Module 6 - Applications

Republic of the Philippines
NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY

Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.:IM-ENGGEO-2NDSEM-2020-2021
College of Engineering
Bayombong Campus
DEGREE PROGRAM BSCE COURSE NO. N100/N177/N198/N217

SPECIALIZATION CEM/SE/TE/WRE COURSE TITLE Geology for Civil Engineers
YEAR LEVEL 2nd TIME FRAME WK NO. 16-17 IM NO. 6
I. UNIT TITLE/CHAPTER TITLE
Geological and Geophysical Investigation in Civil Engineering
II. LESSON TITLE
Geological and Geophysical Investigation in Civil Engineering
III. LESSON OVERVIEW
1. Geological and Geophysical Investigation in Civil Engineering

a. Site Investigations
b. Geological and Exploration Methods
c. Seismic and Electrical Methods
d. Direct Penetration, Core Boring, Core Logging, etc.
e. Geological Condition Necessary for construction of Dams, Tunnels and Buildings
f. Road Cutting
IV. DESIRED LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Determine and assess the geology of the area by different methods
V. LESSON CONTENT
Geological Investigations
Preliminary geological surveys of the entire catchment area followed by detailed geological mapping of
the reservoir area have to be conducted, these should reveal the following:
1. Main Topographic Features

2. Natural Drainage Patterns
3. General characters and structures of rock formations
4. Folding and Faulting
5. Igneous Intrusions, and
6. The trend and rate of weathering and erosion in the area.
The single most important feature that must be known thoroughly at the site is the Lithology of the area.
Lithology refers to the types of rocks that make the area, or the general physical characteristic of
rock/rocks in a particular area.
Surface and subsurface studies using conventional and latest techniques of geological and geophysical
investigations are carried out. Such studies would real the type, the composition, and the textures of the
rocks exposed along the valley floors, in the walls and up to the required depth at the base. If the lithology
of the area is too complex, it is definitely posing challenging design problems and solutions.
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A. Site Investigations
The objective of a site investigation is to assess the suitability of a site for the proposed structure. As
such it involves exploring the ground conditions at and below the surface. A site investigation should
attempt to foresee and provide against difficulties that may arise during construction. It is essential that
the prediction of ground conditions that constitute the basic design assumption to be checked as
construction proceeds and design modified accordingly if conditions are revealed to be different from
those predicted.
Data appertaining to groundwater conditions, extent of weathering, and discontinuity pattern in rock
masses are also important.
Desk Study and Preliminary Reconnaissance
A desk study is undertaken as the first stage of a site investigation in order to make an initial assessment
of the ground conditions and to identify, if possible, any potential geotechnical problems. In other words,
the objective of a desk study is to examine available archival records, literature, maps, imagery and
photographs relevant to the area or site concerned to ascertain a general picture of the existing geological
conditions prior to a field investigation.
Detailed searches for information, however, can be extremely time consuming and may not be justified
for small schemes at sites where the ground conditions are relatively simple. In such cases, a study of
the relevant topographical and geological maps and memoirs, and possibly aerial photographs, may
suffice. On large projects, literature and map surveys may save time and thereby reduce the cost of the
site investigation program. The data obtained during such searches should help the planning of the
subsequent site exploration and prevent duplication of effort. In some parts of the world, however, little
or no literature or maps are available.
Topographical, geological and soil maps can provide valuable information that can be used during the
planning stage of a construction operation. The former are particularly valuable when planning routeways.
Geological maps afford a generalized picture of the geology of an area. Generally, the stratum boundaries
and positions of the structural features, especially faults, are interpolated. As a consequence, their
accuracy cannot always be trusted. Map memoirs may accompany maps, and these provide a detailed
survey of the geology of the area in question.
Remote Sensing
Remote imagery and aerial photographs prove to be invaluable during the planning and reconnaissance
stages of certain projects. The information they provide can be transposed to a base map, which is
checked during fieldwork. The data also can be used in geographical information systems.
Remote sensing involves the identification and analysis of phenomena on the Earth’s surface by using
devices borne by aircraft or spacecraft.
Aerial Photographs
The amount of useful information that can be obtained from aerial photographs varies with the nature of
the terrain and the type and quality of the photographs. A study of aerial photographs allows the area
concerned to be divided into topographical and geological units, and enables the engineering geologist
to plan fieldwork and to select locations for sampling. This should result in a shorter, more profitable
period in the field.
B. Exploration Methods
It is the process of determining the layers of natural soil deposits that will underlie a proposed structure
and their physical properties. The purpose of the investigations is the ff:
1. Selection of type and the depth of foundation suitable for a given structure.
2. Evaluation of the load-bearing capacity of the foundation.
3. Estimation of the probable settlement of a structure

4. Determination of potential foundation problems
5. Establishment of groundwater table
6. Prediction of lateral earth pressure for structures like retaining walls, sheet pile, bulkheads, and
braced cuts.
7. Establishment of construction methods for changing subsoil conditions.
The aim of a site exploration is to try to determine and thereby understand the nature of the ground
conditions on site and those of its surroundings. The extent to which this stage of a site investigation is
carried depends, to some extent, upon the size and importance of the construction operation.
Site Exploration includes Test Pits, Boring, Coring, Standard Penetration Test (SPT) and Cone
Penetration Test (CPT)
Steps of Subsurface Exploration Program:
Stage 1: Assembly of all available information on dimension, column spacing, type and use of the
structure, basement requirements, and any special architectural consideration of the proposed building.
Foundation regulations in the local building code should be consulted for any special requirements. For
bridges, the engineer should have access to type and span lengths as well as pier loadings. This
information will indicate any settle limitations, and can be used to estimate foundation loads.
Stage 2: Reconnaissance of the Area – This may be in the form of a field trip to the site which can reveal
information on the type and behavior of adjacent structures such as cracks, noticeable sags, and possibly
sticking doors and windows. The type of local existing structure may influence, to a considerable extent,
the exploration program and the best foundation type for the proposed adjacent structure.
Stage 3: A preliminary site investigation – In this stage, a few borings are made or a test pit is opened to
establish in a general manner. The stratification, types of soil to be expected, and the possibly the location
of groundwater table. One or more borings should be taken to rock, or competent strata, if the initial
borings indicate the upper soil is loose or highly compressible. This amount of exploration is usually the
extent of the site investigation for small structures.
Stage 4: A detailed Site Investigation – where the preliminary site investigation has established the
feasibility of the project, a more detailed exploration program is undertaken. The preliminary borings and
data are used as a basis for locating additional borings, which should be confirmatory in nature.
Geotechnical Design Reports
At the end of all subsoil exploration programs, the soil and/or rock specimens collected from the field are
subjected to visual observation and appropriate laboratory testing. After the compilation of all of the
required information, a soil exploration report is prepared for the use of the design office and for reference
during future construction work. Although the details and sequence of information in the report may vary
to some degree is depending on the structure under consideration and the person compiling the report.
Subsoil Exploration Report

