8/13/2018

Heat Transfer (UCH402)

By
Rakesh Kumar Gupta,
Assistant Professor, Chemical Engg.

Contact Hrs.: L-3, T-1, P-2

(L, E105 : Mon 2-3, Tue 12-1, Wed 12-1)
Credit: 4.5

Course Objective
• To understand the fundamentals of heat transfer mechanisms
in fluids and solids and their applications in various heat
transfer equipment in process industries.

Course Learning Outcomes

Upon completion of this course, the students will be able to:
• solve conduction, convection and radiation problems
• design and analyse the performance of heat exchanger and
evaporators
• calculate heating and cooling requirements for reactors. 2

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Syllabus
• Heat Transfer: Introduction, Applications, Relation between
heat transfer and thermodynamics, Transport properties, Heat
transfer coefficients.

• Conduction: Fourier’s law, Thermal conductivity, Heat

conduction equations: Rectangular, cylindrical and spherical
coordinates, Composite wall structure, Insulation and its
optimum thickness, Extended surfaces, Unsteady state
conduction.

• Convection: Newton’s law of cooling, Boundary layer theory,

Heat transfer in laminar and turbulent flows inside tubes,
Colburn analogy, Heat transfer by external flows across:
Cylinders, tube bank and spheres, Natural convection,
Convection with phase change: Boiling and condensation. 3

• Radiation: Basic equations, Emissivity, Absorption, Black and

gray body, Thermal radiation between two surfaces.

• Heat Exchangers: Classification of heat exchangers, LMTD

and ε-NTU methods, Heat exchangers: Double pipe, shell and
tube, air-cooled, plate type, Fouling.

• Evaporators: Classification, Single and multiple effect

evaporators, Enthalpy balance, Performance of evaporators:
Capacity and economy, Methods of feeding.

• Reactor Heating and Cooling Systems: Time required for

heating and cooling of agitated batch reactors, Helical cooling
coils, Jacketed vessels.

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• Laboratory Work: Thermal conductivity of a metal rod,

Thermal conductivity of insulating power, Emissivity
measurement, Parallel flow/counter flow heat exchanger, Heat
transfer through composite wall, Drop wise & film wise
Condensation, Heat transfer through a pin-fin, Heat transfer in
natural convection, Heat transfer in forced convection, Critical
heat flux, Stefen-Boltzman’s law of radiation, Heat flow
through lagged pipe, Shell and tube heat exchanger.

Text Books:
1. McCabe, W.L., Smith J.C., and Harriott, P., Unit Operations
of Chemical Engineering, McGraw-Hill (2005).
2. Holman, J.P., Heat Transfer, Tata McGraw-Hill Education
(2008).

Reference Books:
1. Kern, D.Q., Process Heat Transfer, Tata McGraw-Hill (2008).
2. Frank, P.I. and David, P.D., Fundamentals of Heat and Mass
Transfer, John Wiley & Sons (2007).
3. Cengel, Y.A., Heat and Mass Transfer, Tata McGraw-Hill
Publishing Company Limited (2007).
4. Alan, S.F., Leonard, A.W. and Curtis, W.C., Principles of Unit
Operations, Wiley India (P) Ltd., (2008).

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Evaluation scheme
S. No. Items Marks
weightage
1 Mid Semester Examination 25%
2 End Semester Examination 35%
3 Sessional (may include lab/ tutorials/ 40%
assignments/ quizzes)
Total 100

Chapter 1

Conduction Heat Transfer

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Different modes of heat transfer

Three modes of heat transfer are recognized.

• Conduction: a type of heat transfer in presence of temperature

difference in a solid medium or in a stagnant fluid medium.
(e.g.: heat loss from furnace, hot pipe lines and process
vessels)

• Convection: transport of heat energy by way of displacement

of fluid elements from one point to another point which are at
a temperature difference.
(Types: free or natural and forced)

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Introduction to convection

11

Newton’s law of cooling

• Consider the heated plate shown in figure, temperature of the

plate be Tw, and the temperature of the fluid be T∞

• Due to viscous action at the wall, velocity of fluid layer will be

zero, the heat must be transferred only by conduction at that
point.
• Temperature gradient is dependent on the rate at which the
fluid carries the heat away. High velocity produces a large
temperature gradient. 12

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• Heat transfer rate by convection is given by.

