THEORY OF MACHINES

UNIT – 1
Learning Objectives :
By the end of studying this chapter, the student must be able to understand :
 What is a Kinematic link, Kinematic pair, Kinematic chain,
Mechanism, and Machine.
 Different types of Kinematic links.
 Different types of Kinematic pairs.
 Different types of Classification of Kinematic pairs.
 Different types of Constraints between the Kinematic links.
 Inversion of a mechanism.
 Different Inversions of some important mechanisms like the Four – bar
Chain, Single – slider crank chain, and Double – slider crank chain.
 Compound Kinematic chains.
Theory of Machines

Kinematics of Machines Dynamics of Machines

Kinematics of Machines :
This part of the subject deals with the study of relative motion between the
various parts of a machine, without taking into account the application of
any force.
Dynamics of Machines :
This part of the subject deals with the study of motion between the
machine parts when they are subjected to some force. This subject is again
divided into Statics and Kinetics.

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Statics : This deals with the effect of forces which act on the machine
parts, when the parts are assumed to have no mass.
Kinetics : This deals with the inertia forces that arise out of the combined
effect of mass and motion of the parts.
Machine :
A machine may be defined as a contrivance which receives energy in some
available form, and utilizes it to do some particular kind of work.
Ex: (1) A crowbar → A machine which uses Muscular energy to raise some
heavy Load.
(2) An I.C. Engine→ converts the Heat energy derived from the
combustion of fuel to Mechanical energy.
(3) A Lathe → is a machine which converts the Mechanical energy from
the line shaft of a motor→To remove metal from a bar stock.
KINEMATIC LINK or ELEMENT : Each part of a M/c which has motion
relative to some other part.
Each link → may consist of several parts Manufactured as separate units.
Example: (1) Piston Rod and C/s head of a steam engine → when assembled in the
Engine  Consist one link only  Rigidity fastened together.
(2) Connecting rod of I.C. engine together with the big end and small
end bearings, bolts etc →constitutes one single link.
(3) Crank pin, Crankshaft, and fly wheel → toget h er one link only.
A link→ Not necessarily a RIGID body → but  it must be A Resistant
body, i.e. it must be capable of transmitting the required force
with negligible deformation.
e.g. (1) Fluid links (in Hydraulic presses )→Resistant to Tensile forces.
Classification of Kinematic Links :
The kinematic links may be classified as  Binary, Ternary, and
Quaternary links  based upon the ends on which the revolute (turning) pairs can
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be placed  as shown in Fig.1.1(a), (b), and (c) respectively.

Fig.1.1
As shown in the figure  a binary link has two vertices, a ternary link has
three vertices, and a quaternary link has four vertices, and so on.
Types of Kinematic Links :
1. Rigid Link : This is a link which does NOT undergo any appreciable
deformation while transmitting motion, e.g., crank, connecting rod, etc.,
2. Flexible Link : This is a link which, while transmitting motion, is partly
deformed – but – in such a way that as not to affect the transmission of
motion, e.g., belts, ropes, springs, etc.,
3. Fluid Link : This contains a fluid held in a closed vessel, and the motion is
transmitted by the deformation of the fluid under pressure, e.g., in a fluid
brake, hydraulic press, etc.,
KINEMATIC JOINT :
In general, there are three types of kinematic joints used in mechanisms. They are :
1. Binary Joint : In this, two links are connected at the same joint by a pin  as
shown in Fig.1.2(a).

Fig.1.2
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2. Ternary Joint : In a ternary joint  as shown in Fig.1.2(b)  three links are
connected at the same joint by a pin. This is equivalent to two binary joints. In
the Fig.1.2(b)  the joints at B and C are ternary joints, and all the others are
binary joints.
2. Quaternary Joint : When four links are connected at the same joint by a pin 
as shown in Fig.1.2(c)  it is termed as Quaternary joint. Thus, in the Fig.1.2(c)
 only the joint at B is a quaternary joint ; the joints at A, C, E, and F are

ternary joints, and the joint at D is a binary joint.