A detailed report must contained the following:
1. A description of the scope of the investigation

2. A description of the proposed structure for which the subsoil exploration has been conducted.
3. A description of the location of the site, including any structures nearby, drainage conditions, the
nature of vegetation on the site and surrounding it, and any other features unique to the site.
4. A description of the geological setting of the site.
5. Details of the field exploration – Number of borings, depths of borings, types of borings involved,
and so on.
6. A general description of the subsoil conditions, as determined from soil specimens and from
related laboratory tests, Standard penetration resistance and cone penetration resistance, and so
on.
7. A description of the water-table conditions.
8. Recommendations regarding the foundation, including the type of foundation recommended, the
allowable bearing pressure, and any special construction procedure that may be needed;
alternative foundation design procedures should also be discussed in this portion of the report.
9. Conclusions and limitations of the investigation.
The report also should have the following attachments:
1. Site location map

2. Plan view of the location of the borings with respect to the proposed structures and those nearby.
3. Boring logs
4. Laboratory test results
5. Other special graphical presentations.
C. Seismic and Electric Methods
Geophysical Methods
Geophysical methods are used to determine the geological sequence and structure of subsurface rocks
by the measurement of certain physical properties or forces. The properties that are made most use of
in geophysical exploration are density, elasticity, electrical conductivity, magnetic susceptibility and
gravitational attraction. In other words, seismic and resistivity methods record the artificial fields of force
applied to the area under investigation, while magnetic and gravitational methods measure natural fields
of force. The former techniques have the advantage over the latter in that the depth to which the forces
are applied can be controlled. By contrast, the natural fields of force are fixed and can only be observed
and not controlled. Seismic and resistivity methods are more applicable to the determination of horizontal
or near horizontal changes or contacts, whereas magnetic and gravimetric methods generally are used
to delineate lateral changes or vertical structures.
Seismic Methods
The sudden release of energy from the detonation of an explosive charge in the ground or the mechanical
pounding of the surface generates shock waves that radiate out in a hemispherical wave front from the
point of release. The waves generated are compressional, P, dilational shear, S, and surface waves. The
velocities of the shock waves generally increase with depth below the surface since the elastic moduli
increase with depth. The compressional waves travel faster, and are generated and recorded more easily
than shear waves. They are therefore used almost exclusively in seismic exploration. The shock wave
velocity depends on many variables, including rock fabric, mineralogy and pore water. In general,
velocities in crystalline rocks are high to very high.
Velocities in sedimentary rocks increase with amount of consolidation and decrease in pore fluids and
with increase in the degree of cementation and diagenesis. Unconsolidated sedimentary deposits have
maximum velocities varying as a function of the volume of voids, either air filled or water filled, mineralogy
and grain size.
When seismic waves pass from one layer to another in the ground, some energy is reflected back towards
the surface while the remainder is refracted. Thus, two methods of seismic surveying can be
distinguished, that is, seismic reflection and seismic refraction. Measurement of the time taken from the
generation of the shock waves until they are recorded by detector arrays forms the basis of the two
methods.
The seismic reflection method is the most extensively used of all geophysical techniques, its principal
employment being in the oil industry. In this technique, the depth of investigation is large compared with
the distance from the shot to detector array. This is to exclude refraction waves. Indeed, the method is
able to record information from a large number of horizons down to depths of several thousands of
meters.
The velocity of shock waves is related to the elastic moduli and can therefore provide data relating to the
engineering performance of the ground. Young’s modulus, E, and Poisson’s ratio, u, can be derived by
using the following expressions if the density, r, and compressional, Vp, and shear, Vs, wave velocities
are known:
Resistivity Methods
The resistivity of rocks and soils varies within a wide range. Since most of the principal rock forming
minerals are practically insulators, the resistivity of rocks and soils is determined by the amount of
conducting mineral constituents and the content of mineralized water in the pores. The latter condition is
by far the dominant factor, and in fact, most rocks and soils conduct an electric current only because they
contain water. The widely differing resistivity values of the various types of impregnating water can cause
variations in the resistivity of rocks ranging from a few tenths of an ohm-metre to hundreds of ohm-metres.
In the resistivity method, an electric current is introduced into the ground by means of two current
electrodes and the potential difference between two potential electrodes is measured. It is preferable to
measure the potential drop or apparent resistance directly in ohms rather than observe both current and
voltage. The ohms value is converted to apparent resistivity by use of a factor that depends on the
particular electrode configuration in use.
The resistivity method is based on the fact that any subsurface variation in conductivity alters the pattern
of current flow in the ground and therefore changes the distribution of electric potential at the surface.
Since the electrical resistivity of such factors as superficial deposits and bedrock differ from each other,
the resistivity method may be used in their detection and to give their approximate thicknesses, relative
positions and depths.
Electromagnetic Methods
A wide variety of electromagnetic survey methods are available, each involving the measurement of one
or more electric or magnetic field components induced in the ground by a primary field. A primary field is
produced by a natural (transient) current source or an alternating current artificial source, and this field
spreads out in space above and below the ground, inducing currents in subsurface conductors.
Secondary electromagnetic fields are produced by these currents that distort the primary field. The
resultant field differs from the primary field in intensity, phase and direction, and so can be detected by a
suitable receiving coil. The secondary field induced in the subsurface conductor fades gradually when a
transient primary field is switched off, fading being slower in media of higher conductivity. Hence,
measurement of the rate at which the secondary currents fade and their field offers a means of detecting
anomalously conducting bodies.
The terrain conductivity meter represents a means of measuring the conductivity of the ground.
Electromagnetic energy is introduced into the ground by inductive coupling produced by passing an
alternating current through a coil. The receiver also detects its signal by induction. The conductivity meter
is carried along traverse lines across a site and can provide a direct continuous readout. Hence, surveys
can be carried out quickly. Conductivity values are taken at positions set out on a grid pattern. Corrected
values of conductivity can be plotted as contoured maps of conductivity. Where the thickness of
overburden varies within fairly narrow limits and the conductivities of the overburden and bedrock do not
change appreciably, the depth to bedrock can be estimated from standard curves. As these depth values
are approximate, they need to be checked against borehole evidence or data obtained from more
quantitative geophysical methods.
The very-low-frequency, VLF, method is the most widely used fixed-source method operating on a single
