mobile Commerce
Mobile client Mobile

application
Host Computer
Mobile device
Internet
Mobile devices: The users specify the request through appropriate interfaces, which are
then transmitted through the internet to the mobile commerce application the internet
Mobile Middleware: The main purpose of is to seamlessly and transparently map the
internet content to mobile phone they may spot wide variety of OS markup languages,
Micro Browsers, Protocols
Network: Wireless network are at the core of every M- commerce. User request are
delivered either to the closest AP or to a base station
Host Computer: They are powerful servers that process and store all the information’s
need for mobile commerce application
ii) Mobile Payment System.
It is defined as initiation, authorization, and confirmation of a financial transaction using
a mobile device.
Payment scheme:
1. Bank account based
2. Credit card Based
3. Micro payment Based

Bank account based: In this scheme the bank account of the customer is linked to his
mobile phone numbers. When the customers makes on mobile payment to a vendor
through blue tooth or wireless LAN connectivity with a vendor Machine, a bank
account of the customer is debited and the value is credited to the vendor account
Credit card Based: In the payment system the credit card number is linked to the mobile
phone of the customer. When the customer makes on M payment transaction with the
merchant, the credit card is charged and the value is credited to the merchant account
Micro payment Based: It is indented for payment for small purchases such as items from
vending machines, the mobile device can communicate with the vending machine
directly using Bluetooth or WLAN connection to negotiate the payment and the
micropayment is carry out
Properties of Mobile Payment system
 Easy to use
 General purpose
 Interoperability
 Trust
 Cost
 Swiftness
 Global payments
Payment Solutions
SMS Based
POS based (Physical point of scale)
Barcode Based
NFC (Near Field Communication)
Mobile Wallet
12 Compare and contrast various mobile OS.( Nov/Dec 2016)
About OS
Windo
Androi Firefox BlackB Sailfish
Feature iOS ws Tizen Ubuntu Touch
d OS erry 10 OS
Phone
Sailfish
Linux Allianc
Founda e, Mer,
Open
tion, Jolla Canonical Ltd.
Handse Mozilla
Compa Apple Microso BlackBe Tizen and and Ubuntu
t Founda
ny Inc. ft rry Ltd. Associa Sailfish community
Allianc tion
tion, commu contributors
e
Samsun nity
g, Intel contrib
utors
Market
share[1 14.8% 84.1% N/A 0.7% 0.2% N/A N/A N/A
]
10.3.3.2
10.0.143
Current 049 /
10.2 7.0 2.2.0 93.448[2 2.4 2.0.2.51 15.04 (OTA-14)
version Novem
]
ber 30,

2016
Decem August April 2 Novem January October Septem
Current
ber 12, 22, 9, 2015; ber 9, 12, 22, ber 7, December 7,
version
2016; 13 2016; 4 19 2016; 46 2016; 11 2015; 13 2016; 3 2016; 18 days
release
days months months days months months months ago[4]
dates
ago[3] ago ago ago ago ago ago
Free
and
Free Free
open-
and and
Proprie source, Free
open- open-
tary but and Free and open-
source, source,
except usually open- source, mainly
but the but the
for bundle source, Proprie Proprie the GPL but
License SDK is UI is
open d with mainly tary tary usually bundled
proprie proprie
source proprie the with proprietary
tary tary
compon tary MPL, drivers
and and
ents apps Apache
closed closed
and
source source
drivers[
5][6]
Windo
OS
Darwin Linux Linux ws QNX Linux Linux Linux
family
Phone
ARM,
x86, ARM,
Suppor
MIPS x86,
ted ARM, ARM,
ARM, and the and the ARM, ARM, x86 and
CPU x86|AR ARM x86,
ARM64 64-bit 64-bit x86-64 x86-64[9]
architec M64 x86-64
variants variants
ture
of all of both
three
7+: C/
XNA C++:
(.NET Native
C#), SDK,
Silverli C++/Q
ght, t:
Apps: HTML5,
C, C++, HTML5 native Cascad
Progra C++, QML, Go,
Objecti C, C++, , CSS, C/C++ es SDK,
mmed C++ QML, JavaScript[12]
ve-C, Java JavaScri (only HTML5
in Python System: C, C++,
Swift pt, C++ for /Javasc
QML
vendors ript/CS
and S:
partner Webwo
s[11]) rks
8+: SDK,
.NET ActionS