Kinematic Pair : Two elements or l inks → connected together in such a way
that the relative motion between them is completely
constrained → form a Kinematic pair.
If the complete constraint of relative motion between the elements of a
Kinematic pair → is not constituted in the connection between the elements
→ BUT – is completed by some other means→ (external to the connection)

Such a constraint → termed asSuccessful constraint.

Types of Constraints :
(a) Incomplete constraint
(b) Complete constraint
(c) Successful constraint
(a) Incomplete Constraint :
Refer Fig.1.3 (a) and Fig.1.3 (b). Here, the round bar / shaft B passes
through the cylindrical hole in the other element A. Therefore, in this type
of kinematic pair, B may slide through A, it may rotate about its axis , or it
may have partly sliding and partly rotating motion relative to A. Therefore,
the relative motion between A and B is incompletely constrained.
(b) Complete Constraint :

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 Refer Fig.1.3(c) and 1.3(d), or Fig.1.3(e) and 1.3(f). In these, the
connection between A and B is modified such that the constraint for relative
motion between them is complete, e.g., in Fig.1.3(c) and 1.3(d), the cross
section of B and the shape of hole in A are both rectangular. Therefore, B
can only slide through the hole in A. Thus A and B form a sliding pair and it is
completely constrained. Further, if the type of connection between A and B
is modified as shown in the Fig.1.3(e) or 1.3(f) – with collars provided to the
shaft B – as shown in these figures – then B can only rotate about its axis, but it
cannot have translational motion relative to A because of the collars. Thus, the
relative motion between A and B is completely constrained to rotation only.
And, if the connection between A and B is as shown in the Fig.1.3(g)
and 1.3(h) such that the contact surfaces between A and B are screw
threads, it forms a screw pair, wherein although both rotation and sliding of
B w.r.t. A is possible, a given amount of rotation of B w.r.t. A results in a

strictly proportional axial movement of B relative to A. Therefore, this pair

can be considered as a completely constrained kinematic pair.

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 Fig.1.3
(c) Successful Constraint :
Refer to Fig.1.3(i) and (j). In this, the left hand side collar is removed.
Thereby, the relative motion between A and B becomes incomplete, because
then B may have both rotational and sliding motion w.r.t. A. However, if
there is an axial force which is acting towards left such that it would
prevent B from sliding axially towards the right, then the constraint of
relative motion is complete. Such a constraint is termed as Successful
constraint. In a successfully constrained motion, the constraint for relative

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motion between the two links is constituted  not within the links  but
through some external means.
e.g., (1) In vertical turbines  The connection between the shaft and thrust
bearing  Does not → AS A RULE → prevent the axial movement
of the shaft in the upward direction.
However, → The Weight of the Turbine → is far in excess of any upward
force likely to arise during the operation of the turbine.
Thus → this Kinematic Pair between the shaft and thrust
bearing → is Force – closed.
(2) The connection between the Piston and Cylinder in an I.C. Engine
is another example for the successful constraint.
Here, the axis of the gudgeon pin -- and -- the axis of the Crank
pin → are maintained parallel to each other → by the connecting
rod.
∴ The Piston → only reciprocates → without any turning motion inside the

cylinder.
TYPES OF KINEMATIC PAIRS:

(A) According to the nature of Contact :

(1) Lower Pair → A pair of kinematic links having surface or area

contact between the members. The contact surfaces
of the two lines → shall be SIMILAR.
e.g., Screw and nut, A shaft rotating in a bearing,
A Hooke’s joint, etc.,
(2) Higher pair → A kinematic pair having point or line contact between
the two members of the pair  The contact surfaces
of the two lines → may be DISSIMLAR.

