DETECTION AND PREVENTION OF LEAKAGES IN OIL AND

GAS PIPELINES CAUSED BY CORROSION IN REAL TIME

USING A PIELINE INSPECTION GUAGE (PIG)

BY

EZEH AMARACHUKWU TAIWO

15CN03250

SUBMITTED TO

PETROLEUM ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

COVENANT UNIVERSITY,

OTA, OGUN STATE

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR

THE AWARD OF A BACHELORS DEGREE IN ENGINEERING;
PETROLEUM ENGINEERING

DR (MRS.) K. B. ORODU

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CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF STUDY

The Oil and Gas enterprise is the biggest and most depended on enterprise in Nigeria, bringing in a
tremendous ratio of the total profits of the country. By the graduation of the twenty first century, oil and
fuel exports have been on the helm of almost all the export income in Nigeria. The production of Oil and
Gas in Nigeria makes use of infrastructures such as a little below five hundred oil fields, more than one
thousand oil wells and three refineries. Hence there are a lot of pipelines transporting oil merchandise in
Nigeria, to be precise there are Petroleum pipeline transportation networks dwelling simply over thirty
thousand square kilometres. Crude oil was found in Nigeria in 1956 and ever since it has been a chief
supply of foreign exchange for the country, it cannot be confused the underlining significance of the Oil
and gas industry in Nigeria.
The essential setbacks or elements affecting the oil quarter in Nigeria are Insecurity, Inadequate facilities,
the falling of oil prices because of OPEC regulations and the interactions between demand and supply,
fireplace outbreaks on sites, oil spills and corroded pipelines and vandalism. Vandalism is the act of
intentionally damaging property, privately or publicly owned and it is, of course, punishable by way of
law.

1.1 RESEARCH PROBLEM

The infrastructural design of pipelines transporting petroleum products range from states to states
across the country and could be quite difficult to inspect and avoid damage. Pipeline damage has
a range of consequences, ranging from pollution, wastage of oil and gas and explosions which
results in loss of money.

Pipelines in Nigeria vary in length from about 134 to 1050 kilometres with diameters of 4 to 48
inches, some running from one states to another so it is rather difficult to inspect its entire length
and to detect damage, but several methods have been deployed to try to detect it; these methods
include hydrostatic testing, infrared and laser technology and pressure/flow measurement
method. The pressure/flow measurement method is on the basis that when damage occurs, the
pressure or rate of flow reduces. The pressure in the pipe is inspected uninterruptedly to detect

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this dip in pressure or flow rate. Infrared and laser technology helps scan the pipes for
irregularities in its structure so it can also detect weak spots in the pipeline system as well as
damage.

Several other methods which will be thoroughly discussed in this project have been or are
being deployed to prevent and detect corrosion

1.2 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

AIM: The project aims to propose a real-time way of detecting and avoiding damages and
leakages in pipelines using mobile sensing devices which would roam about the lengths of the
pipe while reviewing previously published papers on the topic.

OBJECTIVES:

 To find a cost-friendly way to detect corroded and leaked parts of the pipeline, leakages
must be detected to avoid loss of materials and damages to the environment. The project
will highlight several methods to do this.
 To use the light-sensing and pressure-sensing technology to detect leakages. The project
would show how a light sensor and pressure sensor can simultaneously be used for
detection of leaks in pipelines.
 To have a real-time signal transmission system to alert operators of leakages using a WI-
FI module. The project would suggest methods by which the state of the pipeline can be
communicated to a receiver in real-time
 To determine the location of leakages using a GPS module. The project shows how the
location the leak occurs can be located using GPS technology, this is so the response
team can get to the point of leakage quickly.

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CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTION:
According to “Oil Pipeline Sabotage in Nigeria: Dimensions, actors and implications for national
security”, an article by [CITATION Onu08 \l 1033 ].
There are several ways pipeline leakages came to be in Nigeria, some caused by human
interventions, some caused by corrosion or natural occurrences. The human factors come in
several shapes and forms bearing names like pipeline vandalism, oil bunkering, oil terrorism;
The several forms would be briefly explained to get an understanding of the agents playing roles
in them.