frequency, making use of powerful radio transmitters. A disadvantage is that wave penetration is limited.
The method also is affected by topography. The interpretation of VLF data generally is qualitative, and it
frequently is used for reconnaissance work. The method is well suited to detecting near-vertical contacts
and fracture zones.
As a consequence, the method has found particular application in site investigations for the delineation
of faults. The ground probing radar method is based upon the transmission of pulsed electromagnetic
waves in the frequency range 1 to 1000 MHz. In this method, the travel times of the waves reflected from
subsurface interfaces are recorded as they arrive at the surface, and the depth, Z, to an interface is
derived from:
Z = VT/2
where V is the velocity of the radar pulse and T is its travel time. The conductivity of the ground imposes
the greatest limitation on the use of radar probing, that is, the depth to which radar energy can penetrate
depends upon the effective conductivity of the strata being probed. This, in turn, is governed chiefly by
the water content and its salinity. Furthermore, the value of effective conductivity is also a function of
temperature and density, as well as the frequency of the electromagnetic waves being propagated.
The least penetration occurs in saturated clayey materials or where the moisture content is saline. For
example, attenuation of electromagnetic energy in wet clay and silt mean that depth of penetration
frequently is less than 1 m. The technique appears to be reasonably successful in sandy soils and rocks
in which the moisture content is non-saline. Rocks such as limestone and granite can be penetrated for
distances of tens of meters and in dry conditions the penetration may reach 100 m. Ground probing
radars have been used for a variety of purposes in geotechnical engineering, for example, the detection
of fractures and faults in rock masses, the location of subsurface voids and the delineation of
contaminated plumes.
Magnetic Methods
All rocks, mineral and ore deposits are magnetized to a lesser or greater extent by the Earth’s magnetic
field. As a consequence, in magnetic surveying, accurate measurements are made of the anomalies
produced in the local geomagnetic field by this magnetization. The intensity of magnetization and hence
the amount by which the Earth’s magnetic field is changed locally depend on the magnetic susceptibility
of the material concerned. In addition to the magnetism induced by the Earth’s field, rocks possess a
permanent magnetism that depends on their history.
Rocks have different magnetic susceptibilities related to their mineral content. Some minerals, for
example, quartz and calcite are magnetized reversely to the field direction, and therefore have negative
susceptibility and are described as diamagnetic. Paramagnetic minerals, which are the majority, are
magnetized along the direction of magnetic field so that their susceptibility is positive. The susceptibility
of the ferromagnetic minerals, such as magnetite, ilmenite, pyrrhotite and hematite, is a very complicated
function of the field intensity. However, since the magnitudes of their susceptibility amount to 10 to 105
times the order of susceptibility of the paramagnetic and diamagnetic minerals, the ferromagnetic
minerals can be found by magnetic field measurements.
If the magnetic field ceases to act on a rock, then the magnetization of paramagnetic and diamagnetic
minerals disappears. However, in ferromagnetic minerals the induced magnetization is diminished only
to a certain value. This residuum is called remnant magnetization and is of great importance in rocks. All
igneous rocks have a very high eminent magnetization acquired as they cooled down in the Earth’s
magnetic field. In the geological past, during sedimentation in water, grains of magnetic materials were
orientated by ancient geomagnetic fields so that some sedimentary rocks show stable remnant
magnetization.
The strength of the magnetic field is measured in nanoteslas (nT), and the average strength of the Earth’s
magnetic field is about 50,000 nT. Obviously, the variations associated with magnetized rock formations
are very much smaller than this. The intensity of magnetization and consequently the amount by which
the Earth’s magnetic field changes locally depends on magnetic susceptibility of the rocks concerned.
A magnetometer also may be used for mapping geological structures. For example, in some thick
sedimentary sequences, it is sometimes possible to delineate the major structural features because the
succession includes magnetic horizons. These may be ferruginous sandstones or shales, tuffs or basic
lava flows. In such circumstances, anticlines produce positive and synclines negative anomalies. Faults
and dykes are indicated on isomagnetic maps by linear belts of somewhat sharp gradient or by sudden
swings in the trend of the contours. However, in many areas the igneous and metamorphic basement
rocks, which underlie the sedimentary sequence, are the predominant influence controlling the pattern of
anomalies since they usually are far more magnetic than the sediments above. Where the basement
rocks are brought near the surface in structural highs, the magnetic anomalies are large and
characterized by strong relief. Conversely, deep sedimentary basins usually produce contours with low
values and gentle gradients on isomagnetic maps.
Gravity Methods
The Earth’s gravity field varies according to the density of the subsurface rocks, but at any particular
locality, its magnitude also is influenced by latitude, elevation, neighboring topographical features and
the tidal deformation of the Earth’s crust. The effects of these latter factors have to be eliminated in any
gravity survey, where the object is to measure the variations in acceleration due to gravity precisely. This
information then can be used to construct a contoured gravity map. In survey work, modern practice is to
measure anomalies in gravity units (g.u. = 10-6 m s-2). Modern gravity meters used in exploration
measure not the absolute value of the acceleration due to gravity but the small differences in this value
between one place and the next.
Gravity methods are used mainly in regional reconnaissance surveys to reveal anomalies that may be
investigated subsequently by other methods. Since the gravitational effects of geological bodies are
proportional to the contrast in density between them and their surroundings, gravity methods are
particularly suitable for the location of structures in stratified formations. Gravity effects due to local
structures in near surface strata may be partly obscured or distorted by regional gravity effects caused
by large-scale basement structures. However, regional deep-seated gravity effects can be removed or
minimized in order to produce a residual gravity map showing the effects of shallow structures that may
be of interest
A gravity survey is conducted from a local base station at which the value of the acceleration due to
gravity is known with reference to a fundamental base where the acceleration due to gravity has been
accurately measured. The way in which a gravity survey is carried out largely depends on the objective
in view. Large-scale surveys covering hundreds of square kilometers, carried out in order to reveal major
geological structures, are done by vehicle or helicopter with a density of only a few stations per square
kilometer. For more detailed work such as the delineation of basic minor intrusions or the location of
faults, spacing between stations may be as small as 20 m. Because gravity differences large enough to
be of geological significance are produced by changes in elevation of several millimeters and of only 30
m in north-south distance, the location and elevation of stations must be established with very high
precision.
D. Direct Penetration, Core Boring, Core Logging, etc
Test Pits
Test pits are holes dug prior to construction to help ensure the conditions are suitable for building projects.
These test pits average a depth 3-15 ft, with a maximum depth of 20 ft, and allow geotechnical engineers
the opportunity to assess the soil composition before official breaking ground.
Core Boring
1. Auger Boring (ASTM D1452/D1452M)– Simplest method of

