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A New Calculation Approach To The Energy Balance of A Gas Turbine Including A Study of The Impact of The Uncertainty of Measured Parameters
A New Calculation Approach To The Energy Balance of A Gas Turbine Including A Study of The Impact of The Uncertainty of Measured Parameters
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ALSTOM
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e-mail: helmer.andersen@power.alstom.com
ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION
Computing the solution to the energy balance around a gas As little as 10 years ago, on-line gas turbine performance
turbine in order to calculate the intake mass flow and the calculations were impossible in part due to the limitations in
turbine inlet temperature requires several iterations. This the CPU’s of personal computers. Thus, during performance
makes hand calculations very difficult and, depending on the tests of gas turbine or combined-cycle power plants,
software used, even causes significant calculation times on significant efforts were undertaken without being able to judge
PCs. While this may not seem all that important considering if any measurement error was present. The performance
the power of today’s personal computers, the approach calculation is required in order to calculate the compressor
described in this paper presents a new way of looking at the intake flow and the turbine inlet temperature. The desire to
gas turbine process and the resulting simplifications in the instantly know if the measurements were producing
calculations. meaningful results caused the testing community to push for
on-line measurement evaluation systems. Andersen, Chen and
This paper offers a new approach to compute the energy Hartmann describe one example of an on-line measurement
balance around a gas turbine. The energy balance requires that system in [1]. However, these systems were very slow and
all energy flows going into and out of the control volume be required top of the line PC’s in order to perform the
accounted for. The difficulty of the energy balance equation performance calculations. The duration of the calculations
around a gas turbine lies in the fact that the exhaust gas were driven by the fact that the codes required iterations. In
composition is unknown as long as the intake flow is each iteration enthalpies of multiple mixtures have to be
unknown. Thus, a composition needs to be assumed when calculated, which is time consuming.
computing the exhaust gas enthalpy. This allows the
calculation of the intake flow, which in turn provides a new Interestingly enough, all the efforts to reduce calculation times
exhaust gas composition, and so forth. were focused on improving the coding, such as using more
efficient numeric methods to improve the iterations, and using
By viewing the exhaust gas as a flow consisting of ambient air faster and more efficient computer programming codes, such
and combusted fuel, the described iteration can be avoided. as C++ instead of visual basic. However, none or few efforts
The study presents the formulation of the energy balance were made to solve the root cause of the problem and develop
applying this approach and looks at the accuracy of the result a code that avoids the iteration completely.
as a function of the inaccuracy of the input parameters.
Furthermore, solutions of the energy balance are presented for This paper presents a solution that does not require any
various process scenarios, and the impact of the uncertainty of iterative calculations and thus makes it possible to perform the
key process parameter is analyzed. performance calculations even in spreadsheets. The solution is
based on viewing the problem in a different way. The
Keywords: Performance calculation, gas turbines traditional method views the exhaust gas as a mixture of
unknown composition that needs to be assumed and then
verified/corrected by means of iterations. The method
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presented in this paper views the exhaust flow as consisting of
excess air (ambient air), stoichiometric combusted fuel and
water (steam).
NOMENCLATURE
cp: specific heat at constant pressure, (kJ/kg K)
h: specific stagnation enthalpy, (kJ/kg)
LHV: lower heating (calorific) value, (kJ/kg of fuel)
Lmin: amount of air required for stoichiometric combustion,
(kg dry Air/kg fuel)
m: mass flow rate, (kg/s)
p: pressure, (bara, barg)
Figure 1: Control volume around a gas turbine
P: power, (kW)
q: specific heat flow rate (kJ/kg s)
Q: heat flow rate (kJ/s)
The following values will typically be measured:
Rh: relative humidity
SH: sensible heat
Intake (cpr0): t, p and Rh.
t: temperature, (deg C)
Compr. Discharge (cpr2): t, p
TIT : turbine inlet temperature
Fuel: composition, flow rate, t
xextr: fraction of extraction air with respect to compressor
Injection fluid: flow rate, t, p
intake flow (mcpr0), (kg/kg of air @ cpr0)
Exhaust (e2): t, p
Electrical: power, paux
x w: fraction of water in the air, (kg/kg of dry air)
The following values are typically estimated based upon
ξi: Mass fraction of the constituent i in a mixture design information:
Losses: bearing, heat, generator, gearbox (if
Subscripts: applicable)
air: air Seal air: flow rates, t
aux: auxiliary Extraction air: m, t
cprod: combustion products
cpr: compressor The schematic and the traditional calculation method is
cpr0: ambient described in detail in [2].