Oil bunkering being the most financially draining of them all is the illegal act of filling a water
vessel with oil. It is the process of tapping unrefined oil from pipelines. It is quite prominent in

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the Niger Delta area in Nigeria, where offenders construct a brief insertion on a little section of
the submerged pipeline.

Pipeline is the major mode of natural gas transportation. Leakage of natural gas pipelines may
cause explosions and fires, resulting in casualties, environmental damage, and material loss.
[ CITATION Sha17 \l 1033 ]

Vandalism is the illegal act of intentional causing of damage to any one's property, either it is a
person or government. Pipeline vandalism is when damage is intentionally made on a pipe, now
the intention behind it is usually to steal crude oil which us incident oil theft, although the
definition of pipeline vandalism has little to do with what the perpetrator intends to do after the
act is committed, he/ she can destroy the pipe for the simple pleasure of watching the oil go to
waste and it will still be regarded as an illegal act of vandalism. Vandalism is ever-growing in
Nigeria and it is progressing based on the number of times it occurs, the technology of
equipment used to do it and the geographical area it occurs; all these are increasing on an unsafe
rate.

Oil terrorism mostly occurs in Middle Eastern regions of the world, it is more destructive than
vandalism and it is usually inspired by the urge to cause harm to the state or government rather
than to just steal the oil, most times, explosives are attached to pipelines and the fluid in them
explode as well making the act one that isn’t financially advantageous to either the propagator or
the owner of the pie and the fluid in it. Oil terrorism also occurs in Nigeria by terrorist groups in
the Niger Delta area.

According to Henry Liu in his textbook “Pipeline Engineering” , Corrosion is the second largest
cause of pipeline damage. Corrosion is defined as being the gradual damage of pipe due to
chemical or electrochemical reactions of pipes with their environment. The environment includes
the fluid in the pipe, the soil, water, and atmosphere around the pipe, and other metals attached to
or in contact with the pipe. Unlike the erosion damage to pipe, which is caused by the physical
process of abrasion or wear such as encountered by slurry pipelines or pneumatic conveying of
solids in pipes, and unlike cavitation, which is caused by vapour pockets in liquids generated by
low pressure, corrosion is caused by chemical or electrochemical reaction.

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For the purpose of this report, only the event of pipeline corrosion will be studied and referenced
further on.

2.1 DEFINITION OF CORROSION

From Wikipedia, Corrosion is a natural process that converts a refined metal into a more
chemically-stable form such as oxide, hydroxide, or sulfide. It is the gradual destruction of
materials (usually metals) by chemical and/or electrochemical reaction with their environment.

Corrosion plagues almost all industries that make use of metals. It cuts across the Civil
Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Chemical
Engineering, even the Chemistry and Physics industry.

2.1.1 CORROSION IN PIPELINES

Corrosion in pipelines is one of the greatest hurdles encountered by oil and gas industries all over
the world.[ CITATION Unu16 \l 1033 ] It has made corrosion control or management a major factor
to take note of before starting any industry that will transport products through pipelines.

Crude oil and gas pipelines could be onshore, offshore or in swamp. The transportation operation
has remained a high complex and challenging effort against forces of nature. The importance of
the use of pipelines as the most efficient means of product conveyance from well head to the
gathering-points, from the flow stations to the storage tanks in the terminals and to the loading or
export platforms far into the Atlantic cannot be overemphasized. For every new field discovered,
the pipelines are further exposed to the test in the harshest environment. Irrespective of the field
location with all the environment unfriendliness, the plain carbon steel pipes, remains the best
means of product transfer from the holes to the well head due to its favourable thermo-
mechanical properties. The crude oil and gas pipelines in the cause of being used for the purpose
of transporting products are exposed to various environments especially the offshore
installations. Furthermore, the lines could be buried but eventually this exposure results in
liability to various forms of external and internal corrosion problems

In the field of crude oil production and associated engineering work, the key characteristics of
choice materials normally considered are: corrosion resistance, cost, strength, toughness etc. Due