exploration and sampling. defined as a trenchless application in
which a casing pipe is jacked into the earth’s surface while
simultaneously rotating helical augers remove the excavated spoil.
Auger boring works using Archimedes Screw Principle. In
Archimedes’ application, a helical surface surrounding a hollow
cylindrical shaft (screw) is rotated either manually or by motors. As
rotation continues, the bottom of the shaft collects water. The water
slides up the tube through the helical rotation. This water is poured
from the top of the machine.
In auger boring, excavated soil is removed from the top of the
casing tube instead of water. Auger boring employs a cutting edge
attached to the auger within the casing pipe and hydraulic jacks, to
rotate and penetrate the soil. So that there is
unimpeded rotation within the casing, the auger
diameter tends to be slightly less than that of the
casing pipe.
Rotation of the helical auger chain causes the
cutting edge to bore through the ground, moving
spoil behind the casing pipe, allowing for removal.
Excavated material can be removed by mechanical
means such as conveyors or excavators, by hand
or through the use of muck buckets.
Auger boring is referred to as jack and bore or dry
boring.
2. Wash Boring (ASTM D1586/D1586M) - Wash boring

is a method for advancing boreholes for site exploration
and geotechnical investigation in most types of soil
except gravels and boulders. The method is fast and
simple to carry out and utilizes inexpensive, easily
portable handling and drilling equipment.
By observing the change of color in the slurry flowing
out of the hole, it is possible to determine certain soil
characteristics. Since the sample obtained is
completely disturbed, it is not suitable for very soft soil,
fine to medium-grained soil, or in cemented soils and is
valueless for interpreting the exact geotechnical
properties of the soil.
The wash boring process begins by first excavating an
open hole on the ground to carry out the drilling
operation. A piece of casing of a diameter of 50 to 100
mm and depth of 1.5 to 3 m is driven into the hole. The
casing is fitted with a chopping bit fastened at the lower
end of a wash pipe to help remove the soil inside the
casing. Water is forced through the wash pipe and
exits the chopping bit through a small opening at high
velocity and fragments the soil.
The slurry created by the water exits the casing
through the annular space between the wash pipe and
the casing. As the borehole deepens, additional
casings are attached and the process is continued to the desired depth. It is possible to guess the
change in soil certification by the rate of penetration and the color of the water.
Soil Sampling
There are two types of soil/rock samples can be obtained during sampling, disturbed and undisturbed.
The most important in engineering properties required for foundation design are strength,
compressibility, and permeability. Reasonably good estimates of these properties for cohesive soils can
be made by laboratory test on undisturbed
samples which can be obtained with moderate
difficulty. It is nearly impossible to obtain a
truly undisturbed sample of soil; so in general
usage the term “undisturbed” means a sample
where some precautions have been taken to
minimize disturbance or remolding effects.
Core Logging (ASTM D5434)
Core logging is the systematic recording and

measuring of as much information as
possible/required to determine the lithology
(rock types), mineralogy, potential geological
history, structure and alteration zones through
a tiny piece of cylindrical rock drilled and
removed from a potential mineral deposit.
Considered the primary method of
determining grade, size and mine-ability of a
potential mineral deposit drill cores are relied
on by exploration and mining companies
around the world.
The following steps are suggested