cpr1: compressor inlet
cpr2: compressor outlet The conventional way to formulate the energy balance for the
ex: excess air (not participating in combustion) indicated control volume is:
extr: extraction PNet + P aux + Q extr + Q loss + Q e2 = Q cpr0 + Q fuel + Q inj (1)
el: electrical (losses i.e. generator, transformer)
e1: expansion turbine inlet (= combustor outlet)
e2: expansion turbine outlet => PNet + P aux + Q extr + Qloss - Qfuel - Qinj = (2)
fuel: fuel m cpr1 * (hcpr0 - he2 ) - (mfuel + m inj - m extr) * he2
gen: generator
heat: heat (losses)
Inj: injection (water or steam) In this equation only the compressor intake flow and the
loss: loss (heat or mass or power) exhaust gas enthalpy are unknown. Assuming an exhaust gas
mech: mechanical (losses, i.e. bearing, gearbox) composition, the compressor intake flow mcpr1 can be
seal: compressor or turbine seal air calculated, which in turn supplies an exhaust gas enthalpy
tur: turbine according to equation (7):
w: water
he2 = x e2, air * he2, air + x e2,w * h e2,w + x cprod * hcprod (7)
x: fraction (note: fractions are always referenced to the
dry air flow)
Refer to the appendix for Equations (3) – (6).
ENERGY BALANCE OF A GAS TURBINE
The following schematic (refer to Figure 1), shows all the With the calculated exhaust enthalpy, the intake flow can be
energy and mass flows that need to be considered when calculated according to equation (1) until the assumed exhaust
formulating the energy balance around a gas turbine. enthalpy is equal to the calculated exhaust enthalpy according
to equation (7).
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The enthalpy of the combustion product hcprod is trivial once Note, that all terms used to express me2 are either known or a
the molar flows for the stoichiometric combustion have been function of mcpr0. The next task is to combine the energy and
calculated. It should be noted, that even for Dry Low NOx mass balance equations. The energy balance, as mentioned in
combustors, where the fuel is burnt in an oxygen-rich the previous section, equation (1) is expressed as:
environment, the composition of the exhaust gas is
nevertheless the same as if the fuel were burnt with a PNet+Paux+ Qextr+Qloss + Qe2 = Qcpr0+Qfuel + Qinj (13)
stoichiometric fuel-to-air ratio.
where PNet and Paux are measured. The calculation of the
ENERGY & MASS BALANCE OF A GAS TURBINE energy loss due to extraction air and other losses is shown in
(NEW APPROACH) the appendix, equation (14) – (16).
The energy balance is exactly the same equation as listed In the following each term will either be expressed as a
above. However, the mass balance, while in principal the function of mcpr0 or a known (measured) entity. The exhaust
same, is formulated differently: energy can be expressed as:
Note that all terms except for the compressor intake mass flow
are known. With that, the entire left side of equation (13) is
known or a function of the compressor intake flow. The terms
on the right side are all known or a function of the compressor
intake flow; refer to the appendix for equations (20) – (22).
Figure 2: Mass balance control volume around a The only remaining unknown in the energy equation is the
gas turbine compressor intake flow mcpr0.