6
to the natural composition of crude oil with oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur compounds as its
major constituents, one would say that corrosion will not be a problem in the internal off-lines.
Water is essential to low temperature corrosion. Pure water containing no dissolved substances is
mildly corrosive to iron, Water containing impurities or dissolved substances can be corrosive or
non-corrosive, depending upon the nature of dissolved substances. For example, chromate and
phosphates are added to water for the purpose of inhibiting or reducing corrosion. On the other
hand, substances such as sodium chloride, hydrogen sulphide, carbon-dioxide and oxygen can
increase the rate of corrosion when combined with oil field water [4, 5]. Oil field water generally
contains one or more of these substances which are highly corrosive. Pipelines can also fail for
reasons that do not depend on the crude composition alone, rather the operating environment do
contribute. Corrosion is undoubtedly experienced in all spheres of life. For example, the
petroleum industry, which is the basis for this study, transportation viz. Land, air and sea, food
processing, construction, Nuclear power generation, petrochemical and agriculture and even in
our homes. This operating expense can be high or minimized, depending on how well we
understand it and are able to recognize it and instigate control procedures and processes [6-10].
This study is interested in analysing the cathodic protection data of NNPC/PPMC pipeline
(System 2A pipeline from Warri Pump-Station to Benin Oil Depot, 1988) and (Warri – Amukpe
axis, 2004).

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2.1.2 TYPES OF CORROSION

2.1.2.1 CHEMICAL CORROSION

This is due to the contact of a pipe with a corrosive substance such as an acid, which attacks or
reacts with the surface of the pipe to cause damage. It can happen to both metallic and non-
metallic pipes, and it can damage either the pipe interior or exterior surfaces depending on
whether the corrosive chemical is inside or outside the pipe. Metal pipes can be damaged by
various acids, halogens, and salts; concrete pipes can be corroded by various acids and salts; and
plastic pipes can be damaged by various acids, hydrocarbons, and chlorine. Generally, steel pipes
require no lining for transporting hydrocarbons such as petroleum, but they do require a lining
for transporting water unless oxygen is removed from the water. Corrosion-resistant metals
include copper, brass, nickel, stainless steel, titanium, and many alloys. Plastic pipes cannot be
used for transporting hydrocarbons, but they are inert to water even when containing oxygen.
Chemical corrosion happens only when a pipe transports or otherwise comes into contact with a
corrosive chemical. Chemical corrosion can be controlled by either avoiding contact with
corrosive chemicals, selecting a pipe material inert to the corrosive chemical that the pipe will be
in contact with, or by using a pipe lining or coating inert to the corrosive chemical. A special
type of chemical corrosion takes place when a metal pipe is in contact with water containing
dissolved oxygen. For steel or cast iron pipe, the metal (iron) reacts chemically with the water
and oxygen to form various hydrated ferric oxides, which form rust. This type of corrosion can
be prevented by using deoxygenated water, which is a common practice for protecting boilers of
power plants.

2.1.2.2 ELECTROCHEMICAL CORROSION

This is the most common type of corrosion that occurs in metal pipes, and it is of electrochemical
origin. Such corrosion can be subdivided into two types: galvanic corrosion and electrolytic
corrosion. Each type is discussed below.

2.1.2.2.1 GALVANIC CORROSION

Galvanic corrosion is common in metal pipes due to the existence of many dissimilar metals in a
pipeline, such as a valve made of a different type of steel than that used for the pipe, or a pump
having an impeller made of or coated with bronze. The severity of galvanic corrosion depends
not only on the potential difference between the two connecting metals but also on the contacting
electrolyte. The higher the conductivity of the electrolyte, the more current flows through the
galvanic cell, and the more severe corrosion becomes. Therefore, wet soil and soil that contains
salts are highly corrosive to pipelines and other metal structures.

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2.1.2.2.2 ELECTROLYTIC CORROSION
Electrolytic corrosion is based on the same principle of electrolysis (i.e., electric plating). For
both types of electrochemical corrosions (i.e., for both galvanic and electrolytic corrosions), it is
always the anode that is corroded, and the cathode that is protected. This represents the
underlying principle of cathodic protection of metal pipes and other metal structures to prevent
or minimize corrosion. A phenomenon closely related to electrochemical corrosion is
polarization, which is the attraction of hydrogen ions, H+, from the electrolyte to the close
proximity of the cathode. As the hydrogen ions lose their charge at the cathode, hydrogen gas is
generated near the surface of the cathode, which acts as an isolating layer to oppose or retard the
current through the circuit. This retardation action by the hydrogen gas is called polarization,
which impedes corrosion. Flowing water in the pipe disturbs or destroys polarizations, which in
turn increases the corrosion rate.