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 e.g., A wheel rolling on a surface, A cam and follower,
Gears, Ball and Roller bearing, etc.,
The Fig.1.4 shows two examples of Higher pairs. Fig.1.4(a) represents a
pair of friction discs in which the contact between the two links is line
contact. Fig.1.4(b) shows a cam and follower arrangement, wherein the
contact between the two links is point contact.

(a) (b)
Fig.1.4
(B) According to the nature of mechanical constraint :
(1) Closed pair: → Here, the two elements of the pair  which are
geometrically identical  are held together 
mechanically.
One element  Solid and full.
Other element  Hollow or Open.
e.g., All lower pairs and some higher pairs
(2) Open pair: → Here, the two links are in contact  either due to the
the force of gravity or some spring force. The links are
not held together mechanically. e.g., Cam and follower.
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(C) According to the nature of Relative Motion :
(1) Turning Pair: → Here, the two links have relative motion of
rotation between them.
e.g., A shaft in a bearing, A Hooke’s joint, etc.,
(2) Sliding pair: → Here, the two links have relative motion of sliding
between them, e.g., A piston moving in a cylinder
in an I.C. Engine.
(3) Rolling Pair: → Here, the two links have rolling motion between
each other.
e.g., (i) In a Ball bearing → The Ball and Shaft
→ constitute one rolling pair - and -- the
Ball and bearing  constitute another
rolling pair.
(ii) Roller bearing.
(4) Screw Pair: → Here, the two links have turning as well as
sliding motion between them.
e.g., A pair of screw and nut.
(5) Spherical Pair: → Here, one link is in the form of a Ball or
Sphere → which turns inside a fixed link.
e.g., A Ball and Socket joint.

Kinematic Chain : A combination of Kinematic pairs → in which →

each element forms part of two pairs,  and in
which the relative motion between the parts is
completely constrained.
Mechanism : When one element of a kinematic chain is fixed, the
arrangement → may be used for transmitting or
transforming motion. Such a kinematic chain is termed as
Mechanism.
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Inversion of a Mechanism : If there are ‘n’ links in a Kinematic Chain,
then → in general → by fixing each of the
links in turn, n different mechanisms may be
→ obtained.
Each such mechanism → is termed as an INVERSION of the original
Kinematic Chain.
MACHINE : When a mechanism is to be employed to transmit power
or to do some particular kind of work → The various
elements or links → are to be designed to carry safely
the forces to which they are subjected.
Such an arrangement → then → becomes a Machine.
Definition of a Machine : A machine is a combination of resistant bodies
with completely / successfully constrained
relative motions between them, -- and --
which is used to transmit or transform the
available energy to do some particular kind of
work.
Some Important Mechanisms :
I. Four – Bar Chain : In this mechanism → One link is fixed → as shown

Fig.1.5
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in Fig.1.5. In this, a link which makes one complete revolution → is termed
as → CRANK -- and -- the link opposite to the fixed link → Coupler.
The 4th link → Lever (or) Rocker → if it oscillates
(or) Another crank → if it rotates.
Inversions of Four – bar Chain :
(a) If the sum of the lengths of the largest and shortest links in this chain ≤
the sum of the lengths of the other two links, i.e., (s + l) ≤ (p + q) , where
s and l are the lengths of the shortest and the longest links, and p and q are
the lengths of the other two links, then such a four – bar chain  is termed as
 Class I Four – Bar Chain. In such a kinematic chain only, it is possible

to have a complete relative motion between two members. This is known

as  Grashoff’s Law. A kinematic chain satisfying the Grashoff’s law
generates 3 distinct inversions only. On the other hand, a Non – Grashoff chain
generates only one distinct inversion, namely the Rocker – Rocker Mechanism.
In such a Grashoff Four – bar chain → if the shortest link is made
the crank – and – any of the adjacent links is fixed → then the link
opposite to the crank → oscillates (rocks)  (Refer Fig.1.6).

