Chapter 3:

Single Phase AC Systems

Presented by
Prof. M. L. Chen
Dept. of Building services Engineering
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University

1
 Single Phase AC Systems
 Simple ac generator.
 Waveforms, phasors, impedances, analysis.
 Transients.
 Non-linearity; hysteresis, eddy current, harmonics.
 Supply-load interaction.
 Conductors, cables, impedance and volt drop.
Concentrate on the basics of single phase a.c
circuit conventions and analysis.

2
Contents

Focus on circuit conventions and analysis.

3
 AC generation- Faraday’s Law
Any change in the magnetic
environment (B) of a coil of
wire will "induced" a voltage
in the coil.

4
 AC generation- Lenz’ Law
When an emf is generated according to Faraday's Law, the
polarity of the emf is such that it produces a current whose
magnetic field opposes the change which produces it.

5
 A Simple AC generator


= t
Considering a coil (area a, m2) is rotated in an uniform
magnetic field (B, T) at an angular velocity  (rad.
/sec.), the generated instantaneous emf (Faraday’s law)
is given by: e = dø/dt= d(B.a.cos)/dt = B.a.sin(t).
6
 A Simple AC Generator (continue)
Writing the above formula in the following form:
e = Emsin (t) (V), (sinusoidal waveform)
where the maximum value is Em = B.a.,
and the effective or rms value is E= Em/√2.
 Given a rotating speed N (rpm) and number of pole
pairs as p (N & S together), the frequency of the
waveform f = N.p/60, and  = 2πf (rad s-1).
 Example: p = 1, N = 3600 rpm, gives f = 60 Hz.
p = 4, N =900 rpm, gives f = 60 Hz.
 Variation in B causes variation of the magnitude of E,
Variation in  causes change of both the f and E.

7
 A Practical generator
 The field excitation can be controlled to control B. The
speed (N, ) can be controlled by the driving machine.
 May reverse the system so that the field poles rotate
inside the coil.
 May generate any number of phases by changing the
position of the windings. Example: a three phase system.

8
 Non-sinusoidal waveforms
 In electrical distribution systems it is to find non-linear loads,
therefore non-linear currents and voltages. Some loads, such
as rectifiers, lighting equipment, can cause severe harmonics.
 A common example is the magnetising current waveform for
transformers, caused by hysteresis. Where, the applied
voltage V ( or B) is sinusoidal but the resultant current I (or
H) may be non-sinusoidal, as the permeability r varies with
current i.
V(t) i(t)

9
 Complex waveforms-harmonics
 A complex waveform essentially consists of: a) a
fundamental wave (f); b) a number of other sinusoidal
waves whose frequencies like 2f,c o3f and 4f etc..
m p le x w a v e
f u n d a m e n ta l
w t= 2 2 n d h a r m o n ic
f u n d a m e n ta l
h a r m o n ic

2nd
h a r m o n ic

3 rd
h a r m o n ic

4 th
h a r m o n ic

10
 A.C. Generation
 Alternating current (a.c.) may be obtained from very large
generators at power stations, via the distribution network,
or locally from generators or inverters. It is generally a
three phase supply, being economical in terms of
generation, distribution and utilisation.
 The size or rating of the machine will generally determine
the ‘purity’ of the a.c waveform. Smaller machines will
have less purity and more harmonics.
 The three phase system may be ‘balanced’ or ‘unbalanced’.
In ‘balanced’ case the three phase voltages, impedances and
currents are equal in magnitude, with voltages and currents
differing in phase angle (120°).
11
 Equivalent Circuit of A.C. network
Source A Conductors Load
 Be possible to study
E
A
Zs Zc Z
L one phase in
~
B
isolation, knowing
O
E
C
N ~
Zs Zc ZL
that the others is
~ E
B
similar but with
C 120° and 240° phase
Zs Zc ZL differences.
a) Three Phase Balanced Network
A
 If Zs, Zc, ZL are
linear, then the
E
A Zs Z
c
Z
L current i, source
~
Z terminal voltage V,
N
will be sinusoidal.
b) Single Phase Circuit
12
 Non-linear circuits
 A circuit includes any non-linear elements (R, L or C) or
the generated emf is non-sinusoidal, then the circuit will
be non-linear.
 Load impedance (ZL) is normally the dominant (largest)
value and determines the current in a circuit.
 Non-linear loads includes electronic conversion
equipment, lighting systems, etc. which give rise to non-
sinusoidal currents, voltage drops and terminal voltages.
 The total extent of the problem depends on source and
load characteristics.