2.2 METHODS OF LEAK DETECTION.

Pipeline leakages have been an issue from the first time a pipe carrying a fluid was ever placed
on the ground, so it is more than reasonable that over the years since then, several proposed and
implemented methods of leak detection of pipelines exist. Companies and governments are
noticing that the cost detecting and rectifying these leakages would be almost nothing compared
to the environmental cost of leakages and the loss expensive fluid lost in the act, hence a lot of
research has gone into the detection of pipelines.

According to [5], the article ‘Designing a Cost-Effective and Reliable Pipeline Leak Detection
System’ by Dr. Jun Zhang REL Instrumentation Limited, Manchester, UK.

Leak detection methods can be classified into; natural method, hardware-based method and
software-based method, each with pros and cons.

2.2.1 NATURAL METHOD OF LEAK DETECTION

The natural method is when a person or a trained animal inspects the pipe for leaks using sense
organs such as eyes, ears, and nose, as you can already guess; it is a tedious process that takes a
long time and can be very inefficient and even impractical when considering buried pipelines
and/or the ones stretching from town to town. It involves the simple activity of a human or a
trained animal walking by a pipeline and manually checking for deformities on the pipe, looking
out for the smell of gas leakages, the hissing sound of the discharge of gases from the pipes.

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2.2.1.1 ADVANTAGES OF NATURAL METHOD OF LEAK DETECTION
This method is quite cheap compared to the other methods and it is very easy to implement since
it requires no instrumentation, additional equipment as the others do

2.2.1.2 DISADVANTAGES OF NATURAL METHOD OF LEAK DETECTION

It is incredibly slow as it requires manual inspection and it isn’t applicable for lengthy pipes
traveling from cities to cities unless there is a large number of animals or manpower doing the
inspection.

2.2.2 HARDWARE LEAK DETECTION METHODS

The hardware method is more practical and expensive than the natural method, it involves using
material sensors to try to detect the sound of the leakage or the smell of gas or crude oil; like
acoustic sensors, pressure detectors and other sensors.

The various hardware devices used are; Visual devices, acoustic devices, sampling devices,
pressure detectors.

2.2.2.1 VISUAL DEVICES

These devices mainly use infrared technology and radar transmitters to pinpoint the location of
pipe deformities from a safe distance. Sometimes Cameras are placed to inspect the pipelines
from which humans inspect from a viewing room.

The radar transmitters send radars and receive them back to accurately determine the location of
cracks on underground pipelines. The overflow of oil is detected by the varying electrical
variables to the surroundings where the leak occurs. (Graf 1990[6], Hennigar 1993[7]).

The infrared technology makes use of the fact that the pressurized fluid would have gained a
high temperature, hence a leak of said fluid would result in a subsequent rise in temperature to
the pipes surrounding which it detects. (Weil 1993[8]).

2.2.2.2 ACOUSTIC DEVICES

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When a fluid is discharged, be it, a liquid or gas, it creates a sound unique to the type of fluid and
the temperature that it is. These devices or sensors make use of that underlining fact to try to
detect leaks. (Hough 1988[9], Klein 1993[10], Kurmer 1993[11], Turner 1991[12]). In this
approach, due to the short distance overage typical for listening sensors, a large number of
sensors are used. The device listens for a leak and implies a leak when it hears one. The speed of
sound is 343 meters per second so assuming the frequency of the sound wave does not die off
before reaching the devices, detecting leak should be fast, and in other words, if the leak is in
range of the devices reach, detection should be almost spontaneous.

2.2.2.3 SAMPLING DEVICES

These devices are used for pipes transporting crude oil, refined oil or natural gas; in theory any
volatile fluid. The device detects the volatility of the surrounding of the pipe after a leak occurs,
(Sperl 1991[13]). The response time of said devices is quite slow, as such, a lot of materials
would have been lost and damage would have already been made by the time the leak is
detected. Hence, it is understandable why this method will no further be discussed.