Fig.1.6
Such a mechanism → is termed as  the Crank – Rocker mechanism  (or)
Crank – Lever mechanism  (or) Rotary – Oscillating converter.
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(b) If the shortest link is fixed : (Refer Fig 1.7).
The links 2 and 4  adjacent to the fixed link ‘1’ would make complete
revolutions.
This Mechanism → is termed as  the Crank – Crank mechanism (or)
Double – Crank mechanism (or)
Drag – Crank mechanism (or)
Rotary – Rotary converter.

Fig.1.7
(c) If the link opposite to the shortest link is fixed : (Refer Fig.1.8) 

Fig.1.8

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 Here  the links 2 and 4  would oscillate.
This mechanism is called as  The Rocker – Rocker mechanism (or)
Double – Rocker mechanism (or) Double – Lever mechanism (or)
Oscillating – Oscillating converter.
(d) If the sum of the lengths of the largest and shortest links > the sum of
the length of other two links  such a 4 – bar chain is termed as the
Class II 4 – bar chain  In this mechanism, fixing of any link → always
results in a  Rocker – Rocker Mechanism.
(e) If the length of one of the links > the sum of lengths of the other three
links  it is impossible to have a 4 – bar chain (refer Fig.1.9).

Fig.1.9
(f) Parallel crank 4 – bar chain: Here, two opposite links are parallel and
equal in length  Then any of these two links may be fixed  The two
links adjacent to the fixed link always act as cranks ., i.e., Double – crank
mechanism  e.g., (Refer Fig.1.10).

Fig.1.10
II. SINGLE SLIDER CRANK CHAIN MECHANISM – INVERSIONS :
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(1) This mechanism, shown in Fig.1.11 is primarily used in the I.C. Engines.
Here, the link AC (link 1) is fixed. The crank AB (link 2) revolves with
a uniform angular velocity of ω rad/s. BC is the connecting rod (link 3),
and a slider D (link 4) is attached to it at the point C. As the crank
rotates, the slider reciprocates to and fro within the guides. Thus, this
mechanism transforms the rotary motion of crank into reciprocating
motion of the slider, which is normally the piston in an I.C. Engine.
In the above mechanism, if the link 1 is fixed, then we get the
inversion which is used in the following applications.

Fig.1.11
Applications : (1) Reciprocating engine.
(2) Reciprocating compressor.
(2) If the link 2 in the Single – slider crank chain is fixed , → then the link
3 together with the slider at its end C acts as the crank.
There are two applications for this inversion 
(a) Whitworth Quick – Return motion mechanism (Fig.1.12)
(b) Rotary engine mechanism (Fig.1.13)
(a) In the Whitworth Quick – Return motion mechanism  since the link 1
is fixed, the crank 2 rotates about ‘C’ along with the slider 4. And the
slider 4 reciprocates in the slotted link 3. This mechanism is termed as
Quick –Return mechanism because  obviously → the two extreme
positions of the Ram 6 will correspond to the two positions DP1 and DP2 of
the slotted link. If the crank AC → rotates C.C.W → the time taken to
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turn from DP1 to DP2 is > the time taken to turn from DP2 to DP1. Therefore,
the movement of RAM → from left to right → is made the Cutting Stroke.
(Since this takes place at a lower mean speed than the Return Stroke). And
 the movement of RAM → from right to left → is made the Return

Stroke.

Fig.1.12
Legend : 1  Fixed link ; 2  Crank ; 3  Slotted lever ; 4  Slider ;
5  Connecting link ; 6  Ram ;
Time of cutting stroke 360 0  
∴ 
Time of return stroke  > 1 {since β < (3600 – α)}
(b) Rotary Engine mechanism : This is shown in the Fig.1.13. In this
mechanism, the crank OC is fixed. The complete assembly of the
cylinders and crank case rotates about the center ‘C’, and the pistons
reciprocate in their respective cylinders, i.e., as the link OC rotates, the
sliders (Pistons) reciprocate in their cylinders.
(3) If the link 3 (in the single – slider crank chain) is fixed → we get the
Oscillating cylinder engine mechanism -- and -- the Crank – and –
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 Slotted lever mechanism.
(a) Oscillating cylinder engine mechanism : (Refer Fig.1.14).
In this mechanism, the link 4 is made in the form of a Cylinder --
and -- a Piston (Slider) 5 is attached to the link 1. If the crank 2
rotates → the Piston reciprocates in the link 4 → and thereby the
link 4 oscillates.