𝑞 = ℎ𝐴(𝑇 − 𝑇 )
(Newton’s law of cooling)
where, h: convection heat transfer coefficient (W/m2-K)

• An analytical calculation of h may be made for some systems.

For complex situations it must be determined experimentally.
The heat-transfer coefficient is sometimes also called the film
conductance.

13

Example: An electric current is passed through a wire 1 mm in

diameter and 10 cm long. The wire is submerged in liquid water
at atmospheric pressure, and the current is increased until the
water boils. For this situation h = 5000W/m2.ºC, and the water
temperature will be 100ºC. How much electric power must be
supplied to the wire to maintain the wire surface at 114ºC?

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• Radiation: energy (in form of electromagnetic waves) emitted

from any body at a temperature above absolute zero.

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Fourier’s law of heat conduction

• When a temperature gradient exists in a body, there is an

energy transfer from high temperature region to low
temperature region. The energy is transferred by conduction
and heat transfer rate per unit area is proportional to normal
temperature gradient,

𝑞 𝜕𝑇
∝
𝐴 𝜕𝑥
𝑞 = −𝑘𝐴
(Fourier’s law of heat conduction)

where, q = heat transfer rate (watt), ∂T/∂x = temperature gradient

(°C/m), k = thermal conductivity of the material (watt/m-°C)
(− ve sign is inserted to show direction of heat flow.) 16

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Thermal conductivity (k)

• Experimental or analytical measurements
to determine values of k for different
materials

• Its value shows how fast heat will flow in

a given material.

• Typical values of thermal conductivities

for several materials at 0°C (see table)

• Mechanism of thermal conduction in gas

• A simplified analytical treatment shows

that the thermal conductivity of a gas to
vary with the square root of the absolute 17

• temperature. For most gases at moderate pressures the thermal

conductivity is a function of temperature alone.

• Mechanism of conduction in liquids is qualitatively the same

as in gases; however, the situation is considerably more
complex because the molecules are more closely spaced and
molecular force fields exert a strong influence on the energy
exchange in the collision process.

• Mechanism of thermal conduction in solids: lattice vibration

and transport by free electrons

• Good electrical conductors are almost always good heat

conductors, namely, copper, aluminum, and silver, and
electrical insulators are usually good heat insulators.

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Heat Conduction Equations (Rectangular Coordinates)

• Consider a a solid system with one

dimensional heat conduction
through it,

• Assume temperature of solid is

changing with time and there are
heat source or sink in solid.

• Writing energy balance for element

of thickness dx,

Change in internal energy = Energy conducted in left face

− energy conducted out right face + heat generated within
element ………(1)
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Energy conducted in left face = 𝑞 = −𝑘𝐴

Energy generated with in element = 𝑞̇ 𝐴𝑑𝑥
(where 𝑞̇ = energy generation per unit volume, W/m3)
Change in internal energy = 𝜌𝑐𝐴 𝑑𝑥
(where ρ = density, kg/m3, c = specific heat of material, J/kg°C)
Energy conducted out right face = 𝑞 = −𝑘𝐴

= −𝐴 𝑘 + 𝑘 𝑑𝑥

Put all values in equation (1),

𝜌𝑐𝐴 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑘𝐴 +𝐴 𝑘 + 𝑘 𝑑𝑥 +𝑞̇ 𝐴𝑑𝑥

𝜌𝑐𝐴 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐴 𝑘 𝑑𝑥+𝑞̇ 𝐴𝑑𝑥

21

Dividing by Adx gives,

𝜌𝑐 = 𝑘 +𝑞̇ ……(2)
(one dimensional heat conduction equation)

• Consider a three dimensional system,

energy balance yields,

𝑑𝐸
=𝑞 +𝑞 +𝑞 −𝑞 −𝑞
𝑑𝜏

−𝑞 +𝑞 ………….(3)