13
 Waveform Analysis
 Periodic functions: f(t) = f(t +nT), where n is a integer
and T the period. For example, Sine & cosine functions.
 The peak value (Vp, Ip) of a sine wave is the value of
voltage (or current) at the positive or the negative
maximum (peaks) with respect to zero.
 The Peak-to-Peak Value of a sine wave is the voltage or
current from the positive peak to the negative peak.

(Vp, Ip)

Peak-to-Peak  2

14
 Waveform Analysis (continue)
 The average value is the total area under the half-cycle
curve divided by the distance in radians of the curve along
the horizontal axis: Vavg= (2/)Vp, Iavg= (2/)Ip
 The effective (rms) value is equal to the dc voltage that
produces the same amount of heat in a resistance as does
the sinusoidal voltage: Vrms= Vp /√2, Irms= Ip /√2.
 Form factor = Vrms/Vavg=  /2√2 = Irms/Iavg for sine waves.

(Vrms,,Irms)


T/2
15
Complex Number
A complex number is a number with a real and an
imaginary part, usually expressed in cartesian form

Complex numbers can also be expressed in polar form

The polar form can also be expressed as follows

16
Complex Voltage, Current and Impedance

Math Euler relation

technique and Polar form

Complex
voltage or
current

Complex
impedance

17
AC Ohm’s Law

where Z is the impedance of the circuit and V and I are

the rms or effective values of the voltage and current.

18
 Complex Form of Ohm’s Law
 Consider a complex form V = Vme j(t+) applied to an
impedance Z= ze j. Then the current is:
Vme j(t+)/ze j = (Vm/z)e j(t+)= Ime j(t+).
Im e j()= (Vme j)/(ze j )
(Im/√2)e j()= (Vm /√2)e j/(ze j )
Can simplified as: I/= (V//(z/ ) (1)
I=V/Z (2)
Eq.(1), where I and V are the rms (effective) values, is called
a phasor equivalent of Ohm’s law.
Eq.(2), where I, V and Z are complex quantities, is referred
to the complex form of Ohm’s law.
19
 Resistor AC Response

complex phasor A resistor is a dissipative element

impedance diagram converting electrical energy into
heat. It is independent of the
current direction and frequency.
However, you should use the rms
or effective values for the current
and voltage in the AC case.
20
 Capacitance
 Capacitance is a parameter associated with electric
fields. Whenever there is a difference in potential
between two conductors an electric field will be
established.
 Capacitors are purpose built equipment used for single
phase motor starting, power factor correction and in a
host of power electronic applications, etc.
 The capacitance of a capacitor is given by:
C = ora/d (Farad)
where a (m2) is the cross sectional area, d (m) the
separation and or the permittivity of the medium of the
electric field which is analogous to µoµr.
21
Capacitors
Capacitance C is defined
in terms of charge storage:


Q = charges stored on each
plate.
V = voltage applied to the
plates.

22
Capacitor AC response

complex phasor The voltage across a capacitor lags

impedance diagram the current because the current
must flow to build up the charge,
and the voltage is proportional to
that charge built up on the capacitor.

23
 Inductors
Inductance L is typified by the behavior of a coil in resisting any
change of current through the coil. It may be defined in terms of
the emf generated to oppose a given change in current.

