Chapter 2:

Electromagnetic Circuits

Presented by
Prof. M. L. Chen
Dept. of Building services Engineering
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University

1
Why do you need to study electromagnetic?

Most machines use magnetic field as

an intermediate energy into kinetic
energy. Example:
 A conductor carrying current into a
magnetic field experiences a force -
principle of electric motors.
 A conductor moves through a
magnetic field induces an emf on it -
principle of generators.

2
What will be studied in electromagnetic?
Introduction
Magnetic field, force, induced emf
Inductive circuit
Air & iron cored coils
Magnetic fields, circuit parameters
Analytical models
R-L transients.

3
 Introduction
 An electrical system can be represented by an equivalent
circuit based on design data or tests. Two important circuit
‘parameters’ are resistance and inductance.
 Currents in conductors establish magnetic fields. These
fields are generally:
 ‘useless’ in case of cables and electrical installations. It
causes voltage drop, or electromagnetic interference.
 ‘useful’ in case of electromagnetic machines.

 Energy must flow from electric circuits into magnetic

circuits when currents and fields strength increase, and
vice versa. Inductance links electric and magnetic circuits.

4
 Magnetic Fields
 A coil wound in the same direction produces a
concentrated magnetic field when a current
flows in it.
 DC current generates a magnetic field in a coil
of fixed polarity.
 AC current generates a magnetic field in a coil
of alternating polarity.
 Right-hand screw rule: hold the coil in right
hand with the thumb in the coil axis direction
and the others towards to the current direction,
then the thumb points to the N pole (direction
of magnetic field in side the coil).

5
Question
 What form of current flow produces a
magnetic field that maintains a fixed
magnetic polarity ?
 Describe how the right-hand screw rule
applies to electromagnetism.

 


6
 Force determination
 If F is the force on conductor in Newtons, I the current
through conductor in amperes and l the length, in
metres, of conductor at right angles to magnetic field
 F  flux density B  I  length l at right angle

 i.e. F = B.l.I
where Flux density B (teslas) = Flux  (webers)/ cross
sectional area a (square metres).
I
F  F=B.l.I.sin()
B
Into the page (left-hand rule)
Second First figurer (flux density B)
 Left-hand rule: figurer
(current I) Thumb (mechanical force F) 7
 EMF determination - Lenz’s Law
 Electromagnetic induction – Faraday discovered that
a current (or emf) could be produced by the
movement of magnetic flux relative to a coil.
 Lenz found the direction of an induced e.m.f. is
always such that it tends to set up a current opposing
the motion or the change of flux responsible for
inducing that e.m.f. For a coil with N turns, the emf
V is given:
d d
V  N    Ba
dt dt
where ‘-’ stands for opposition to change.
8
 Faraday’s Law
 The basic voltage equation for a circuit in which
the applied voltage v (also the current i ) varies
with time, is given by:
v = R.i + d/dt
where R: the total resistance; : the total flux
linkage; v: the instantaneous voltage applied.
 When all the turns (N) links all the flux (Ø) then:
 = N.Ø= N.B.a,

R
v(t) d/dt
i(t)
9
 Reluctance, Magnetomotive Force
 If we define magneto-motive force (mmf) F as
F = N.i, (similar to the e.m.f.)
and a so-called magnetic circuit reluctance S
(similar to the resistance), then, in the simplified
analysis, the flux linkage is given by:
Ø = F/S = N.i/S, (similar to the Ohm’ law)
 The S is a function of length (l), cross sectional
area (a ) and permeability of the magnetic
medium µ (similar to ) i.e:
S = l/µ.a = l/µr.µo.a, (similar to R = .l/a )
10
 Inductance of magnetic circuit
 For simplified case, it is possible to write the
voltage equation into following form:
v = R.i + d/dt = R.i + L.di/dt
 where L is the inductance of the circuit, and is
given by L = N2.µ.a/l.
 These relationships may be oversimplification,
but they do give us an method of determining
the inductance of a circuit, coil or winding. The
equations also provide a link between the
electric circuit and magnetic field.
11
 Application - Current Transformer (CT)
Principle & advantages of a CT:
 Reduce the system current value in its secondary
winding that is suitable for measuring, control,
and protection devices.
 Isolate the high
current system from I
the secondary circuit, Induced Direction
and its secondary current of flux
winding should be Density B
securely grounded.