C#, cript:
VB.NE Adobe
T, AIR,
Silverli Java:
ght, Androi
native d
C/C++, runtime
WinRT
P
(XMLA
),
DirectX
WP 7.x:
Zune
Firefox (XAP) RPM RPM
Packag
OS WP BlackBe Packag Packag
e Click packages
iTunes APK Packag 8.0+: rry e e
manage and dpkg
ed XAP Link Manage Manage
r
Apps WP r r
8.1+:
APPX
Device No, 3rd
indepe party Only
ndent softwar for
Yes No No No Yes Yes
system e like develop
update Cyanog ers
s enMod
Windo
Androi Firefox BlackB Sailfish
Feature iOS ws Tizen Ubuntu Touch
d OS erry 10 OS
Phone
13 What is RFID? Explain few applications in which RFID is useful.( Nov/Dec 2016)
Radio-frequency identification (RFID) uses electromagnetic fields to automatically
identify and track tags attached to objects. The tags contain electronically stored
information. Passive tags collect energy from a nearby RFID reader's interrogating radio
waves. Active tags have a local power source such as a battery and may operate at
hundreds of meters from the RFID reader. Unlike a barcode, the tag need not be within
the line of sight of the reader, so it may be embedded in the tracked object. RFID is one
method for Automatic Identification and Data Capture (AIDC)
RFID tags are used in many industries, for example, an RFID tag attached to an
automobile during production can be used to track its progress through the assembly
line; RFID-tagged pharmaceuticals can be tracked through warehouses; and implanting
RFID microchips in livestock and pets allows positive identification of animals.
Since RFID tags can be attached to cash, clothing, and possessions, or implanted in
animals and people, the possibility of reading personally-linked information without
consent has raised serious privacy concerns
The RFID tag can be affixed to an object and used to track and manage inventory, assets,
people, etc. For example, it can be affixed to cars, computer equipment, books, mobile
phones, etc.
RFID offers advantages over manual systems or use of bar codes. The tag can be read if
passed near a reader, even if it is covered by the object or not visible. The tag can be read
inside a case, carton, box or other container, and unlike barcodes, RFID tags can be read
hundreds at a time. Bar codes can only be read one at a time using current devices.
In 2011, the cost of passive tags started at US$0.09 each; special tags, meant to be mounted
on metal or withstand gamma sterilization, can go up to US$5. Active tags for tracking
containers, medical assets, or monitoring environmental conditions in data centers start at
US$50 and can go up over US$100 each. Battery-Assisted Passive (BAP) tags are in the
US$3–10 range and also have sensor capability like temperature and humidity.[citation
needed]
RFID can be used in a variety of applications, such as:

Electronic Lock with RFID Card System, ANSI
Electronic key for RFID based lock system
Access management
Tracking of goods
Tracking of persons and animals
Toll collection and contactless payment
Machine readable travel documents
Smartdust (for massively distributed sensor networks)
Tracking sports memorabilia to verify authenticity
Airport baggage tracking logistics[21]
Timing sporting event
14 Explain in detail components of iPhone operating systems. List the special features of a
mobile operating system.(April 2018)
iPhone OS is an operating system run on iPhone and iPod.
• It is based on Mach Kernel and Drawin core as Mac OS X.
• The Mac OS X kernel includes the following component:
Mach Kernel
BSD
I/O component
FileSystems
Networkingcomponents.

Mobile operating systems like iOS differ from most other operating systems because they
put each app in its own protective shell, which keeps other apps from tampering with
them. This makes it impossible for a virus to infect apps on a mobile operating system,
although other forms of malware exist. The protective shell around apps also poses
limitations because it keeps apps from directly communicating with one another. IOS gets
around this by using extensibility, a feature that lets an app be approved to communicate
with another app.
The iOS user interface is based upon direct manipulation, using multi-touch gestures.
Interface control elements consist of sliders, switches, and buttons. Interaction with the
OS includes gestures such as swipe, tap, pinch, and reverse pinch, all of which have
specific definitions within the context of the iOS operating system and its multi-touch
interface. Internal accelerometers are used by some applications to respond to shaking the
device (one common result is the undo command) or rotating it in three dimensions (one
common result is switching between portrait and landscape mode
Features of a mobile operating system

Multitasking
Scheduling
Memory Allocation
File System Interface
Keypad Interface
I/O Interface
Protection and Security
Multimedia features

Unit I Introduction

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CS8601Mobile Computing Department of CSE 2020-2021

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15. What are the different features of MAC Protocols?

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characteristics of mobile computing

4. Credit Card Verification: At Point of Sale (POS) terminals in shops and

5. Replacement of Wired Networks: wireless networks can also be used to replace

• Wireless links: unique channel characteristics

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 Contention-based protocols with scheduling mechanisms

 Variants of this method can be found in IEEE 802.11 as DFWMAC (Distributed

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FDD/FDMA - general scheme, example GSM

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FDD/FDMA - general scheme, example GSM

Carrier sense multiple access

Demand assigned multiple accessDAMA

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Implicit reservation (PRMA - Packet Reservation MA):

Reservation Time Division Multiple Access

7 What is MACA protocol? In which environment is it suitable? Briefly explain .

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8 What is hidden terminal? What problem does it create during wireless

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CDMA on signal level I

CDMA on signal level II

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CDMA on signal level III

CDMA on signal level IV

CDMA on signal level V

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 Spread Aloha Multiple Access.

10 Explain about spread aloha multiple accesses in CDMA.

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Application tier – It is responsible for making logical decisions and performing

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12 Explain the various taxonomy of MAC protocols. (May 2016)

13 Differentiate between FDMA, TDMA and CDMA.(Nov/Dec 2016)

14 Explain the distinguishing features of various generations of wireless networks.(Nov/Dec

Different Generations of Wireless Networks

It is customary among the cellular telephone manufacturers and service providers to

1.2.1 1G Wireless Standards

1.2.2 2G Wireless Systems

1.2.2.1 2G Digital Cellular

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1.2.3 3G and Beyond

The purpose of migration to 3G networks was to develop an international standard that

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935.2 MHz 1 200 kHz

2. Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

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Approach SDMA TDMA FDMA CDMA

A simple and efficient taxi booking & management solution

17 What is CSMA?What are the categories of CSMA?Explain their working with

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Advantages of CSMA/CD Disadvantages of CDMA/CD

UNIT II MOBILE INTERNET PROTOCOL AND TRANSPORT LAYER

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14 What is the purpose of IGMP?

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22 Define Agent solicitation