Fig.1.13

1  Connecting Rod (Fixed link) ; 2  Crank ; 3  Piston Rod ; 4  Cylinder ; 5  Piston.

Fig.1.14
(b) Crank – and – Slotted lever mechanism : (Refer Fig.1.15)
In this mechanism, the link 3 is made in the form of a Slotted link -- and
-- the Piston is in the form of a slider ‘B’.
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In this mechanism also  like in the Whitworth Quick – Return motion

Time of cutting stroke 3600  


mechanism  Time of return stroke  .
The only difference between the Crank – and – Slotted lever mechanism and
the Whitworth mechanism is in the different proportions adopted for the
driving crank and the fixed link.

Fig.1.15
Here the link AB → is shorter than AO  Therefore the slotted link OP
oscillates between the two extreme positions OP1 and OP2 – while – the
crank AB revolves about ‘A’. The Pin P → is connected to the Pin Q
on the RAM of the Slotting / Shaping Machine.
∴ The Ram (Q) → reciprocates along a path perpendicular to AO.

And -- here also -- similar to the Whitworth mechanism → the ratio

of times taken by the Ram on the Cutting and Return strokes is given
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 (3600   )
by   .

(4) If the link 4 (in the single – slider crank chain) is fixed, we get the
Pendulum Pump or Bull Engine mechanism. (Refer Fig.1.16). In this
mechanism, the link 3 can oscillate about the fixed point C on the
link 1 → Hence the end ‘A’ of the link 2 reciprocates along the axis
of the fixed link 4. This mechanism → is not of much practical
importance.

1  Cylinder (Fixed) ; 2  Crank ; 3  Connecting rod ; 4  Piston rod ; 5  Piston.

Fig.1.16 – Pendulum Pump (or) Bull Engine Mechanism
III. DOUBLE-SLIDER CRANK CHAIN – INVERSIONS :
This is a kinematic chain consisting of two turning pairs and two
sliding pairs. (Refer Fig.1.17). In this mechanism, the link 1 is fixed, and
the pins A and B on the die blocks (links 3 and 4) are connected by the
link 2. As the two die blocks slide along the slots in the link 1, the link 2
(AB) connecting the two die blocks is made to rotate. Each of the two die
blocks forms a sliding pair with the link 1, and a turning pair with the link 2.

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 (The above figure number is to be corrected as Fig.1.17)

Three Inversions of this kinematic chain are possible.

(1) ELLIPSE TRAMMELS : (Refer Fig.1.18).
This mechanism consists of  Two turning pairs -- and – Two sliding
pairs. The Pins A & B on the Die Blocks  slide along the slots in a
Frame. The Pins A & B  are connected by the link AB.

Fig.1.18

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Each of the Die blocks → forms a sliding pair with the frame – and – a
turning pair with the link AB. The slotted frame 1 is fixed. Any point ‘C’ on
this link AB will trace an Ellipse  as the die – blocks A & B slide along
their respective slots.
For the Ellipse → AC → Semi – major axis.
BC → Semi – minor axis.

(Refer Fig.1.18) : Here the link 1 is in the form of a frame – having guides
for the sliders 3 and 4 -- and -- the link 1 is fixed.
Any point C on the link 2 will trace an Ellipse -- and -- the mid – point of
AB → traces a Circle.

θ → Angle made by the link 2 with the X – axis at any instant.