The mass balance for the above control volume may be Solving the energy equation with respect to mcpr0 yields the
written as follows: following equation:
mcpr0 + m fuel + m inj = m e2 + m cpr1 *(xseal,cpr,loss +x seal,tur,loss ) mcpr0 = (1 + x w) * [m fuel *(dqcprod - qfuel) (23)
+m extr (8) + dQ inj + P]/(q cpr0 - qe2,w - qe2,air - qseal - qextr)
where:
mcprod = mfuel * (1 + L min ) (10)
me2,w = m inj +m cpr0,air * (1-(xseal,cpr,loss +x seal,tur,loss ) * x w (11)
mex = mcpr0,air *(1-(xseal,cpr,loss +x seal,tur,loss )-mfuel * Lmin - mextr
(12)
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Mass and energy balance around the combustor:
OTHER GAS TURBINE CONFIGURATIONS
Mass balance:
The most typical performance test by far includes the me1 = m cpr2 + m inj + m fuel (33)
calculation of the compressor intake mass flow. However, due
to cost reductions, single-shaft combined cycle plants where Energy Balance:
the gas turbine and the steam turbine share a generator, are Qcpr2 + Q fuel - Qheat,loss + m inj * h inj = m e1 * h e1 (34)
becoming more common. In order to test such an arrangement,
where the power of the gas turbine cannot be measured, the
intake flow needs to be determined by other means. This Note, that in accordance with ISO 2314, the turbine seal air
could, for instance, be done with a bellmouth measurement. part that is extracted from the compressor and mixed with the
exhaust mass flow me2, is neglected in the above.
If the compressor intake flow can be determined by other mcpr0 = m cpr2 + m seal,cpr,loss + m seal,tur,loss (35)
means, all that remains is to solve the above equation with
and
respect to P, which is a trivial problem (one equation, one
unknown). mcpr2 = mcpr0 * (1 -x seal,cpr,loss - x seal,tur,loss ) (36)
INNER ENERGY & MASS BALANCE OF A GAS Combining the above equations (34) and (36) and solving
TURBINE (TIT CALCULATION) them with respect to the turbine inlet enthalpy yields:
The calculation of the turbine inlet temperature TIT requires he1 = [mcpr2 *(hcpr2,air +x w*hcpr2,w )+m fuel *(LHV+ c p,fuel *[t fuel -15.5])
either an energy balance around the combustor or an energy
balance around the turbine. The turbine inlet temperature TIT + m inj *hinj ]/[mcpr2 +m fuel + m inj ] (37)
as defined per ISO2314 is equal to the combustor exit
temperature where the combustor exit flow includes all turbine The composition of the mass flow at the turbine inlet is the
cooling airflows. The energy balance in flow direction around same as it is at the turbine exhaust (e2), and thus it is known
the combustor is the preferred method, although both from the previous section.
obviously yield the same result (this is a good way of checking
the calculation results). Given that the enthalpy of a mixture is equal to the sum of the
enthalpies of the constituents multiplied by the mass fractions
METHOD ONE: MASS AND ENERGY BALANCE of the constituents, the solution presents itself as a set of
AROUND THE COMBUSTOR equations:
The only new term in these equations is the energy term at the hmix (te1 ) = Σ ξi * hi (te1 ) (38)
compressor discharge. Both the composition and the
temperature at that location are known. The mass flow can Depending on the kind of polynomial that is used to
easily be derived via a mass balance around the compressor: approximate the enthalpy of the constituent, the problem may
require an iterative process to determine the turbine inlet
temperature TIT (= te1). The most commonly used enthalpy
polynomials are those referenced in [4]. These equations are
of the 8th order and thus do not permit the calculation of a
direct solution. In order to present a solution that does not
require iterations, the enthalpy equations must be
approximated by an equation of the 2nd order.
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METHOD TWO: ENERGY AND MASS BALANCE IMPACT OF THE MEASUREMENT UNCERTAINTIES
AROUND THE TURBINE ON THE CALCULATED COMPRESSOR INTAKE
MASS FLOW
The energy balance rarely yields the correct result on the first
attempt, unless a huge effort has been undertaken to ensure the
correct measurement of all process data. In most cases, a
reasonable attempt will be made to check all measurements,
and then a pre-test run will be initiated. The performance
engineer is now faced with the task to pinpoint the incorrectly
measured process data and correct the measurements.
Mass balance: The default value of the uncertainty is 0.5%. Only the bold
me1 = m e2 (39) parameters with a gray background have a different
uncertainty:
• Relative humidity transmitters are not as accurate,
Energy balance: and, in addition, the measured value varies a lot with
PNet + P aux + P loss + P cpr + m e2 * h e2 (40) the location of the transmitter.
= m e1 *he1 +m cpr0,air *x seal,tur *(hseal,tur ,air +x w*hseal,tur,w ) • While laboratories should be able to measure well
within 0.5%, the measurement’s uncertainty is
increased by the uncertainty of how well the sample
Again, in accordance with ISO 2314, the turbine seal airflow represents the fuel used during the test (variations in
is neglected. the fuel quality).