2.2.2.4 PRESSURE DETECTORS

In the occurrence of a leak, there is a surge or a disturbance in the flow of the fluid in the
pipeline, this disturbance can be translated into a shift in the fluid’s pressure. This shift or change
can be picked up by a pressure detector. The closer the detector to the point of leakage, the faster
it’ll take it to detect it, hence for long pipes, several detectors are required for fast detection and
response time to endeavour not many materials are wasted and not damage to the society is done.

2.2.2.5 ADVANTAGES OF HARDWARE LEAK DETECTION METHOD

The hardware detection methods boast of high sensitivity as they are able to detect leaks in
pipelines quickly, this is due to the fact that they are usually instrumented at the entire length of

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the pipes hence leaks of varying sizes are detected during little time. The place the leak occurs on
the pipe can also be estimated which would reduce response time hence saving valuable
materials.

2.2.2.6 DISADVANTAGES OF HARDWARE METHOD OF LEAK DETECTION

The financial cost to implement this method is usually a lot and also there is an additional
maintenance burden financially. Apart from the financial cost, the implementation of these
methods are usually quite difficult

2.2.3 SOFTWARE LEAK DETECTION METHODS

In this method, the leak is detected by checking or measuring the internal parameters of the pipe.
These parameters include the change in pressure, change in flow rate, temperature, light
intensity, and mass balance. The common forms of software leak detection are; balancing
systems, pressure analysis and Real-Time Transient Method.

2.2.3.1 BALANCING SYSTEM

It is logical to conclude that for the fluid in a pipe, without any leakages, the mass in the pipe
will remain constant. This is the basic assumption this method uses, hence if there is a reduction
in the mass in the pipe, a leak has occurred.

2.2.3.1.1 MODEL COMPENSATED MASS BALANCE

This is a very thorough version of the balancing system, it is, in fact, the most thorough yet. The
MCMB uses supercomputers and processors to accurately calculate the real-time density of the
content in the fluid. The results rarely have errors and can be translated into Mass.

2.2.3.1.2 ADVANTAGES OF BALANCING SYSTEM

The usage of the principle of mass conversation makes the system rather simple to materialize
and use. It also has high accuracy due to its high sensitivity and there is no need for any further
instrumentation.

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2.2.3.1.3 DISADVANTAGES OF BALANCING SYSTEM
Due to its high sensitivity, there is a chance of false alarm resulting because any little deviation
from the usual mass flow rate would register as a leak, this can be caused by the friction between
the fluid and the pipe surface. This problem is solved by leaving a room or threshold value to
allow little variations but also the solution of this problem leads to another problem; if you keep
a threshold value, all small leaks resulting in variations less than that value are not registered as
leaks.

2.2.3.2 PRESSURE ANALYSIS

A pressured fluid is mobile in the pipe being transported from one location to another, this is a
scenario, now if a hole or opening is made on the pipe surface, and the pressure in the pipeline
would be released from the hole to the surrounding resulting to a drop in the pressure within the
pipe. Typically, the pressures are monitored at both ends of the pipes with sensors. The types of
pressure analysis methods are; rarefaction wave monitoring reflected wave or timing method and
the gradient intersection method.

2.2.3.2.1 ADVANTAGES OF PRESSURE ANALYSIS METHOD

This method adequately gives the status of a pipeline by checking for deviations from the
baseline. That is, any deviation or dip from the normal pressure graph of the fluid in the pipe
would suggest a leakage.

2.2.3.2.2 DISADVANTAGES OF PRESSURE ANALYSIS METHODS

Small leaks that do not show a significant deviation or cause a significant drop in pressure might
be ignored when sensing for leaks.

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2.2.3.2.3 RAREFACTION WAVE MONITORING
Rarefaction is the drop in pressure in a medium or fluid resulting from the passage of sound
energy through it. The point or location a leak occurs is where the pressure drop is felt initially
and then a low-pressure expansion wave travels to both sides of the point at the speed of sound;
these are rarefaction waves. If the two waves traveling in opposite directions are monitored, the
location of the leak can be determined by tracing back the starting point or point of intersection
of both waves. So rarefaction wave monitoring can help us determine if a leak has occurred by
its existence and the location of the leak by its movement.