The heat conduction values can be similarly given by,

𝜕𝑇
𝑞 = −𝑘𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥
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𝑞 =− 𝑘 + 𝑘 𝑑𝑥 dydz
𝜕𝑇
𝑞 = −𝑘𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑦
𝑞 =− 𝑘 + 𝑘 𝑑𝑦 dxdz
𝜕𝑇
𝑞 = −𝑘𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑧
𝑞 =− 𝑘 + 𝑘 𝑑𝑧 dxdy
𝑞 = 𝑞̇ 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝑑𝐸 𝜕𝑇
= 𝜌𝑐𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝑑𝜏 𝜕𝜏

Putting above values in equation (3) and after solving, we get,

𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
𝑘 + 𝑘 + 𝑘 +𝑞̇ = 𝜌𝑐
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝜏
(Three dimensional heat conduction eq.)
23

For constant value of thermal conductivity (k), equation can also

be written as,

̇
+ + + =

Put (k/ρc) = α = Thermal diffusivity, m2/s and rearranging,

̇
+ + + = ……..(4)
(Three dimensional heat conduction eq. with constant k)

Significance of α
• Large value of k (or α), so higher heat transfer
• Less value of ρc (heat capacity) (or larger α), less of energy
absorbed through material, thus more energy available for
further heat transfer, so large heat transfer
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Special cases:
1) Steady state one-dimensional heat flow with constant value of
k and heat source
̇
Equation 2 reduces to, + = 0…

2) Steady state one-dimensional heat flow with constant value of

k and with no heat generation,
Equation 2 reduces to, =0

3) Steady state two-dimensional heat flow with constant value of

k and without heat sources
Equation 4 reduces to, + =0

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Steady state heat conduction

(One dimension)

• Applications of Fourier’s law of heat conduction in calculation

of heat flow in one dimensional systems

• Several physical problems

• Approximation of multidimensional heat flow problem into

one dimensional problems

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Heat conduction through a plane wall

• Consider a plane wall with heat conduction through it and

writing Fourier’s law,
𝑞 = −𝑘𝐴 = −𝑘𝐴

• Assuming constant value of k, integration yields,

∆
𝑞=− 𝑇 −𝑇 = ∆ …….(4a)
∆
where, Δx = wall thickness, and T1 & T2 = wall face temperatures

• But if thermal conductivity (k) varies linearly with T

throughout wall as 𝑘 = 𝑘 1 + 𝛽𝑇 ,
∫ 𝑞𝑑𝑥 = ∫ −𝑘 1 + 𝛽𝑇 𝐴𝑑𝑇
27

𝑞∆𝑥 = −𝑘 𝐴 ∫ 1 + 𝛽𝑇 𝑑𝑇

𝑞= 𝑇 −𝑇 + 𝑇 −𝑇
∆

• Writing equation (4a) again,

∆
𝑞= ∆

Referring to above equation, if heat transfer rate (q) may be

considered as a flow, combination of thermal conductivity,
thickness and area of material (Δx/kA) can be considered as
resistance to the flow. Temperature gradient (−ΔT) can be
considered as driving potential difference. Above Fourier
equation may be rewritten as,

Heat flow = Thermal potential difference / Thermal resistance 28

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• This relation is quite similar to Ohm’s law in electric circuit

theory, as I = ΔV / R

• Moreover, Conductive heat transfer problems can be solved by

use of analog electrical circuits as following:

∆ ∆
𝑞= ∆ 𝐼=

• To classify performance of an insulation in building industries,

it is common practice to use a term Resistance (R) of
∆
insulation and it is defined in little different way. 𝑅 =
29

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Heat conduction through a composite wall

If more than one material (of constant k values) are present, the
heat flow (q) through all sections may be written as:

𝑇 −𝑇 𝑇 −𝑇 𝑇 −𝑇
𝑞 = −𝑘 𝐴 = −𝑘 𝐴 = −𝑘 𝐴
∆𝑥 ∆𝑥 ∆𝑥

32

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Rearranging, we can get,

∆𝑥
−𝑞 = 𝑇 − 𝑇 …….. 6
𝑘 𝐴
∆𝑥
−𝑞 = 𝑇 − 𝑇 …….. 7
𝑘 𝐴
∆𝑥
−𝑞 = 𝑇 − 𝑇 …….. 8
𝑘 𝐴

Adding equation 6 to 8, we get,

∆𝑥 ∆𝑥 ∆𝑥
−𝑞 + + = 𝑇 −𝑇
𝑘 𝐴 𝑘 𝐴 𝑘 𝐴
− 𝑇 −𝑇
𝑞=
∆𝑥 ∆𝑥 ∆𝑥
[ + + ]
𝑘 𝐴 𝑘 𝐴 𝑘 𝐴

33

• Making equivalent electrical circuit of composite wall

• Writing heat flow rate with use of Ohm’s law,

q= ( )

For resistances in series, put R = 𝑅 + 𝑅 + 𝑅

q=

q= ∆ ∆ ∆

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Example:

Using analog electrical circuit,

Heat transfer rate through composite wall = 𝑞 =
∆
𝑞= ,𝑅 =

35

Plane wall with heat source

Consider a plane wall with uniformly distributed heat source,

wall thickness 2L, constant thermal conductivity k and
sufficiently large in other normal directions to consider heat flow
one dimensional,

Writing one direction conduction

equation in steady state,
𝑑 𝑇 𝑞̇
+ =0
𝑑𝑥 𝑘

Integrating, we get,
𝑞̇
𝑇 =− 𝑥 +𝐶 𝑥+𝐶
2𝑘
Putting B.C.; 𝑥 = 0, 𝑇 = 𝑇 ;
𝑥 = ∓𝐿, 𝑇 = 𝑇 ,
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C2 = T0 and C1 = 0 (as temperature must be same each side of

wall)

̇
Put C1 and C2 above, we have, 𝑇 − 𝑇 = − 𝑥 … . (12)
̇
Put B.C. 𝑥 = ∓𝐿, 𝑇 = 𝑇 , we get, 𝑇 − 𝑇 = − 𝐿 … (13)
Divide eq.(12) with eq.(13),
𝑇−𝑇 𝑥
=
𝑇 −𝑇 𝐿
(Parabolic distribution)

In steady state conditions,

Total heat generated in wall = Heat loss from both faces at x= ±L
𝑑𝑇
𝑞̇ 𝐴 2𝐿 = 2 −𝑘𝐴
𝑑𝑥
37

2𝑥
𝑞̇ 𝐴 2𝐿 = 2 −𝑘𝐴 𝑇 − 𝑇
𝐿
2
𝑞̇ 𝐴 2𝐿 = 2 −𝑘𝐴 𝑇 − 𝑇
𝐿
2
𝑞̇ 𝐿 = −𝑘 𝑇 − 𝑇
𝐿
𝑞̇ 𝐿
𝑇 = +𝑇
2𝑘

38

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1-D heat conduction equation

(Cylindrical co-ordinates)
• Consider a long cylinder of density of ρ, specific heat of c,
length of L and with a heat source in it
• Take a thin cylindrical shell element of thickness Δr and
writing energy balance for it,

39

Rate of change in energy of the element =

Rate of heat conduction at r − Rate of heat conduction at
(r + Δr) + Rate of heat generation in the element

∆𝐸
= 𝑄̇ − 𝑄̇ ∆ + 𝐸̇
∆𝑡
𝐴∆𝑟𝜌𝑐(𝑇 ∆ − 𝑇 )
= 𝑄̇ − 𝑄̇ ∆ + 𝑒̇ 𝐴∆𝑟
∆𝑡

Dividing the equation by AΔr, we have,

(𝑇 ∆ − 𝑇 ) 1 𝑄̇ ∆ − 𝑄̇
𝜌𝑐 =− + 𝑒̇
∆𝑡 𝐴 ∆𝑟

Taking the limits as Δr→0 and Δt→0, we get,

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𝜕𝑇 1 𝜕𝑄̇
𝜌𝑐 =− + 𝑒̇
𝜕𝑡 𝐴 𝜕𝑟

Putting above 𝑄̇ = −𝑘𝐴 from Fourier law of heat conduction,

𝜕𝑇 1 𝜕 𝜕𝑇
𝜌𝑐 =− −𝑘𝐴 + 𝑒̇
𝜕𝑡 𝐴 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟

Put 𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟𝐿 also,

𝜕𝑇 1 𝜕 𝜕𝑇
𝜌𝑐 = 2𝜋𝑟𝐿𝑘 + 𝑒̇
𝜕𝑡 2𝜋𝑟𝐿 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟
𝜕𝑇 (2𝜋𝐿) 𝜕 𝜕𝑇
𝜌𝑐 = 𝑟𝑘 + 𝑒̇
𝜕𝑡 2𝜋𝑟𝐿 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟
𝜕𝑇 1 𝜕 𝜕𝑇
𝜌𝑐 = 𝑟𝑘 + 𝑒̇
𝜕𝑡 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟
This is one dimension heat conduction equation in cylindrical
coordinates. 41

• For the case of constant thermal conductivity (k),

𝜕𝑇 𝑘 𝜕 𝜕𝑇
𝜌𝑐 = 𝑟 + 𝑒̇
𝜕𝑡 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟
𝜌𝑐 𝜕𝑇 1 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝑒̇
= 𝑟 +
𝑘 𝜕𝑡 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑘
1 𝜕𝑇 1 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝑒̇
= 𝑟 +
𝛼 𝜕𝑡 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑘

• For the case of constant thermal conductivity (k) with steady

̇
state, 𝑟 + =0

• For the case of constant thermal conductivity (k) with steady

state and no heat generation,
𝑟 =0
42

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1-D heat conduction through a long hollow cylinder

• Consider a long hollow cylinder of

inner radius ri, outer radius ro and
length L (see figure) and it is exposed to a temperature
difference of Ti − To

• If L >> ro, heat will flow radially only.

• Writing Fourier’s law of heat

conduction in radial direction,
𝑞 = −𝑘𝐴

43

Putting 𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟𝐿 above,

𝑑𝑇
𝑞 = −𝑘(2𝜋𝑟𝐿)
𝑑𝑟

Integrate with boundary conditions 𝑇 = 𝑇 , 𝑇 𝑎𝑡 𝑟 = 𝑟 , 𝑟 ,

𝑑𝑟
𝑞 = (−2𝜋𝑘𝐿) 𝑑𝑇
𝑟
𝑟
𝑞 ln = 2𝜋𝑘𝐿 𝑇 − 𝑇
𝑟
2𝜋𝑘𝐿(𝑇 − 𝑇 )
𝑞 = 𝑟
ln
𝑟
(𝑇 − 𝑇 ) (𝑇 − 𝑇 )
𝑞 = = … … (9)
𝑟 𝑅
ln
𝑟
2𝜋𝑘𝐿
where, Rth = thermal resistance
44

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Q. A steel pipe with 5 cm outer diameter is covered with a 6.4

mm asbestos insulation [conductivity, k = 0.166 W/m.K]
followed by a 2.5 cm layer of fiberglass insulation [conductivity,
k = 0.0485 W/m.K]. The pipe wall temperature is 315°C and the
outside insulation temperature is 38°C. Calculate the interface
temperature between the asbestos and fiberglass.
(MST September 2017)

45

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47

1-D conduction through multiple cylindrical sections

Writing heat flow with use of analog electric circuit,

𝑇 −𝑇 𝑇 −𝑇
𝑞= =
𝑅 +𝑅 +𝑅 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
ln 𝑟 ln 𝑟 ln 𝑟
+ +
2𝜋𝑘 𝐿 2𝜋𝑘 𝐿 2𝜋𝑘 𝐿
2𝜋𝐿 𝑇 − 𝑇
𝑞=
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
ln 𝑟 ln 𝑟 ln 𝑟
+ +
𝑘 𝑘 𝑘 48