24
Inductor AC response

complex phasor The voltage across an inductor leads

impedance diagram the current because the Lenz' law
behavior resists the buildup of the
current, and it takes a finite time for
an imposed voltage to force the
buildup of current to its maximum.
25
 Phase
When capacitors or inductors are involved in an AC circuit,
the current and voltage do not peak at the same time. The
fraction of a period difference between the peaks
expressed in degrees is said to be the phase difference.
The phase difference is <= 90 degrees. It is customary to use
the angle by which the voltage leads the current. This
leads to a positive phase for inductive circuits and a
negative for a capacitive circuit.

26
 Impedance Combinations
Similar to the resistance, but the phase relationships make it
practically necessary to use the complex impedance for
operations.

27
Complex Impedance for RL and RC

28
 Phasor diagrams
It is helpful to treat the phase as if it defined a vector in a
plane. The usual reference for a zero phase is taken to be
the positive x-axis
The length of the phasor is proportional to the magnitude of
the quantity represented, and its angle represents its phase
relative to that of the current through the resistor.

29
 Voltage cross pure R, L, C

 Pure L makes the current lag the voltage by 900 or  /2

 Pure C makes the current lead the voltage by 900 or  /2
30
Current through pure R, L, C

31
Phase difference - waveforms
Pure R: z=R Pure L: z=L
=0 = -/2

Pure C, z=1/C Series RL:

= /2 z=√(R2+(L)2)

32
 Your Attention!!
Power, apparent power, average power
 For an applied voltage v = Vmsin(t), generally we have a
resulting current i = Imsin(t+ . Then the instantaneous
power: p = vi = VmIm sin(t)sin(t+
= (VmIm /2)[cos- cos(2t+ )].
 Average power: P = (VmIm /2)cosVIcos
where V= Vm /√2 and I = Im /√2 are effective values, the
cos is called power factor (pf). Its unit is watt (w or
kw). Example: Vm=311 volts, V=220 volts.
 Apparent power: S = VI, unit: volt-ampere (va or kva).
 Reactive power: Q = VI sin unit: volt-ampere-reactive
(var or kvar).
33
 Power Triangle
 For an applied voltage V=Vej and a resulting current
I=Iej(a+, we can sketch them as shown below in Figs.
Icos P=VIcos
 V
 Isin  Q=VIsin
I I S=VI
Power triangle, Inductive load, the current lags voltage

I
S=VI
I Q=VIsin
Isin
 V  
Icos P=VIcos
Power triangle, Capacitive load, the current leads voltage
34
 Using complex numbers
 The above triangle also can be expressed by using
complex number as following:
Consider V=Vej, and I=Iej(a+, then I*=Ie-j(a+
S = VI*= Vej.Ie-j(a+=VIe-j=VIcos- jVIsin = P-jQ
 A summery is given below:
average power P = VIcos =I2R=VR2/R=ReVI*
reactive power Q= VIsin =I2X=VX2/X=ImVI*
apparent power S= VI =I2Z=VZ2/Z=absolute (VI*)
power factor pf = cos = R/Z = P/S
*--stands for conjugate form
35
 AC Thevenin’s Theorem

Z1 = 5 + j5 Ω, Thevenin voltage:
Z2 = 8 + j4 Ω, Vth = e = 141.83 + j-5.58 V =141.94V/ -2 degrees.
Z3 = 10 + j 8Ω, The Thevenin impedance is
V1 = 220 V Zth = 11.35 + j7.096 Ωor 13.39Ω/32 degrees.

36
 Power factor correction
 Most of the industrial and residential loads appear
inductive, resulting the current lags the voltage.
 In the power triangle, the hypotenuse S is a measure
of the loading on the distribution system, and side P is
a measure of the useful power delivered. It is
therefore desirable to have S as close to P as possible.
 For inductive load, it is often possible to improve the
power factor by placing capacitors in parallel with
load. Since the pf is increased, the current I and the
apparent power S decrease, making the distribution
system more efficient.