• Design data is deemed less accurate than measured
The energy balance around the compressor can be used to values.
derive the compressor power; refer to Figure #3:
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Input Data
Parameter Abbrv. Value Unit delta dMk1 dTIT CONCLUSIONS
Ambient Pres Pcpr0 1013 mbar 5.1 0.0% 0.0
Ambient
Tcpr0 15 °C 1.4 0.2% -1.7
This paper presents a solution to the energy balance around
Temperature the gas turbine that does not require any iterative calculations,
Amb. Rel.
RHcpr0 60 % 6.0 -0.1% -0.1
and thus makes it possible to perform the performance
Humidity calculations even in spreadsheets. The solution is based on
Compr. Disch.
Tcpr2 370 °C 3.2 0.0% 2.6 viewing the problem in a different way. The traditional
Temp. method views the exhaust gas and a mixture of unknown
Fuel Flow Rate mfuel 5.1 kg/s 0.03 0.9% -2.0 composition that needs to be assumed and then verified/
corrected by means of iterations. The method presented in this
Fuel Temp tfuel 150 °C 2.1 0.0% 0.0 study views the exhaust flow as consisting of excess air
Fuel Composition (ambient air), stoichiometric combusted fuel and water
(steam). This approach allows solving the equation directly.
phi_CH4 CH4 95 % vol. 1.0 0.0% 0.0
phi_C2H6 C2H6 2 % vol. 1.0 0.0% 0.0 In order to solve the internal energy balance to gain the turbine
phi_C3H8 C3H8 1 % vol. 1.0 -0.1% 0.2 inlet temperature without iterations, the enthalpy equations
phi_N2 N2 1 % vol. 1.0 -2.7% 4.2 must be approximated with polynomials of the second order.
phi_CO2 CO2 1 % vol. 1.0 -3.7% 7.6 This can be done without sacrificing the accuracy of the result.
Injection Fluid (Steam)
The uncertainty analysis indicates which process parameters
Steam Flow are important to the overall uncertainty of the calculated
minj 12 kg/s 0.06 0.0% -0.2
Rate results. The fuel measurement, both the flow rate as well as
Steam Temp Tinj 320 °C 1.6 0.0% -0.1 the composition, are by far the most important process
Power P 80000 kW 400 -0.3% 1.7 parameters.
Exhaust
Te2 515 °C 2.6 -0.6% 3.6
Temperature
Table #1: Required input data with uncertainties and [5] ASME Codes and Standards, Performance Test Codes,
the impact on the results of the energy balance PTC 19.1-1998, “Test Uncertainty”
It is obvious that the focus must be on the fuel flow, both the
flow rate as well as the constituents. In particular, the
constituents that have a significantly different heating value
than methane, such as the inert gases as well as Propane,
Butane, etc. The overall uncertainty of 8.7% as shown above
for the compressor intake flow is hardly acceptable. PCT-19.1,
refer to [5], covers the uncertainty calculation of measurement
data. Furthermore, [2] lists uncertainty requirements for
process measurements.
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Appendix:
Calculation of the exhaust gas enthalpy:
The energy from the intake air, the fuel and injected water or
steam may be expressed as:
Abreviations:
dqcprod = (1+ L min ) * hcprod - Lmin * h e2,air (24)
qfuel = (LHV+ c p,fuel *[t fuel - 15.5]) (25)
dQinj = m inj * (he2,w - hinj ) (26)
P = P Net + Σ losses (mech & electrial) (27)
qcpr0 = (hcpr0,air + x w * hcpr0,w ) (28)
qe2,w = [1-(xseal,cpr,loss +x seal,tur,loss )-xextr]*x w*he2,w (29)
qe2,air = [1-(xseal,cpr,loss +x seal,tur,loss )-xextr]*he2,air (30)
qseal = x seal,cpr,loss *(hseal,cpr,loss,air +x w*hseal,cpr,loss,w ) (31)
+x seal,tur,loss *(hseal,tur,loss,air +x w*hseal,tur,loss,w )
qextr = x extr * (hextr,air + x w* hextr,w) (32)
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