12
 Air-cored coils (inductor)
total leakage magnetising

Field Simple
around Equivalent
m.m.f Sm
coil F =Ni
S
l Magnetic
circuit

 Structure: no metal core, or make use of non-magnetic

former (e.g. plastic), or no former.
 Advantages: inductance value does not vary with
current; low values suitable to the application in high-
frequency equipment (e.g. FM radio, TV, transmitter,
receivers).
 Disadvantages: big leakage flux.
13
 Toroidal winding, Permeability

 Toroidal winding:
equivalent to an infinite long
coil, small leakage flux,
linear circuit. T oroidal core and
w inding (coil)

 Permeability: in air or any non-magnetic medium, the

ratio of flux density B to magnetizing force H is found
to be constant and termed as the absolute permeability
, e.g: B = H , = r o
 o = 4 x 10-7 Hm-1, permeability of free space.
 r = relative permeability (for air it is 1, for ferrous
iron or some alloys it may >1000 times).
14
 Simple magnetic circuits
A summary of magnetic circuits
 mmf: F = N.i (A)
 magnetic field strength: H = N.i/l (A/m)

 mean flux density: B = Ø/a (Wb/m2)

 and: B = µoH (Wb)
 If there is no saturation, the magnetic
circuit and electric circuits are both linear.

15
 Example 1:
A coil of 500 turns is wound uniformly and closely
wound on a non-magnetic (plastic) ring having a
mean diameter of 155 mm and a uniform section of
diameter 25 mm.
Calculate the inductance and the mean flux density in
the ring for a coil current of 5 A. Estimate the size
of the enamel copper wire used and the dc voltage
required to sustain this current. Wire data is:
Dia. mm. 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
/km. 62 35 22 15.5
(Neglect leakage flux, assume all flux links all turns.)
16
 Example 1 (answer):
A:Turns = 500.
Inner circumference of ring
 .(155-25)  410 mm.
Wire diameter (close fit on core)
Toroidal core and = 410/500 0.8 mm. (35 /km)
winding (coil)
Wire length 500. . 25  39.3 m
Coil resistance  35x39.3 x 10-3  1.37
D.C voltage to sustain 5 A  5x1.37  6.9 V
Mean magnetic circuit length .155= l mm
Core cross sectional area = . 252/4 = a mm2
17
 Example 1 (answer continue):
Because µo = 4 x 10-7 H/m,
Inductance L (i = 5 A) = N2/S = N2µoµra/l
= 5002. 4 x 10-7. 1.( .252/4) x 10-6)/ .155 . 10-3
= 0.32 mH
Mean core flux density = Ø/a = N.i/S.a = N.i.µoµr/l
= 500.5.4 x 10-7/.155 . 10-3
= 6.5 mT

18
 Iron-cored coils
- Toroidal winding with magnetic core
ferrous
Core coil
E P ie c e I P ie c e
Sym bol

The EI ferrous core has two sections, E and I. These

inductors or chokes can be made with the highest
inductance values, up to the hundreds of henrys,
and are used in dc and low-frequency ac circuits.
19
 Domain Theory
The magnetic material may be regarded as a cluster of
magnetic domains, i.e. small pieces of the core which
have N-S magnetic poles. When the core is un-magnetized
the domains are in random orientation, there being no net
alignment for the total mass of the core.
When an external
H magnetic field
(H) is applied,
Unmagnetised core
Random orientation/
alignment of domains