37
 Example 1:
Q.A coil is supplied from a 100 V, 50 Hz source. If the
coil takes a current of 2 A and the power supplied is
50 W, calculate the values of the parameters of the
simple series and parallel equivalent circuits which
may be used to represent the coil.
 Notes:
Draw the single phase circuit of L and (total) R
Power loss is given by I2R, so R is found
For a series circuit use I as the reference phasor
Z = V/I, so L is found

38
 Example 1 (solution): Imaginary
L Z (series)
I R I
(series) 1/Z (parallel)

100V

jL
100V

V R 1/(L) 
Real
Parallel (parallel) R (series)
Series 1/R (parallel)
A.P=50W; V=100V; =z; I=2.0A.
General approach: Z=V/I = 100V/2A=50 ohm.
P=V.I.cos cos =50W/(100V.2A) =0.25
For series: R=Z.cos=12.5 ohm, L= Z.sin L=154 mH.
Or P=I2R  R=12.5 ohm, Z=√(R2+(L)2)  L=154 mH
For parallel: R=Z/cos=200 ohm, L= Z/sin L=164 mH.
Or P=V2/R  R=200 ohm, 1/Z2=1/R2+1/(L)2  L=164mH.
39
 Example 2:
Q. When an iron-cored coil and a non-inductive resistor are
connected in series to a 150 V AC supply, a current of 3.75
A flows in the circuit. The voltage across the coil is
measured as 120 V and that across the resistor is 60 V. The
DC resistance of the reactor is 4.5 Ω. Determine the iron
loss in the core and the equivalent series resistance.
 Notes: The iron cored coil will have an iron (core) loss
due to hysteresis and eddy currents. This may be lumped
into one series equivalent value Ri. The coil resistance Rc
= 4.5 Ω. The circuit is inductive, so supply voltage Vs
leads I. Coil voltage VL also leads I. Resistor voltage VR is
in phase with I.
40
 Example 2 (solution):
Ri Lc Rc R Vs
Vs=60V 
Vc=120V Vc

Vs=150V
A.The equivalent circuit of the iron-cored coil become
wire loss (Rc) + iron loss (Ri) + reactance (Lc).
Vs=VR+Vc (vector) Vc2=VR2+Vs2-2VRVscos. cos=0.65
P=Vs.I.cos=150V*3.75A*0.65=365.625W
=I2RT  RT=26 ohm = R+Rc+Ri
External R=Vs/I=60V/3.75A=16 ohm, and coil Rc=4.5 ohm
Iron core Ri=RT -R -Rc = 5.5 ohm
Total iron loss = I2Ri=3.752*5.5 =77.3W 41
 Transient analysis
Consider the simple single phase circuits shown below.
Fig a) an inductive load supplied from a single phase source.
Fig b) a generator subjected to a short circuit.
Fig c) the Thevenin equivalent single phase circuit.
The response of either circuit when the switch is closed, may
be analysed in the same way.
i i i

R+jX R+jX
~ v
~~ v R+jX ~ v

a) b) c)
42
 Transient analysis (continue)
The voltage equation at the instant that the switch is closed, is
v = Vm sin (t + ) = R i + L di/dt,
where  is the voltage phase angle when the switch is closed.
Assuming the circuit is linear, then the solution is
i = (Vm /Z){ sin ( - ø) e -t/T + sin (t +  - ø)}
d.c component idc a.c component iac
Where X = L, Z = √(R2 + X2), tanø = X/R, T=L/R.
iac

idc

i 43
 Transient analysis (solution discussion)
From the above solution we can conclude:
If  - ø = 0 or π then idc= 0 (no dc component)
If  - ø = π/2 or 3π/2 then idc= (Vm/Z) e-t/T (maximum)
For cosø = 0, i.e., R = 0, ø = π/2.
If  = π/2 then idc = 0 (no dc component)
If  = 0 then idc = Vm/Z (maximum)
For cosø = 1, i.e., L = 0, ø = 0, then idc = 0
In general the R and X will determine the maximum likely
d.c offset and therefore the peak current that can occur,
as well as the rate of decay of the transient.
The general principle shown here is applicable to similar
three phase system fault studies, motor starting. 44
 Example 4

Q. A series RL circuit with R = 50 Ω and L = 0.2 H has

a sinusoidal voltage source v = 150 sin (500t + ø)
applied at time t= 0. Calculate the peak value of the
transient current.
(Try by your self after lecture.)

