Ion exchange and Filtration

Lecture 10
CEL212
Dr. Divya Gupta
10th Feb, 2021
 Numerical: Ion exchange
An ion-exchange softener is to be used to treat the 25000 m3/d of water
described in bar diagram.

The medium selected has an adsorptive capacity of 90 kg/m3 at a flow rate of

0.4 m3/min.m2. Regeneration is accomplished using 150 kg of sodium
chloride per cubic meter of resin in 10% solution. Determine the volume
of medium required and the physical arrangement for continuous
operation in fixed beds. Also determine the chemical requirement and the
regeneration cycle time. (Use 2m tank in diameter; 75 mg/L hardness is
acceptable.)
=75.4m3
 Filtration
• Coagulation and sedimentation will remove majority
of suspended particle

• The resultant water may still have some very fine

suspended particle and bacteria

• The process of passing water through fine granular

materials (filters) is known as filtration.

• Remove color, odors, turbidity and pathogenic

bacteria
 Theory of filtration
• Mechanical straining
Suspended particle bigger than the size of voids are
removed
• Flocculation and sedimentation
Void space acts like coagulation sedimentation tank.
• Biological metabolism
Microorganism convert organic impurities into
harmless compound which form a layer on the top
called dirty skin.
• Electrolytic Changes
 Filtration mechanisms
There are four basic filtration mechanisms:

SEDIMENTATION : The mechanism of sedimentation is due to force of gravity and

the associate settling velocity of the particle, which causes it to cross the
streamlines and reach the collector.

INTERCEPTION : Interception of particles is common for large particles. If a large

enough particle follows the streamline, that lies very close to the media surface it
will hit the media grain and be captured.

BROWNIAN DIFFUSION : Diffusion towards media granules occurs for very small
particles, such as viruses. Particles move randomly about within the fluid, due to
thermal gradients. This mechanism is only important for particles with diameters <
1 micron.

INERTIA : Attachment by inertia occurs when larger particles move fast enough to
travel off their streamlines and bump into media grains.
 Filter media
Sand: Sand, either fine or coarse, is generally used as filter media.
• The size of the sand is measured and expressed by the term called effective size.
• The effective size, i.e. D10 may be defined as the size of the sieve in mm through
which ten percent of the sample of sand by weight will pass.
• The uniformity in size or degree of variations in sizes of particles is measured and
expressed by the term called uniformity coefficient.
• The uniformity coefficient, i.e. (D60/D10) may be defined as the ratio of the sieve
size in mm through which 60 percent of the sample of sand will pass, to the
effective size of the sand.

Gravel: The layers of sand may be supported on gravel, which permits the filtered
water to move freely to the under drains, and allows the wash water to move
uniformly upwards.

Other materials: Instead of using sand, sometimes, anthrafilt is used as filter media.
Anthrafilt is made from anthracite, which is a type of coal-stone that burns without
smoke or flames. It is cheaper and has been able to give a high rate of filtration.
 Types of filter
Slow sand filter
Consist of fine sand, supported by gravel. Capture particle near the
surface

Rapid sand filter

Larger sand grains supported by gravel and capture particles
throughout the bed

Dual-media filters
Consist of two layers of different granular materials (coal and sand)

Multimedia filters
Consist of two or more layers of different granular materials, with
different densities
 Principles of Slow Sand Filtration
• Impurities in the water are removed by a
combination of processes: sedimentation, straining,
adsorption, and chemical and bacteriological action.

• During the first few days, water is purified mainly by

mechanical and physical-chemical processes

• The resulting accumulation of sediment and organic

matter forms a thin layer on the sand surface, which
remains permeable and retains particles (even
smaller than the spaces between the sand grains)
• As this layer (referred to as “Schmutzdecke”) develops, it becomes living
quarters of vast numbers of micro-organisms which break down organic
material retained from the water, converting it into water, carbon dioxide
and other oxides.

• Most impurities, including bacteria and viruses, are removed from the raw
water as it passes through the filter skin and the layer of filter bed sand
just below.

• The purification mechanisms extend from the filter skin to approx. 0.3-0.4
m below the surface of the filter bed, gradually decreasing in activity at
lower levels as the water becomes purified and contains less organic
material.

• When the micro-organisms become well established, the filter will work
efficiently and produce high quality effluent which is virtually free of
disease carrying organisms and biodegradable organic matter.
Cleaning of filter is done by scraping and removing top 1.5-3cm
of top sand layer

The top surface is finally cleaned and washed with good water

Rate of filtration:- 100-200 L per hour per m2 of filter area.

98-99 percent of Bacteria and suspended solid removal
 Advantages and disadvantages of slow-sand filters

Advantages
• require little or no mechanical power, chemicals or replaceable parts,
• require minimal operator training and only periodic maintenance,
• often an appropriate technology for poor and isolated areas.
• simple design

Disadvantages
• Due to the low filtration rate, slow sand filters require extensive land area for
a large municipal system.
• Many municipal systems in grown cities installed rapid sand filters, due to
increased demand for drinking water.
 Rapid sand filter
• Use comparatively larger sized sand particles and
have a greater rate of filtration
• Used in large municipal supplies
• 30 times higher yield than slow sand filters
 Backwashing of Rapid Sand Filter
• The head loss is so high that the filter no
longer produces water at the desired rate;
and/or

• Floc starts to break through the filter and the

turbidity in the filter effluent increases; and/or

• A filter run reaches a given hour of operation

• Water supply to filter is cut off.