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Cylinder with heat source

Consider a cylinder of radius R, with uniformly distributed heat

source, constant thermal conductivity (k), T0 as temperature at
cylinder axis, TW as outer surface temperature and sufficiently
long so that heat transfer will be one dimensional (radial) only,
Writing one dimensional steady heat
conduction equation,
1𝑑 𝑑𝑇 𝑞̇
𝑟 + =0
𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑘
𝑑 𝑑𝑇 𝑞̇ 𝑟
𝑟 =−
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑘

̇
Integration yields, 𝑟 = + 𝐶 ….(14)
Put here boundary condition at r = R, as,
Heat generated in cylinder = heat lost from outer surface
49

𝑑𝑇
𝑞̇ 𝜋𝑅 𝐿 = −𝑘 2𝜋𝑅𝐿
𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝑇 𝑞̇ 𝑅
=−
𝑑𝑟 2𝑘
−𝑞̇ 𝑅 −𝑞̇ 𝑅
R( )= +𝐶
2𝑘 2𝑘
So, C1 = 0, put this in eq. (14),
𝑑𝑇 −𝑞̇ 𝑟
𝑟 =
𝑑𝑟 2𝑘

̇
Integration yields, 𝑇 = + 𝐶 ……(15)
Put at boundary condition: r = R, T = Tw,
−𝑞̇ 𝑅
𝑇 = +𝐶
4𝑘
𝑞̇ 𝑅
𝐶 =𝑇 + 50
4𝑘

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Put value of C2 in eq.(15),

−𝑞̇ 𝑟 𝑞̇ 𝑅
𝑇= +𝑇 +
4𝑘 4𝑘
̇
𝑇−𝑇 = (𝑅 − 𝑟 )……(16)

Assume T = T0 at r = 0, put in eq. (16),

̇
𝑇 −𝑇 = 𝑅 … . . (17)

Divide eq. (16) with (17),

𝑇−𝑇
= 1 − (𝑟/𝑅)
𝑇 −𝑇
𝑇−𝑇
= (𝑟/𝑅)
𝑇 −𝑇

51

Critical thickness of insulation

Consider a layer of insulation around a circular pipe, with fixed

inner temperature Ti and its outer surface exposed to convection
environment at temperature T∞,

Also, assume that outer surface of insulation attains temperature

of To in steady state with environment.
So, conduction heat transfer through insulation (using eq.9) will
be, 52

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(𝑇 − 𝑇 )
𝑞 = … … (10)
𝑟
ln 𝑟
2𝜋𝑘𝐿
Where, L = length of cylinder

Same heat will flow to environment by convection and it will be,

𝑞 = ℎ𝐴∆𝑇 = ℎ 2𝜋𝑟 𝐿 𝑇 − 𝑇 … … . 11
where, h = convective heat transfer coff., A = heat transfer area

Solving of eqs. (10) and (11), we get,

𝑟
𝑘𝑇 + ℎ𝑟 𝑇 ln( )
𝑟
𝑇 = 𝑟
𝑘 + ℎ𝑟 ln( 𝑟 )

Put this value in equation (10), we get,

53

2𝜋𝐿(𝑇 − 𝑇 ) (𝑇 − 𝑇 )
𝑞= 𝑟 = 𝑟
ln 𝑟 1 ln 𝑟 1
+ +
𝑘 𝑟ℎ 2𝜋𝑘𝐿 2𝜋𝑟 𝐿ℎ

To maximize the heat transfer, =0

−2𝜋𝐿 𝑇 − 𝑇 1 1
− =0
𝑟 𝑘𝑟 ℎ𝑟
ln 𝑟 1
+
𝑘 𝑟ℎ
𝑘
𝑟 =
ℎ
This value is known as critical radius of insulation (say, rc).
• If ro < rc; addition of insulation increases heat transfer.
• If ro > rc; addition of insulation decreases heat transfer.
Therefore, we should always make sure that outer radius of
insulation should be more than critical radius of insulation. 54

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Heat conduction equation (spherical coordinates )

Consider a sphere with density ρ, specific heat c, and outer radius

R, heat generation inside it, also considering a thin element of
thickness dr at a radius of r.