the domains are

M=0

Magnetised turned into the

domains
direction of the
applied field.
Magnetised core
general alignment
of domains in
direction of H
20
 Domain Theory (continue)
The random orientation of the domains changes to produce
a magnetizing effect which is in addition to the external
field, i.e: B = µo H + M
Flux density = externally produced component
+ internally produced component
where M is the internal or intrinsic flux density. As the field
increases M reaches saturation, i.e., all the domains will
be aligned with the direction of the external field.
Increasing H will produce no change in M.
An alternative expression is to define the relationship:
B = µo µr H
21
 B-H curve, Eddy current
The B-H curve illustrates the relationship between the
two most important magnetic properties: flux
density (B) and magnetizing force (H). Since the
turn number and the length of coil are fixed, the
magnetizing force (H) is proportional to the current
(I) applied.
The Eddy-current: the varying flux in the core
induces e.m.f. and hence currents in the core
material, giving rise to I2R losses. These losses are
called eddy-current losses.
22
 Hysteresis, Core loss
When H is reduced, M and B do not reduce to zero.
This is called residual magnetism. The process
can be taken through a full cycle, resulting in a
hysteresis loop.
+B.
B
R e s id u a l M
The requirement of supplying
F lu x
u H
extra energy to magnetize
the core, is known as the
- H ,F ,i + H ,F ,i
hysteresis loss.
Core loss =Eddy-current loss
-B .
+ hysteresis loss.
23
 Question:
Does the hysteresis loop is formed when
plotting H against B through a complete cycle
of ac.?

24
 Example 2
Consider again Example 1. Recalculate the inductance, flux
density and relative permeability, if the core is ‘cast steel’
having the following B-H characteristic.
H (Am-1x103): 0.25 0.5 1.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0
Cast Steel B (T): 0.17 0.54 1.02 1.36 1.55 1.64 1.71

From the B-H characteristic plot the µr v H characteristic.

Calculate the energy density in the core for a current of 5 A
and 10 A. What will be the inductance of the coil if the
applied dc voltage is the same as that calculated in
Example 1?
25
 Example 2 (continue)
B-H curve for core material For i = 5A
B (T) 2.0 H=N.i/l = 5134 Am-1
1.8

1.6
From B-H curve,
1.4 B= 1.60103 Tesla.
1.2

1.0
µ = µo µr =B/H
0.8 =0.00031185Hm-1
0.6
L=N2µa/l=78.59mH
0.4

0.2 Energy density

0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
H (kAT/m
= BH/2 = 4110Jm-3

For I = 10A, try by yourself

26
 Air-gaps- Magnetic ring with a ‘gap’
total leakage m agnetising

Sm

m .m .f Sl
F =Ni
Sg

Toroidal core with slot Simplified equivalent magnetic circuit

 Most electrical machines need an air-gap to operate.

 Total flux = Leakage flux + fringing flux + useful flux.
 3 types reluctances: gap Sg, Leakage Sl, magnetizing Sm.
 When leakage flux is neglected, Sl =, i.e.
m.m.f. = .(Sm + Sg)
27
 Example 3:

Q.Consider the toroid dimensions and details given in

Examples 1 and 2. What will be the flux in an air-
gap of 0.2 mm produced by a radial cut in the
core.
Plot the variation of coil inductance with current over
the range 1 to 10 A.
Compare with the values for a complete ring core
(Example 1) and a magnetic core (Example 2).

28
 Example 3 (solution):
A. (1). The air-gap length lg = 0.2 mm, << the coil length lc,
and the cross sectional area a, so the flux in the gap is
equal to that inside the core.
(2). The gap reluctance Sg = lg/ µoa
Core reluctance Sm = (lc-lg)/µo µr a
Total S = Sm + Sg = (lc + (µr –1)lg)/µo µr a
Total L = N2/S = N2 µo µr a/ (lc + (µr –1)lg)
Example 1: µr =1, and L = N2 µoa/ lc, (constant).
Example 2: µoµr = B/H, H=N.i/lc, (a function of i).
and if µrlg >> lc, then L  N2 µoa/lg, (constant).
An Air gap increases the linearity of a magnetic circuit.
29
Electrical machine magnetic circuits
 Magnetic circuit of electrical
machines are somewhat more
N A S

B
complicated but flux patterns
can be analysed using
dc Ø

S N
magnetic equivalent circuits.
M agnetic C ircuit of 4-Pole M achine
 The magnetic circuit may be
inverted, i.e. the poles are
inside and rotate, the armature
Ty

T3
L eakage
Tg

Tt Ta

is outside and is fixed. In this

case the machine could be a
salient pole a.c generator.
E lectric C ircuit A nalogous to M agnetic
C ircuit of 4-Pole M achine
30
 Energy equation:
Consider a fixed winding with no leakage flux:
 Flux:  = N.Ø = N2.i/S= N2.i.µo.µr.a/l = L.i (Wb).