45
 Example 5
Q. A coil of 500 turns is wound uniformly and closely
wound on a cast steel ring having a mean diameter of
155 mm and a uniform section of diameter 25 mm. Data
for this coil was calculated in Example 1 of
‘Electromagnetics’.
B-H characteristic is as Example 2 of Electromagnetics’.
Assume an appropriate constant value for L. Calculate the
transient current rise for an applied voltage of 10 V ac.
rms. Calculate the maximum value of the dc component
and the ‘worst case’ peak ac current. At what switching
angle (voltage wave) do these occur ?

46
 Example 5 (solution)

A. It shall be a coil with large inductance and the

current will not be great. Just assume H=500 A/m, the
correspondent B = 0.54 T, then  =B/H =0.54/500.
S=l/(a)=0.155*500/(0.54*12.52*10-6)=9.19*105
L=N2/S=5002/(9.19*105)= 0.272 H
X=L=100*0.272 =85.5 ohm (assume 50Hz)
R=1.37 ohm ( from Q1 of EM notes)
Therefore idc =[Vm/Z]e-t/Tsin(switch angle )
where Vm=√2*10V =14.4V, Z=√(X2+R2)=85.5ohm,
T=L/R=0.199s, =tan-1(X/R)= 890
Max idc = 14.4/85.5e-0 =0.168 A (at time=0,and = -10).
47
 Exercise

Q. What are the appropriate single phase equivalent

circuits for the following:
a. an incandescent lamp d. an air conditioner
b. a fluorescent lamp
c. an electric radiant heater e. a washing machine

At this stage consider whether these are inductive,

capacitive or purely resistive.

48
 Exercise 1 (answer)

A. a. an incandescent lamp - R (even low inductance).

b. a fluorescent lamp - inductive, with capacitor.
c. an electric radiant heater - R.
d. an air conditioner - purely motor, inductive.
e. a washing machine - for motor modes, inductive.

49
 Cables and conductors

Resistance of conductors changes with freq. due to skin effect.

A example is the resistance of copper busbars used in busduct
systems. From the tables on page 14, the Rdc and R50 values
differ. The resistance for 60 Hz are higher than for 50 Hz.
In cables with armouring skin effects and circulating currents
in armouring can cause additional problems due to heating
and circulating currents.
For larger cables the inductance becomes the larger component
of Z. The inductance is in fact ‘leakage inductance’, which
varies with the spacing of conductors. (For example, see
table 4D4B in DC system).
50
 Tutorial example 1

Q. A single phase 9.6 kW heater is supplied at 200 V

a.c via 25 m of twin-core cable to BS 6004 (table
A6 (1)). What will be the supply voltage? Draw the
phasor diagram for the system. State clearly any
assumptions made.
Note: The assumptions are an important part of
answering a question, because it indicates your
grasp of the practical aspects of problem solving.