• Wash water to be send upwards through the

filter bed along with compressed air.

• Agitate the particle and remove the suspended

impurities from it.

• Takes about 15 minutes.

• Require 2 to 5% of filtered water.

• Need to washed every 24-48 hrs.

 Advantages and disadvantages of rapid-sand filters

Advantages
• Much higher flow rate than a slow sand filter;
• Requires relatively small land area
• requires less quantity of sand

Disadvantages
• Requires greater maintenance than a slow sand filter
• Generally ineffective against taste and odour problems
• Produces large volumes of sludge for disposal
• Skilled supervision is essential
• Cannot remove bacteria
• Less sensitive to changes in raw water quality, e.g. turbidity
 Slow sand filters vs rapid sand filters

• Base material: In SSF it varies from 3 to 65 mm in size and 30 to 75 cm in depth

while in RSF it varies from 3 to 40 mm in size and its depth is slightly more, i.e.
about 60 to 90 cm.

• Filter sand: In SSF the effective size ranges between 0.2 to 0.4 mm and
uniformity coefficient between 1.8 to 2.5 or 3.0. In RSF the effective size ranges
between 0.35 to 0.55 and uniformity coefficient between 1.2 to 1.8.

• Rate of filtration: In SSF it is small, such as 100 to 200 L/h/sq.m. of filter area
while in RSF it is large, such as 3000 to 6000 L/h/sq.m. of filter area.

• Flexibility: SSF are not flexible for meeting variation in demand whereas RSF
are quite flexible for meeting reasonable variations in demand.
 Slow sand filters vs rapid sand filters (contd.)

• Post treatment required: Almost pure water is obtained from SSF.

However, water may be disinfected slightly to make it completely safe.
Disinfection is a must after RSF.

• Method of cleaning: Scrapping and removing of the top 1.5 to 3 cm thick

layer is done to clean SSF. To clean RSF, sand is agitated and backwashed
with or without compressed air.

• Loss of head: In case of SSF approx. 10 cm is the initial loss, and 0.8 to
1.2m is the final limit when cleaning is required. For RSF 0.3m is the initial
loss, and 2.5 to 3.5m is the final limit when cleaning is required.
 Membrane filtration
• Treatment process based on the physical separation of compounds from the
water phase with the use of a semi-permeable membrane.
• Most of the membranes used are synthetic membranes made of organic
polymers

Can be divided into two categories based on the pore sizes of the membrane:

Micro- and Ultrafiltration (MF and UF) remove colloidal substances and
microorganisms

Nanofiltration and Reverse Osmosis (NF and RO) remove colloidal substances
and microorganisms but also dissolved substances like micro-pollutants and
ions
 Removal of microorganisms during membrane filtration
• The removal of microorganisms is referred to in log units.

• A removal of one log unit corresponds to a 90% removal.

• The removal of 4 log units corresponds to a 99.99% removal.

• Molecular Weight Cut-Off (MWCO) can also be used as an indication of the

ability of membranes to reject compounds

• MWCO is the molecular weight of spherical molecules which are 90% rejected
by the membrane pores.

• The unit of MWCO is Dalton (1 Dalton is the mass of one hydrogen atom
=1.66x10-27kg)

• The MWCO for MF/UF is in the range of 10,000 to 500,000 Dalton (10 to 500
kD).
 Reverse Osmosis based filtration
Reverse osmosis takes place when pressure applied to a
highly concentrated solute solution
Causes the solvent to pass through a membrane to the lower
concentrated solution
Leaving a higher concentration of solute on one side, and only
solvent on the other.
Reverse osmosis desalination plant began running a small scale
operation in Coalinga, California in 1965.
Can remove following contaminants from water:
• Lead
• Arsenic
• Copper
• Nitrates and nitrites
• Chromium (hexavalent & trivalent)
• Selenium
• Fluoride
• Radium
• Barium
• Cadmium
• Cyst (cryptosporidium)
• Total dissolved solids (TDS)
• Cold Water Line Valve
• Pre-Filter(s):- Sediment and Carbon Filters
• Reverse Osmosis Membrane
• Post filter(s)
• Automatic Shut Off Valve (SOV) and
Check Valve
• Pre-filters (sediment/carbon filters): 6-12 months
• RO Membrane: 2-3 years
• Post filter (carbon filter): 12 months
• RO membrane are not chlorine resistant therefore pre-
filters are provided
• Hard water may also clog the membrane by forming scale
therefore softeners are to be installed.
• The water is demineralized.
• Not kills bacteria, viruses.
• Water wastage: Approximately much more water flushed
down as wastewater compared to filtered out water.