(x,y) → The co – ordinates of the point C, ∴ x = BC cos θ ; y = AC sin θ.
x y x2 y2
∴  Cos θ ;  Sin θ ; ∴  1
BC AC BC 2 AC 2  This is the equation of

Ellipse.
∴ Semi – Major axis of Ellipse = AC; Semi – Minor axis = BC.

If C is the mid – point of AB,  then AC = BC.

x2 y2
∴  1
AC 2 AC 2 (or) (x2 + y2) = (AC)2  This is the Equation of a Circle
with AC (or) BC as its radius.
(2) Scotch Yoke Mechanism : [(Refer Fig.1.19(a) and (b)].
If any one of the sliders is fixed,  we get the Scotch Yoke mechanism.
In the figure shown, the block O is fixed. Therefore the link PO rotates
about the center O, and thereby causes the frame to reciprocate. The
fixed block O guides the frame. The practical configuration of this
mechanism is shown in the Fig.1.19(b). This is used to convert rotary
motion into reciprocating motion.
(3) Oldham Coupling : (Refer Fig.1.20).
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 This inversion is obtained by fixing the link 1 in the double – slider
crank chain mechanism. Thereby, each of the die blocks A and B can

(a) (b)
Fig.1.19

Fig.1.20 – Oldham Coupling

turn about their pin joints. Further, if one block is turned through some
angle, the frame and the other block must turn about the same angle.
And as the rotation of the blocks and frame occurs, the frame will slide
relative to each of the two blocks. Thus, for example, when the link 4
is rotated through 45˚ clockwise, the links 2 and 3 also rotate through
the same 45˚ angle -- but -- the mid – point of link 2 rotates through
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 90˚ in a circle, with the length of the link 2 as its diameter. Therefore,
the angular velocity of the link 2 = 2  Angular velocity of the link 3
(or the link 4). Thus, the mid – point of the intermediate disc describes
a circle with the distance between the axes of the shafts as its diameter.
Construction & Operation :
 Each half – coupling (2 or 3) → is identical in form -- and -- has a
single groove  cut diametrically across its face.
 A circular disc 4 – with a Tongue (Projection) – passing diametrically
across each of its faces – and -- the two tongues (on the opposite
faces of the disc) set at right angles to each other – is placed
between the two half couplings – in such a way – that each tongue
fits into its corresponding groove in one of the two half couplings.
 The tongues are a sliding fit in their grooves.
 And, the whole arrangement works in such a way that – so long as
the shafts remain parallel to each other → the distance between their
axes may vary (within limits) while the shafts are in motion – without
affecting the transmission of uniform motion from one shaft to the
other.
 If the centre distance between the shaft axes is kept constant – the
center of the disc 4 will describe a circular path – with the
distance between the shaft axes as its diameter.
 The maximum speed of sliding of each tongue along its groove =
The peripheral velocity of centre of the disc along its circular path.
Compound Kinematic Chains : These are the Kinematic chains in which
there are more than 4 kinematic pairs. The compound kinematic chains may
be built up from any of the simple chains → by adding further pairs → in
such a way as to retain the completely constrained motion. Further, the
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number of pairs / links added must satisfy the equations relating the number
of links, pairs, and joints, as given below :
2
l = (2p – 4) -- and -- l = 3 (j + 2)  where ‘l’ is the number of links, ‘p’ is
the number of pairs, and ‘j’ is the number of joints.
Degrees of Freedom :
An unconstrained rigid body moving in space can have the following
independent motions  3 Translational motions along any three mutually
perpendicular axes x, y, and z – and – 3 Rotational motions about these three
axes. Therefore, a rigid body possesses 6 degrees of freedom. By connecting such
a rigid body (or link) with another link, certain restraints (or constraints) are
imposed on their relative motion. This number of restraints can never be either
zero or six.
Thus  the Degrees of Freedom of a kinematic pair may be defined as  the
number of independent relative motions (which include translational and
rotational) the pair can have.
In order to develop a general relationship between the number of degrees of
freedom (n) of a kinematic chain in terms of the number of links (l) and the
number of Lower pairs (j) and the number of Higher pairs (h)  let us consider
two links AB and CD which are in plane motion relative to each other  as
shown in Fig.1.23 (a). If the link AB is considered to be fixed, then the position of
any point P on the link CD can be completely specified by three variables, viz.,
the coordinates (x , y) of the point P , and the angle of inclination θ of the link CD
with the fixed (reference) link AB. Therefore, this means that each link of a
mechanism has 3 degrees of freedom before it is connected to any other link. But