 Applied voltage: v = R.i + d/dt, or, v = R.i + L.di/dt

 Assume that the self-inductance L is constant. Then

the power is: p = v.i = R.i2 + L.i.di/dt (W).
 This may be written: p = R.i2 +d(1/2.L.i2) /dt.

 Energy stored in the magnetic field (linear circuit )

wf=  p.dt=1/2. i.= 1/2.F.Ø = 1/2.L.i2 (J).

 Energy per unit volume (energy density)

wf /a.l = B.H/2 (J m-3).

31
 Dc transient R-L circuit
Consider the switching on (transient) process of a dc
source with a resistor R and a inductor L in series.
The basic equation is:
v = R.i + L di/dt
The solution is given by:
Steady state
V/R
Transient process
 Time (t)
Switch on
32
 Example 4 (switch-on phenomena)
Q.Assume the d.c source is a 10 V battery with 0.1 Ω
internal resistance. Neglect connecting cable
resistance and inductance. Plot the transient rise in
current for switching on each of the coils where the
magnetic circuit is described by Examples 1 to 3
above. What will be the energy stored at steady state ?
A. For each case, v = R.i + Ldi/dt , and the solution is:

The steady current is I = V/R

And the energy store is
W=1/2.L.I2
33
 Example 4 (switch-off phenomena)
Q. Consider switching the above steady current off.
How does the energy return from the magnetic circuit
to the electric circuit ?
A. During the short switch-off time, the current
changes from steady current V/R to 0. But the coil
resist this change by producing a opposite emf of
L.di/dt, which may cause an arc discharge at the
switch or a large reverse voltage to other
components in the system. Especially in a large scale
distribution system, this switch-off phenomena
should be taken accounted carefully.
34
 Example 4 (Short circuit across a coil)
Q. Consider what happens if a short circuit occurs across the
coil. Plot the decay of coil current. Neglect the battery
current for this calculation.

A.Supposing the steady current is I0, the resistance of the coil

is R, then when short circuits occurs across the coil, the
voltage equation well be,
Ri + L.di/dt = 0,
The solution will be

So far, what we discussed is the self inductance.

35
 Mutual inductance (Coupled coils)
Coil 1
Leakage
Coil 2 Consider two coils closely
coupled magnetically.
The emf induced in coil 2 by
‘mutual’ flux due to coil 1 is:
I v21= d21/dt (1)
The reluctance linking these two
coils depends on their physical
Induced e.m.f
V1 property, i. e: S21 = l21/µ. a21
V2
In linearity case, we can rewrite (1) as: v21 = M21di1/dt
where M21 = N1N2 /S21 = N1N2.µ.a21/l21.
Generally, M12 = M21, (mutual inductance)
36
 Coupled coils in air
For a linear, doubly-excited two-coil system in air, the
voltage equations are:
v1 = R1.i1 + L1.d/dt.i1 + M12.d/dt.i2
voltage volt drop in self-induced mutually induced
applied resistance emf in coil 1 emf in coil 1 due
to coil 1 to current in coil 2
v2 = R2.i2 + L2.d/dt.i2 + M21.d/dt.i1

Whether or not the coils are additive or subtractive, in the sense

that does the magnetic fields aid or oppose, will depend upon
the orientation of the coils and the direction of the currents.
37
 Example 5
Q. What will be the overall (effective) inductance if two
identical coils when connected in series, a) series
aiding, b) series opposing ?

A. a) series aiding: b) series opposing:

If self inductance the inductance
inductance is L, is: 2(L-M) 
and the mutual 
inductance is M,
then the total one
is : 2(L+M)
a b
38
 Example 6:
Q. What will be the effective inductance of a coil which
links an identical coil connected series aiding, when the
second coil is short circuited? Will the effective
inductance be any different if the second coil sense is
changed to opposing?
A. a) series aiding: if coil 2 is short circuited, then no
current flows into coil 2, therefore mutual inductance
no longer exists. i.e.: total effective inductance equals
the self-inductance of coil 1.
b) series opposing: no difference.

39
 Question:

Q. What is the significance of Examples 5 and 6 if

applied to a coil wound half in one direction and then
half in the opposite direction (as used for some wire
wound resistors).

A. It is similar to two coils in series

opposing. So, it will have small
inductance but big resistance.