during the core logging process:
1. Clean the core of drilling fluids or
mud.
2. Mark major structures, proposed
point load testing locations, and depths
(every 1-2 meters) on undisturbed core
in splits.
3. Photograph the core in the splits with
a scale placed in the picture and a
whiteboard indicating what depth the
core has been obtained from.
4. Complete the Discontinuity and core
description logs.
5. Transfer the core from the splits to a
labelled core box.
6. Once a core box is full, take a single photograph of the core box with a scale.
Field Strength Test
1. Standard Penetration Test (ASTM D1586/D1586M)
Standard Penetration Test (SPT) is a simple and low-cost testing procedure widely used in
geotechnical investigation to determine the relative density and angle of shearing resistance of
cohesionless soils and also the strength of
stiff cohesive soils.
For this test, a borehole has to be drilled to
the desired sampling depth. The split-
spoon sampler that is attached to the drill
rod is placed at the testing point. A hammer
of 63.5 kg (140 lbs) is dropped repeatedly
from a height of 76 cm (30 inches) driving
the sampler into the ground until reaching a
depth of 15 cm (6 inches). The number of
the required blows is recorded. This
procedure is repeated two more times until
a total penetration of 45 cm (18 inches) is
achieved. The number of blows required to
penetrate the first 15 cm is called “seating
drive” and the total number of blows
required to penetrate the remaining 30 cm
depth is known as the “standard
penetration resistance”, or otherwise, the
“N-value”. If the N-value exceeds 50 then
the test is discontinued and is called a
“refusal”. The interpreted results, with
several corrections, are used to estimate
the geotechnical engineering properties of the soil.
2. Cone Penetration Test (ASTM D5778)
Cone penetration testing (CPT) is an in-situ test that is used to identify the soil type. In this test a
cone penetrometer is pushed into the ground at a standard rate and data are recorded at regular
intervals during penetration. A cone penetration test rig pushes the steel cone vertically into the
ground. The cone penetrometer is instrumented to measure penetration resistance at the tip and
friction in the shaft (friction sleeve) during penetration. A CPT probe equipped with a pore-water
pressure sensor is called a CPTU. CPT probes with other sensors are also used.
The cone penetration test has become internationally one of the most widely used and accepted
test methods for determining geotechnical soil properties.
The data gained from a cone penetration test can be used to assess whether soil layers are likely to
liquefy under different levels of earthquake shaking.
The cone penetration test can be completed from the ground surface. Cone penetration test rigs
vary in size – from small portable rigs to large truck-mounted rigs. Each rig has benefits and
limitations but they all conduct the same test. A cone penetration test rig pushes a steel cone (about
32mm wide) into the ground, generally up to 20m below the surface or until the cone reaches a
hard layer. The steel cone contains an electronic measuring system that records tip resistance and
sleeve friction. As the cone is pushed into the ground, the soil responds with differing degrees of
resistance.
This resistance is recorded using force sensors in the tip. At the same time as the sensors are
recording resistance at the cone tip, sensors in the friction sleeve are recording sleeve friction along
a 100mm length. Some cones also have a pore water transducer, which records water pressure in
the soil. These readings can be used to determine ground water responses as the cone is pushed
through the soils. A cone penetration test typically takes between 30 minutes and three hours. As
the cone goes into the ground, measurements are constantly sent back to the rig and recorded on
computer.
Cone penetration test results are used by geotechnical engineering specialists to understand the
soil properties (the relative density of the soil and the soil behavior type, both of which are
calculated from the cone penetration test cone tip resistance and sleeve friction) and how the
ground is likely to behave under different levels of earthquake shaking. This information can help in
the design of foundations and ground improvements.
The Cone Penetration Test results are commonly used to determine the liquefaction-triggering
resistance of each soil layer. These assessments commonly use computer software to determine if
soil layers are predicted to liquefy for different levels of earthquake shaking. By doing a test before
and after ground improvement works, cone penetration test results can also be used to determine
how much strength a soil has gained following ground improvement works.
3. Vane Shear Test (ASTM D2573/D2573M)
The vane shear test is used to measure the undrained shear strength of cohesive soil especially
soft clays. The test can be conducted in-situ or in the laboratory. It is simple, quick, and cost-
effective to carry out.
The laboratory test of shear strength using the vane shear test is useful for soils with a low shear
strength of less than 0.5 kg/cm2. The test can be used to find the undrained strength of soil in the
undisturbed and also the remolded state.
This test is a cheaper option compared to the other methods of testing shear strength of clay such
as triaxial shear test or direct shear test. The standard method for field vane shear test in cohesive
soil is described in ASTM D 2573-72.
The vane shear test is also known as the borehole vane test.
The apparatus for the vane shear test consists of a four-bladed stainless-steel vane attached to a
steel rod that is pushed (not rotated) into the ground. Other items used include a torque wrench,
drive head, extension rods, spanner, and a few different vane sizes.
The procedure can be carried out from the ground surface or from the bottom of a borehole or test
pit. To reach undisturbed soil, it is generally recommended to go five borehole diameters deep.
Once inserted the vane is rotated at a slow rate of 6 degrees to 12 degrees per minute.
The torque is measured at regular intervals and the test is continued till the maximum torque is
reached and the vane rotates rapidly for a number of revolutions. This is when the soil fails in shear
on a cylindrical surface around the vane.
The rotation can be continued after shearing has taken place and the torque is measured to find the
remolded shear strength.
E. Geological Condition Necessary for construction of Dams, Tunnels and Buildings