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 Fig.1.23

when the link CD is connected to AB – by a turning pair at A – as shown in

Fig.1.23 (b)  the position of any point on the link CD can be defined by a single
variable θ – and thereby the link CD now has only one degree of freedom. Thus,
from this  we may observe one important concept, i.e., When a link in a
kinematic chain is connected to a fixed link in the chain by a turning pair (lower
pair) , two degrees of freedom are destroyed.
Now, let us consider a plane mechanism having N number of links. Since
one of the links in a kinematic chain is to be fixed to obtain a Mechanism, the
number of movable links will be equal to (N – 1) , hence the total number of
degrees of freedom will be 6 (N – 1)  before they are connected to any other
link. Let F be the total number of degrees of freedom of the mechanism, and let
Pi denote the number of kinematic pairs in the mechanism having i degrees of
freedom. Each pair having one degree of freedom imposes 5 constraints on the
mechanism, thereby reducing its number of degrees of freedom by 5P1. Similarly
each pair having two degrees of freedom imposes 4 constraints on the mechanism,
thereby reducing its number of degrees of freedom by 4P2 , and so on. Therefore,
we can write the general equation for the number of degrees of freedom of the
mechanism as : F = 6 (N – 1) – 5P1 – 4P2 – 3P3 – 2P4 – 1P5 --------------- (C)

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 This is known as Kutzback’s criterion for the mobility of a mechanism
having plane motion. However, it is hardly necessary to use the above expression
to find the degrees of freedom of a mechanism. Because, most of the mechanisms
are two – dimensional wherein the translation is possible along two axes (i.e., one
restraint) and rotation is possible about only one axis (i.e., two restraints).
Therefore, for plane mechanisms, the number of degrees of freedom can be
obtained as  F = 3 (N – 1) – 2P1 – 1P2 ------------------------------ (D)
The above Eqn. (D) is sometimes referred to as Gruebler’s criterion for
the number of degrees of freedom of plane mechanisms in which each movable
link possesses three degrees of freedom.
Again, if a mechanism does not contain any higher pairs, i.e., all kinematic
pairs are of single degree of freedom only  then, the Eqn. (D) can be modified
as : F = 3 (N – 1) – 2P1 -------------------------------------- (E)
In general  a mechanism with N number of links may have j binary
joints (i.e., lower pairs with one degree of freedom each), and h number of higher
pairs (with two degrees of freedom each). Then the general equation for the
number of degrees of freedom of a mechanism may be written as :
F = 3 (N – 1) – 2 j – h ------------------------------------ (F)
However, if a mechanism does not contain any higher pairs, then h = 0. In that
case, the above equation may be written as :
F = 3 (N – 1) – 2 j ---------------------------------------- (G)
Further, two empirical relations may be observed for plane mechanisms
having turning (lower) pairs only. Thus, if L is the number of loops in a
mechanism, then we have the following relations :
F = N – (2L + 1) ------------------------------------------- (H)
– and – P1 = N + (L – 1) -------------------------------------------- (I)
Note :
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1. If F = 0  the mechanism forms a structure, i.e., there will be no relative
motion between the links.
2. If F = 1  the mechanism is of single degree of freedom, hence can be
driven by a single input motion.
3. If F = 2  the mechanism will have two degrees of freedom  hencetwo
separate input motions are necessary to produce constrained motion for the
mechanism.
4. If F = – 1 or less  the kinematic chain forms a statically indeterminate
structure.

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