40
 Conductors and cables
A similar situation occurs when conductors carry
currents. For two conductors, the field due to each
conductor is opposite, so the resultant is effectively
leakage flux. The closer the conductors, the lower the
flux.
The total inductance of a pair of conductors carrying
equal currents:
Series aiding: L = L1 + L2 + 2M12
Series opposing: L = L1 + L2 - 2M12
Where L1, L2 is the self-inductance of the conductors
in isolation, M12 the mutual inductance.
41
 Pair of conductors
Inductance per unit length of a
pair of conductors L in terms
of the relevant physical
dimensions (D = separation,
d = conductor diameter), is as
follows:
L = µ/4 + µ/.loge(D/d))
Magnetic field around
(H/m)
two conductors
carrying current in Due to internal Duo to external
opposite directions flux density (leakage) flux
Perfect conductors no leakage
42
 Three conductors
Similar expressions exist for
Y three conductors as in a three
R phase line or cable.
Inductance here is effectively
leakage inductance. As the
separation increases so does
B the inductance.
The resultant flux pattern also
varies with time as the
current in each conductor
varies with time.
43
 Tutorial Example:
Q. A coil of 800 turns is wound on the centre limb of the
magnetic core shown in the figure. The core is made of
two cast steel pieces, and has the dimensions shown. The
gap arises because of manufacturing error. The figures
given at the top of the figure refer to core c.s.a. Arrows
indicate effective path lengths in mm. Magnetic fringing
increases the effective area of the air-gap to 1 cm2. The
leakage coefficient may be assumed to be 1.15. The B-H
curve data for the material is the same as for Example 2.
Estimate the d.c. current required to maintain a flux
density of 1 T in the air-gap. Estimate the inductance of
the coil.
44
 Tutorial Example (solution)-1:
2
aL 80mm aC 150mm
2
aR 80mm 2 ØL
Leakage
path ØT ØR
600 200
Sc Sg
Gap &
0.4mm LH S
250 lg core
L RH core

lC m.m.f. SR

lL lR
All lengths are in mm equivalent magnetic circuit

A. µo = 4 x 10-7 H/m, gap flux density Bg=1 T

ØR= Bg.ag= 10-4 Wb, and BR= ØR/aR= 1.25 T
From H-B curve
µoµr(at B=1.25T) =B/H=1.25/1600=7.8x10-4 (H/m)
45
Tutorial Example (solution)-2:
Reluctance:
Sg=lg/ µo ag = 3.2x106 H-1
SR=(lR-lg)/(µo µraR)= 9.6x106 H-1
Flux equation:
ØL.SL = ØR.(SR + Sg), i.e. ØL> ØR, BL>BR
Try BL=1.5 T
µoµr=B/H=1.5/3400=4.4x10-4 (H/m)
SL=lL/(µo µraL)= 17x106 H-1
Check BL=1.5 T
BL= ØR(SR+Sg)/(SLaL)=0.94 T <1.5 T, not ok.
46
Tutorial Example (solution)-3:
Try BL=1.3 T
µoµr=B/H=1.3/1750=7.4x10-4 (H/m)
SL=lL/ (µo µraL )= 10x106 H-1
Check BL=1.3 T
BL= ØR(SR+Sg)/(SLaL)=1.58T >1.3T, not ok.
Try BL=1.38 T
µoµr=B/H=1.38/2150=6.4x10-4 (H/m)
SL=lL/(µo µraL)= 11.7x106 H-1
CheckBL=1.38 T
BL= ØR(SR+Sg)/ SLaL=1.37T ≈1.38T, OK!. 47
 Tutorial Example (solution)-4:
So BL=1.37T and SL=11.7x106 H-1
ØT= ØL+ ØR = BRaR+BLaL=2.1x10-4 Web
BC= ØT/aC=2.1x10-4 /150x10-6=1.4 T
µoµr=B/H=1.4/2250=6.2x10-4 (H/m)
SC=lC/(µo µraC)=2.7x106 H-1
S =SC+(SR+Sg)SL/(SR+Sg+SL)=7.6x106 H-1
m.m.f eq.: N.i= ØT.SC+ØR.(SR+Sg) (or ØLSL ) =1847 A
So current is: i =1847/800 = 2.31 A
Inductance: L=1.15N2/S=1.15NØT/i
=total-flux/i= 0.084H
48
Electromagnetic Circuits

The end

49