51
 Tutorial example 1 (solution)

A. Assume 200 V at the heater terminals and the heater has

negligible inductance. Resistance = R = V2/P = 2002 / 9.6*
103 = 4 .17 Ω. Current = V/R = 200/4.17 = 48 A.
Assume 30°C ambient and cable is 'clipped direct'. Size of
cable must be such as to have a rating ≥ 48 A. Choose 6
mm2(table A6(1)). Inductance is negligible.
Voltage drop = 7.3 mV/A/m (L and N together, at full load
49 A, 70°C, table A6(1)). Voltage drop for 48 A and 25 m =
7.3*10-3* 48.25 = 8.8 V. This is in phase with I.
Supply voltage = 200 + 8.8 = 208.8 V. All voltages and the
current are in phase.
52
 Tutorial example 2

Q. A single phase 95 kW machine having an efficiency

of 91% runs at 0.75 p.f lag. The terminal voltage is
measured at 195 V. The supply cable is 50 m single-
core cable to Table A6(1), enclosed.
What is the supply voltage?
What capacitor rating is required to improve the power
factor to 1.0 ?
What will be the current for a short circuit at the
machine terminals, assuming the supply source
impedance is 0.1/60˚Ω.
State clearly any assumptions made. Draw the circuit
and phasor diagrams for each case.
53
 Tutorial example 2 - Supply voltage
Rc machine VX Vz
I
X c  Vs
Vs Vz V VRc  Vz
V
Equivalent circuit I
A.Input power to machine P= 92kW/0.91(given)=104.4kW.
Current I = P/(V.cos)=104.4kW/(195V*0.75)=714A.
Cable size =630 mm2 (its rating current is 720A at 300C).
Cable voltage drop = 0.094+j0.25 =0.27 mΩ/m.
Total voltage drop Vz= 714A*0.27*10-3*50m=9.639V.
Cable impedance angle =tan-1(0.25/0.094)=69.40
Machine impedance angle =cos-1(0.75)=41.40.
Supply voltage Vs2 = V2+Vz2-2V.Vz.cos(1800-(-Vs=203.6V.
54
 Tutorial example 2 - Capacitor
machine
Connect a capacitor in parallel L
Y C
with the machine (right figure)
can improve the power factor
Power correction
Total admittance Y = YL+Yc=1/(rL+jXL) +1/(-jXc)
= rL/(rL2+XL2) + j (1/Xc) -XL/(rL2 +XL2))
To make pf =1, it should be: 1/Xc =XL/(rL2 +XL2)=sin/ZL.
Where ZL=√(rL2 +XL2)=V/I=273.1mΩ,
and sin=XL/ZL=√(1-0.752)=0.6615
then C=1/Xc = 2.422 Ω-1
For f=50Hz, =2f=100the capacitance C= 7710 F
55
 Tutorial example 2 - Short circuit current-1
Rc cable VZc Vs
Isc 600 VZs
Vs Xs Rs Ø=60.20
Short-circuit Equivalent Isc
The cable impedance Zc =0.27mΩ*50m =0.0135Ω/69.40
The source internal impedance Zs =0.1Ω/600
Total X= Xc+Xs = Zc.sin 69.40 +Zs.sin 600 =0.0991Ω
Total R= Rc+Rs = Zc.cos 69.40 +Zs.cos 600 =0.0547 Ω
Total Z=√(X2+R2)=0.11Ω, with phasor ø cos-1(R/Z)= 60.20
Then isc = (Vm /Z){ sin ( - ø) e -t/T + sin (t +  - ø)}
Where, T=L/R, L=X, Vm=√2Vs,  the start angle of Vs
Maximum Value Isc =√2Vs/Z = =√2*203.6V/0.11Ω = 2618A
56
 Tutorial example 2 - Short circuit current-2
Rc cable VZc Vs
Isc 600 VZs
Vs Xs Rs Ø=60.20
Short-circuit Equivalent Isc
If ignore the cable impedance.
The source internal impedance Z =0.1Ω/600
Reactance X =Zs.sin 600 =0.0866 Ω
Resistance R =Zs.cos 600 =0.05 Ω
Then isc = (Vm /Z){ sin ( - ø) e -t/T + sin (t +  - ø)}
Where, T=L/R, L=X, Vm=√2Vs,  the start angle of Vs
Maximum Value Isc =√2Vs/Z = =√2*203.6V/0.1Ω = 2879A

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Single Phase AC Systems

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