2.2.3.2.4 REFLECTED WAVE AND TIMING METHOD

If a leak occurs at a certain point, the drop in pressure at the point resonates throughout the pipe
until a new lower overall pressure is maintained, this is done by a reflected wave. Reflected
waves always come in play when there is a sudden change in geometric or hydraulic properties
to try to find a new equilibrium in whatever system. Detection of said wave in a pipe means a
leak has occurred and the magnitude of the wave can tell us the extent or size of the leak.

2.2.3.2.5 GRADIENT INTERSECTION METHOD

This is a mix of the mass balance method and the pressure analysis method, here a theoretical
hydraulic profile which is derived by The Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition is compared
to actual physical hydraulic profile. So we are comparing the hydraulics in the pipeline to a
standard and any variation would a leak occurred.

2.2.3.3 REAL-TIME TRANSIENT MODELING

In this method, a simulation of the internal conditions of the pipeline is created using fluid
mechanisms and hydraulics. In other words, it predicts the size and location of leaks by
comparing the actual data for a part of the pipeline with the simulated ones which were derived
using numerous flow equations, conservation of momentum equations, conservation of energy
equations and continuity equation. This is the most sensitive and accurate type of software
detection method.

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2.2.3.3.1 ADVANTAGES OF REAL-TIME TRANSIENT MODELING
Because the RTTM carries out continuous analysis of the condition of the internal of the
pipeline, it detects leaks pretty fast. It takes into consideration the integrity or condition of the
pipeline as well as the fluid or material within it making it work with a lot of parameters.

2.2.3.3.2 DISADVANTAGES OF REAL-TIME TRANSIENT MODELLING

It requires a lot of parameters to function hence it has a rather high level of complexity both
during implementation and operation and also it is a very expensive method of detecting
leakages.

2.3 PIGGING TECHNOLOGY

According to [14], an article on www.hps-pigging on Pigging Technology; PIG stands for
Pipeline Inspection Gauge which is a device used for inspecting and also maintaining the internal
and external structure of a pipe carrying fluid. The idea of the PIG is that it roams around in the
pipe, moving with the velocity and pressure of the fluid within the pipe. Hence it is mobile. The
PIG is used for cleaning the pipe, maintaining the pipe, inspecting it internally and externally not
only for leaks but for weak spots that can further result in leaks and also it is used to recovers
spills of fluid remaining or left behind in the pipe.

A PIG is used in a vast number of processes for several reasons. Here we talk about it in
Oil pipelines, The PIG consists of a PIG sender and PIG receiver that is to launch it into the pipe
and to receive it at the end. The PIG also has detectors, be it pressure sensors, acoustic sensors,
visual sensors, whatever it needs to inspect the pipe. The PIG also possess a controller or
microcomputer which is programmed to control the detectors and even monitor the movement of
the PIG. The PIG has a storage device, it is an observer sent through a pipe to collect data, and it
needs a place to keep said data so it can be read by the end of the journey. This is assuming the
PIG isn’t somehow sending real-time data to a receiver somewhere, other components of the PIG
include PLCs, valves, fittings and HMI’s.

The size of the pig is usually dependent on the size of the pipe it’s inspecting.

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 CHAPTER 3

REFERENCES
Onuocha, F. C. (2008). Oil Pipeline Sabotage in Nigeria: Dimensions, Actors and Implications for National
Security. African Security Review, 99-115.

Shan , X., Liu, K., & Sun, P.-L. (2017). Risk Analysis on Leakage Failure of Natural Gas Pipelines by Fuzzy
Bayesian Network with a Bow-Tie Model. Hindawi, 1-11.

Unueroh, U., Omonria, G., Efosa, O., & Awotunde, M. (2016). Pipeline Corrosion Control In Oil and Gas
Industry: A Case Study of NNPC/PPMC System 2A PIPELINE. Nigerian Journal of Technology
(NIJOTECH), 1-4.

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