1. Dams
A dam is defined as a solid barrier constructed at a suitable location across a river valley with a
view of impounding water flowing through that river. The type and size of dam constructed depends
on the need for and the amount of water available, the topography and geology of the site, and the
construction materials that are readily obtainable. Dams can be divided into two major categories
according to the type of material with which they are constructed, namely, concrete dams and earth
dams.
The former category can be subdivided into gravity, arch and buttress dams, whereas rolled fill and
rockfill embankments comprise the other. As far as dam construction is concerned, safety must be
the primary concern, this coming before cost. Safety requires that the foundations and abutments
be adequate for the type of dam selected. A gravity dam is a rigid monolithic structure that is usually
straight in plan, although sometimes it may be slightly curved. Its cross section is roughly
trapezoidal. Generally, gravity dams can tolerate only the smallest differential movements, and their
resistance to dislocation by the hydrostatic pressure of the reservoir water is due to their own
weight. A favorable site is usually on in a constricted area of a valley where sound bedrock is
reasonably close to the surface, both in the floor and abutments.
An arch dam consists of a concrete wall, of high-strength concrete, curved in plan, with its convex
face pointing upstream. Arch dams are relatively thin walled and lighter in weight than gravity dams.
They stand up to large deflections in the foundation rock, provided that the deflections are uniformly
distributed. They transmit most of the horizontal thrust of the reservoir water to the abutments by
arch action and this, together with their relative thinness, means that they impose high stresses on
narrow zones at the base, as well as the abutments of the dam. Therefore, the strength of the rock
mass at the abutments, and below and immediately down-valley of the dam must be
unquestionable, and the modulus of elasticity must be high enough to ensure that its deformation
under thrust from the arch is not so great as to induce excessive stresses in the arch.
Ideal locations for arch dams are provided by narrow gorges where the walls are capable of
withstanding the thrust produced by the arch action. Buttress dams provide an alternative to other
concrete dams in locations where the foundation rocks are competent. A buttress dam consists
principally of a slab of reinforced concrete that slopes upstream and is supported by a number of
buttresses whose axes are normal to the slab.
The buttresses support the slab and transmit the water load to the foundation. They are rather
narrow and act as heavily loaded walls, thus exerting substantial unit pressures on the foundations.
Earth dams are embankments of earth with an impermeable core to control seepage. This usually
consists of clayey material. If sufficient quantities are not available, then concrete or asphaltic
concrete membranes are used. The core normally is extended as a cut-off or grout curtain below
ground level when seepage beneath the dam has to be controlled. An earth dam may be zoned or
homogeneous, the former type being more common. A zoned dam is a rolled fill dam composed of
several zones that increase in permeability from the core towards the outer slopes. The number of
zones depends on the type and amount of borrow material available. Stability of a zoned dam is
due mostly to the weight of the heavy outer zones. If there is only one type of borrow material
readily available, a homogeneous embankment is constructed. In other words, homogeneous dams
are constructed entirely or almost entirely of one type of material. The latter is usually fine-grained,
although sand and sand–gravel mixtures have been used.
The construction of a dam and the filling of a reservoir behind it impose a load on the sides and
floor of a valley, creating new stress conditions. These stresses must be analyzed so that there is
ample assurance that there will be no possibility of failure. A concrete dam behaves as a rigid
monolithic structure, the stress acting on the foundation being a function of the weight of the dam as
distributed over the total area of the foundation. In contrast, an earth fill dam exhibits semi-plastic
behavior, and the pressure on the foundation at any point depends on the thickness of the dam
above that point. Vertical static forces act downward and include both the weight of the structure
and the water, although a large part of the dam is submerged and, therefore, the buoyancy effect
reduces the influence of the load. The most important dynamic forces acting on a dam are wave
action, overflow of water and seismic shocks.
Horizontal forces are exerted on a dam by the lateral pressure of water behind it. These, if
excessive, may cause concrete dams to slide. The tendency towards sliding at the base of such
dams is of particular significance in fissile rocks such as shales, slates and phyllites. Weak zones,
such as interbedded ashes in a sequence of basalt lava flows, can prove troublesome. The
presence of flat-lying joints may destroy much of the inherent shear strength of a rock mass and
reduce the problem of resistance of a foundation to horizontal forces to one of sliding friction, so
that the roughness of joint surfaces becomes a critical factor. The rock surface should be
roughened to prevent sliding, and keying the dam some distance into the foundation is advisable.
Another method of reducing sliding is to give a downward slope to the base of the dam in the
upstream direction of the valley.
Variations in pore water pressure cause changes in the state of stress in rock masses. They reduce
the compressive strength of rocks and cause an increase in the amount of deformation they
undergo. Porewater also may be responsible for swelling in certain rocks and for acceleration in
their rate of alteration. Porewater in the stratified rocks of a dam foundation reduces the coefficient
of friction between the individual beds, and between the foundation and the dam. Percolation of
water through the foundations of concrete dams, even when the rock masses concerned are of
good quality and low permeability, is a decisive factor in the safety and performance of such dams.
Such percolation can remove filler material that may be occupying joints that, in turn, can lead to
differential settlement of the foundations. It also may open joints, which decreases the strength of
the rock mass. In highly permeable rock masses, excessive seepage beneath a dam may damage
the foundation. Seepage rates can be lowered by reducing the hydraulic gradient beneath the dam
by incorporating a cut-off into the design. A cut-off lengthens the flow path, reducing the hydraulic
gradient. It extends to an impermeable horizon or some specified depth and usually is located
below the upstream face of the dam. The rate of seepage also can be effectively reduced by
placing an impervious earth fill against the lower part of the upstream face of a dam.
Uplift pressure acts against the base of a dam and is caused by water seeping beneath it that is
under hydrostatic head from the reservoir. Uplift pressure should be distinguished from the pore
water pressure in the material beneath a dam. The uplift pressure on the heel of a dam is equal to
the depth of the foundation below water level multiplied by the unit weight of the water. In the
simplest case, it is assumed that the difference in hydraulic heads between the heel and the toe of
the dam is dissipated uniformly between them. The uplift pressure can be reduced by allowing
water to be conducted downstream by drains incorporated into the foundation and base of the dam.
When load is removed from a rock mass on excavation, it is subject to rebound. The amount of
rebound depends on the modulus of elasticity of the rocks concerned, the larger the modulus of
elasticity, the smaller the rebound. The rebound process in rocks generally takes considerable time
to achieve completion and will continue after a dam has been constructed if the rebound pressure
or heave developed by the foundation material exceeds the effective weight of the dam. Hence, if
heave is to be counteracted, a dam should impose a load on the foundation equal to or slightly in
excess of the load removed.
All foundation and abutment rocks yield elastically to some degree. In particular, the modulus of
elasticity of a rock mass is of primary importance as far as the distribution of stresses at the base of
a concrete dam is concerned. What is more, tensile stresses may develop in concrete dams when
the foundations undergo significant deformation. The modulus of elasticity is used in the design of
gravity dams for comparing the different types of foundation rocks with each other and with the
concrete of the dam. In the design of arch dams, if Young’s modulus of the foundation has a lower
value than that of the concrete or varies widely in the rocks against which the dam abuts, then
dangerous stress conditions may develop in the dam. The elastic properties of a rock mass and
existing strain conditions assume importance in proportion to the height of a dam since this
influences the magnitude of the stresses imparted to the foundation and abutments.
The influence of geological structures in lowering Young’s modulus must be accounted for by the
provision of adequate safety factors. It should also be borne in mind that blasting during excavation
of foundations can open up fissures and joints that leads to greater deformability of the rock mass.
The deformability of the rock mass, any possible settlements and the amount of increase of
deformation with time can be taken into consideration by assuming lower moduli of elasticity in the
foundation or by making provisions for prestressing.
2. Tunnels
Tunnels may be defined as underground routs or passages driven through the ground without
disturbing the overlying soil/rock cover. There are different types of tunnels: Traffic tunnels, Hydro-
power tunnels, and public utility tunnels.
Tunnels need to be determined to a large extent of solutions to the following engineering problems
connected with tunneling, such as:
Alignments, there might be available many alternate alignments that could connect two points
through a tunnel. the final choice would be greatly dependent on the geological constitution along
and around different alternatives.
Excavation Methods, tunneling is a complicated process in any situation and involves huge costs
which would multiply manifolds if proper planning is not exercised before starting the actual