Writing energy balance for element,

Rate of change in internal energy = Heat conducted at surface of
radius r − heat conducted out at surface of radius (r + dr) + heat
generated within the element 55

𝜌𝑐𝐴𝑑r = −𝑘𝐴 − [−𝑘𝐴 ( )] +𝑞̇ 𝐴𝑑𝑟

𝜌𝑐𝐴𝑑r = −𝑘𝐴 + 𝑘𝐴 + 𝑘𝐴 𝑑𝑟 +𝑞̇ 𝐴𝑑𝑟

𝜌𝑐𝐴𝑑r =+ 𝑘𝐴 𝑑𝑟 + 𝑞̇ 𝐴𝑑𝑟

Put A = 4πr2 above,

𝜌𝑐(4𝜋𝑟 )𝑑r = 𝑘. 4𝜋𝑟 𝑑𝑟 + 𝑞̇ 4𝜋𝑟 𝑑𝑟

4𝜋𝜌𝑐𝑟 𝑑r = 4𝜋 𝑘. 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 +4𝜋𝑞̇ 𝑟 𝑑𝑟

Divide by 4πr2dr,
𝜌𝑐 = 𝑟 𝑘 + 𝑞̇ (One dimensional equation)

56

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Heat conduction in a hollow sphere

Consider a hollow sphere with density ρ, specific heat c, constant
thermal conductivity k, inner radius radius ri, outer radius ro, and
at temperature gradient (Ti − To > 0),

Steady state radial heat flux will be,

𝜕𝑇
𝑞 = −𝑘𝐴[ ]
𝜕𝑟
𝑞 = −𝑘(4𝜋𝑟 ) [ ] ……..(18)
57

Writing one dimensional heat conduction equation in steady state,

1 𝜕 𝜕𝑇
𝑟 𝑘 =0
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟
𝜕 𝜕𝑇
𝑟 =0
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟
Integrating,
𝑟 = 𝐶 ……(19)
−𝐶
𝑇= +𝐶
𝑟

Put B.C. at ri and ro, gives, 𝐶 =,

Put C1 in eq (18) and (19),

− 𝑇 −𝑇
1 1
− 𝑇 −𝑇
𝑟 𝑟
𝑞 = −𝑘 4𝜋𝑟 = 4𝜋𝑘
𝑟 1 1
−
𝑟 𝑟
58

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Unsteady state conduction

Lumped heat capacity system

• Analysis of a system at uniform temperature
• An ideal approach for a system
• With smaller physical system, more realistic assumption

Cooling of a hot steel ball in water

• Consider a hot ball at temperature (T0) immersed in water at
temperature (T∞)
• Assume resistance to conduction heat transfer is small as
compared to resistance to convection heat transfer
• Observed uniform temperature of the ball
• Considered as a lumped heat transfer system

Writing energy balance for cooling of the steel ball, 59

𝑑𝑇
𝜌𝑐𝑉 = −ℎ𝐴(𝑇 − 𝑇 )
𝑑𝑡
where, ρ: density of steel, c: heat capacity of steel, V: volume of
ball, h: convection heat transfer coefficient, A: surface area for
ball
Integration gives,
𝑑𝑇 ℎ𝐴
= − 𝑑𝑡
(𝑇 − 𝑇 ) 𝜌𝑐𝑉
(𝑇 − 𝑇 ) ℎ𝐴
ln = − 𝑡
(𝑇 − 𝑇 ) 𝜌𝑐𝑉
(𝑇 − 𝑇 )
=𝑒
(𝑇 − 𝑇 )
(𝑇 − 𝑇 )
=𝑒
(𝑇 − 𝑇 )
where, ρcV/hA = τ and known as time constant of system.
60

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Applicability of lumped capacity analysis

• Applicable in uniform temperature throughout the body or

surface convection resistance is large compared to internal
resistance

• Such analysis yields reasonable estimates within 5% when,

ℎ(𝑉 𝐴)
< 0.1
𝑘
ℎ(𝑠)
< 0.1
𝑘
𝐵𝑖 < 0.1

where, k: thermal conductivity of body, s: characteristic

dimension of body and Bi: Biot number
61

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