excavation. And the excavation methods are intimately linked with the type of rocks to be
excavated. Choice of the right method will, therefore, be possible only when the nature of the rocks
and the ground all along the alignment is fully known. This is one of the most important aim and
object of geological investigations.
Selection of Design for the Tunnel, the ultimate dimensions and design parameters of a proposed
tunnel are controlled, besides other factors, by geological constitution of the area along the
alignment. Whether the tunnel is to be circular, D-Shaped, horse-shoe shaped or rectangular or
combination of one or more of these outlines, is more often dictated by the geology of the alignment
than by any other single factor. Thus, in self-supporting and strong rocks, either, D-shape or horse-
shoe shape may be conveniently adopted but these shapes would be practically unsuitable in soft
ground or even in weak rocks with unequal lateral pressure.
Assessment of Costs and Stability, these aspects of the tunneling projects are also closely
interlinked with the first three considerations. Since geological investigations will determine the line
of actual excavation, the method of excavation and the dimensions of excavation as also the
supporting system (lining) of the excavation, all estimates about the cost of the project would
depend on the geological details. Similarly, tunnels passing through hard and massive rocks even
when left unsupported may be regarded as stable.
The process of tunneling, whether through rocks or through soft ground, and for whatsoever
purpose, involves disturbing the environment of an area in more than one way. The tunneling
methods might involve vibrations induced through blasting or ground cutting and drilling, producing
abnormal quantities of dust and last but not the least, interference with water supply system of the
nearby areas. A correct appreciation of geological set up of the area, especially where tunnel
alignment happens to be close to the populated zones, would enable the engineer for planning and
implementing plans aimed at minimizing the environmental hazards in a successful manner.
Preliminary surveys are conducted to the whole stretch of the tunnel project. The general
topography of the area, marking the highest and lowest points, occurrence of valleys, depressions,
bare and covered slopes, slide areas, and in hilly regions and cold climates, the snow-line. The
lithology, the composition, attitude and thickness of rock formations which constitute the area. The
hydrological conditions, such as depth of water table, possibility of occurrence of major and minor
aquifers of simple type and of artesian type and the likely hydrostatic heads along different possible
routes or alignments. The structural conditions, the structural condition of the rock, that is, extent
and attitude of major structural features such as folding, faulting, unconformities, jointing and
shearing planes, if developed. Existence of buried valleys are also established during the
preliminary surveys.
Detailed surveys are mostly conducted by bore-hole drilling along proposed alignments and up to
desired depths; the number of bore-holes may run into dozens, scores or even hundreds,
depending upon the length of the tunnel. Drilling shafts and adit, which allow direct approach to the
desired tunnel for visual inspection in addition to the usual advantages of drilling.
3. Buildings (Foundations)
The design of foundations embodies three essential operations, namely, calculating the loads to be
transmitted by the foundation structure to the soils or rocks supporting it, determining the engineering
performance of these soils and rocks, and then designing a suitable foundation structure. Footings
distribute the load to the ground over an area sufficient to suit the pressures to the properties of the soil
or rock. Their size therefore is governed by the strength of the foundation materials. If the footing
supports a single column, it is known as a spread or pad footing, whereas a footing, beneath a wall is
referred to as a strip or continuous footing.
Footings usually provide the most economical type of foundation structure, but the allowable bearing
capacity must be available to provide an adequate factor of safety against shear failure in the soil and
to ensure that settlements are not excessive. Settlement for any given pressure increases with the
width of footing in almost direct proportion on clays and to a lesser degree on sands.
When the soil immediately beneath a proposed structure is too weak or too compressible to provide
adequate support, the loads can be transferred to more suitable material at greater depth by means of
piles. Such bearing piles must be capable of sustaining the load with an adequate factor of safety,
without allowing settlement detrimental to the structure to occur. Although these piles derive their
carrying capacity from end bearing at their bases, the friction along their sides also contributes towards
this. Indeed, friction is likely to be the predominant factor for piles in clays and silts, whereas end
bearing provides the carrying capacity for piles terminating in gravel or rock
Foundation design is concerned primarily with ensuring that movements of a foundation are kept within
limits that can be tolerated by the proposed structure without adversely affecting its functional
requirements. Hence, the design of a foundation structure requires an understanding of the local
geological and groundwater conditions and, more particularly, an appreciation of the various types of
ground movement that can occur.
F. Road Cutting
The location of highways and other routeways is influenced in the first instance by topography.
Embankments, cuttings, tunnels and bridges (viaducts) can be constructed to carry roads and railroads
with acceptable gradients through areas of more difficult terrain. Obviously, the construction of such
structures increases the difficulty, time and cost of building routeways. Nonetheless, the distance
between the centers that routeways connect has to be considered. Although geological conditions often
do not determine the exact location of routeways, they can have a highly significant influence on their
construction.
As highways are linear structures, they often traverse a wide variety of ground conditions along their
length. In addition, the construction of a highway requires the excavation of soils and rocks, and stable
foundations for the highway, as well as construction materials. The ground beneath roads and, more
particularly, embankments, must have sufficient bearing capacity to prevent foundation failure and also
be capable of preventing excess settlements due to the imposed load.
Topographic and geological maps, remote sensing imagery and aerial photographs are used in
highway location. These allow the preliminary plans and profiles of highways to be prepared.
Geomorphological mapping has proved especially useful is relation to road construction in mountainous
areas. Geomorphological mapping helps to identify the general characteristics of an area in which a
route is to be located. Moreover, it provides information on land-forming processes and geohazards
that can affect road construction, on the character of natural slopes and on the location of construction
materials, in addition to providing a basis on which to plan the subsequent site exploration. Such
mapping can help the preliminary design of cut and fill slopes and land drainage, and help determine
the approximate land-take requirements of a road. The site investigation provides the engineer with
information on the ground and groundwater conditions on which a rational and economic design for a
highway can be made. This information should indicate the suitability of the proposed location; the
quantity of earthworks involved; the subsoil and surface drainage requirements; and the availability of
suitable construction materials. Other factors that have to be taken account include the safe gradients
for cuttings and embankments, locations of river crossings and possible ground treatment.
Unfortunately, many soils can prove problematic in highway engineering, because they expand and
shrink, collapse, disperse, undergo excessive settlement, have a distinct lack of strength or are
corrosive. Such characteristics may be attributable to their composition, the nature of their pore fluids,
their mineralogy or their fabric. Frost heave can cause serious damage to roads, leading to their break-
up. Furthermore, the soil may become saturated when the ice melts, giving rise to thaw settlement and
loss of bearing capacity. Repeated cycles of freezing and thawing change the structure of the soil,
again reducing its bearing capacity. Rigid concrete pavements are more able to resist frost action than
flexible bituminous pavements.
Geohazards obviously have an adverse influence on roads. Movement of sand in arid areas can bury
obstacles in its path such as routeways. Such moving sand necessitates continuous and often costly
maintenance activities. In addition, the high rates of evaporation in hot arid areas may lead to ground
heave due to the precipitation of minerals within the capillary fringe of the soil. In the absence of
downward leaching, surface deposits become contaminated with precipitated salts, particularly
sulphates and chlorides. Landslides on either natural or man-made slopes adversely affect roadways.
Slope stabilization measures have been dealt with earlier. Not only can flooding disrupt road traffic, but
it can cause the destruction of roads. Earthquake damage to routeways can cause disruption to urban
centers that rely on these routeways. Damage to a particular zone of a routeway can affect an area
extending beyond the zone. Geological conditions, especially soil properties, potential relative ground
displacement and potential horizontal and vertical strain distribution therefore must be taken into
account when designing routeways in seismically active regions. Notable ground movements can result
from mining subsidence, the type of movements and the time of their occurrence being influenced by
the method of mining used. It probably will be necessary to fill mined voids beneath roads with bulk
grout.
VI. LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. Research and Watch videos on how the different methods and test are being conducted.
VII. ASSIGNMENT
1. What are the advantages and disadvantages on using: SPT, CPT and VPT?
2. Enumerate the potential factors in the possible construction of the ff: Dams, Tunnels, Buildings,
Highways.
VIII. REFERENCES
Books:
1. Parbin Singh, “Engineering and General Geology”

2. P.C. Varghese, “Engineering Geology for Civil Engineers”
3. Legget, “Geology and Engineering”
4. F. G. Bell, “Engineering Geology 2nd ed.”, 2007.
Website
1. www.trenchlesspedia.com
2. https://www.slideshare.net/Vyankyo/geological-site-investigation-methods

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Republic of the Philippines

NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY

DEGREE PROGRAM BSCE COURSE NO. N100/N177/N198/N217

I. UNIT TITLE/CHAPTER TITLE

Geological and Geophysical Investigation in Civil Engineering

II. LESSON TITLE

Geological and Geophysical Investigation in Civil Engineering

III. LESSON OVERVIEW

1. Geological and Geophysical Investigation in Civil Engineering

IV. DESIRED LEARNING OUTCOMES

• Determine and assess the geology of the area by different methods

1. Main Topographic Features

Desk Study and Preliminary Reconnaissance

3. Estimation of the probable settlement of a structure

Steps of Subsurface Exploration Program:

Geotechnical Design Reports

Subsoil Exploration Report

1. A description of the scope of the investigation

The report also should have the following attachments:

1. Site location map

C. Seismic and Electric Methods

D. Direct Penetration, Core Boring, Core Logging, etc

1. Auger Boring (ASTM D1452/D1452M)– Simplest method of

2. Wash Boring (ASTM D1586/D1586M) - Wash boring

Core Logging (ASTM D5434)

Core logging is the systematic recording and

The following steps are suggested

Field Strength Test

1. Standard Penetration Test (ASTM D1586/D1586M)

2. Cone Penetration Test (ASTM D5778)

3. Vane Shear Test (ASTM D2573/D2573M)

E. Geological Condition Necessary for construction of Dams, Tunnels and Buildings

VI. LEARNING ACTIVITIES

1. Parbin Singh, “Engineering and General Geology”

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