Suez University

Faculty of Science

Geology Department nn

Seismic tomography

Prepared by:
Eman Moamen
Omnia Mahmoud
Mariem Mohamed Reda

Under Supervision of:

Dr. Ahmed Eldosouky
 Abstract
Seismic tomography is a technique for imaging the subsurface of
the Earth with seismic waves produced by earthquakes or
explosions or Seismic tomography is the science of interpreting
seismic measurement to derive information about the structure of
the Earth. Seismic tomography is powerful tool for illuminating
Earth structure across a range of scales, but the usefulness of any
image that is generated by this method is dependent on our ability
to quantify its uncertainty. This uncertainty arises from the ill-
posed nature of the tomographic inverse problem, which means
that multiple models are capable of satisfying the data
1-Overview
1.1Theory:-
-Tomography is solved as an inverse problem. Seismic travel time data are compared
to an initial Earth model and the model is modified until the best possible fit between
the model predictions and observed data is found. Seismic waves would travel in
straight lines if Earth was of uniform composition, but the compositional layering,
tectonic structure, and thermal variations reflect and refract seismic waves. The
location and magnitude of these variations can be calculated by the inversion process,
although solutions to tomographic inversions are non-unique.

1.2 medical x-ray and seismic tomography:-

-Seismic tomography is like taking a CT scan (or CAT scan) of the Earth. Doctors use
CT scans to look at organs and bones inside the body without surgery. CT scan
machines shoot X-rays through a patient’s body in all directions. Instead of making
just one black-and-white image, CT scans make many images, all showing the
patient’s internal structures from different directions. Computers then combine these
images into a three-dimensional picture of the body (IRIS).

- In a method similar to CT scans these seismic waves travel through the Earth up to
the surface, and when they reach the surface, they shake the ground. Seismometers
record these up-and-down and side-to-side motions in the form of squiggly lines
known as seismograms (IRIS).

1.3 How does the seismic tomography work?

-. Seismic tomography uses the energy produced by thousands of local and global
earthquakes (seismic Seismic tomography 4 waves) received by hundreds of receivers
(seismographs) which record the data.

-Seismic tomography uses seismic records to create 2D and 3D images of subsurface

anomalies by solving large inverse problems such that generate models consistent with
observed data.

-the earthquake sends seismic waves in all directions.

-scientists use multiple seismometers.

-It’s important to understand that tomographic techniques give a very coarse look at
the subsurface (IRIS).

-By recording the seismograms of many earthquakes, seismologists are able to create
high-resolution images of Earth’s interior using the method of seismic tomography.

-Using the travel distance of the wave, seismologists can calculate the average speed
of the seismic waves.

-The speed of the seismic waves depends on the type of rock materials, the
temperature of the rocks (hot molten rocks or cold rocks) and the stability of the area
(tectonically active area or areas located within the plate).

-Seismic tomography can show the structures inside the earth that have different
physical properties than the surrounding mediums such as magma chamber.

1.4 Cross well seismic tomography:-

This type of tomography is used for hydrocarbon monitoring by using two drilled
wells. The source is lowered in one well while the receivers are lowered in the other
one. The source generates seismic waves while being moved in a specific interval
while the receivers are fixed. Then, the receivers are re-positioned and the process is
repeated.
1.5 Complications of seismic tomography:-
1) seismic waves don’t move in a straight trajectory away from an earthquake, but
refract, or bend in response to changes in density; and

2) Seismic waves can bounce off of sharp boundaries such as the core mantle
boundary as well as between the crust and the atmosphere Fig.1, IRIS).

2. Data Types in Seismic Tomography:-

2.1- Seismic waves:
As seismic waves – both body (P, S) and surface waves – travel across the Earth from
source to receiver, they are affected by variations of density and seismic wave speeds
in the Earth’s interior.

-Seismic tomography is one way in which measurements from many source-receiver

paths can be self-consistently combined to construct a three-dimensional image of
structure in the Earth (Cider 2018).

2.2- Normal Modes:

Normal modes (also known as ‘free oscillations’) are standing waves excited by the
largest earthquakes on Earth. Like standing waves on a string fixed at both ends,
normal modes have distinct frequencies determined by Earth’s finite size and its
internal elastic structure. In analogy to surface waves (intimately related to normal
modes), there are two types of normal modes, distinguished by their mode of
oscillations. I. Torsional modes are analogous to Love waves. They do not have radial
displacements and they do not cause volume changes. II. Spheroidal modes are
analogous to Rayleigh waves, and involve a combination of radial and transverse
motions (Gilbert 1970; Daylen and Tromp 1998).

3. How we obtain data:

Seismic measurements are well known from their use in hydrocarbon exploration.
Seismic waves are created by a hit on the surface and they travel underground. Like
sound waves, they are reflected and refracted when they reach a boundary between
different layers in the underground. Using the time required for the wave to come back
to the surface and the velocity of travel, we can determine the depth of different
geological boundaries. The velocity value of the waves carries information on the type
of sediment or rock. This method is important not only for structural information, e.g.
in delineating faults or valley structures, but also for physical characterization of
layers and thus is very useful in hydrogeological investigations (Fig.3, Peloton 2005;
Steeples 2005; Kneel et al. 1997; Rabble 2006; Wilma 2001).

4. Field techniques:
- (seismic data acquisition) for the field layout of a seismic survey, independent of
reflection or refraction, we need a seismic source, several seismic receivers
(geophones) connected by cable, and connected to the seismograph (Fig. 4). Usually
the Fig.3: Relationship between data acquisition, processing, and interpretation.
4.1 Seismic sources:-
There are different kinds of seismic sources in practice; in general, we have to decide
between impulsive sources and the fibrosis method. The main factors to consider
when choosing the source - beside costs, efficiency, convenience and safety - are
spectral characteristics, amount of energy, and repeatability. Taking local geologic
conditions into account, surface seismic source or shot holes can be important (Gabriel
et al. 2003, Wiederhold et al. 2005). In these special parts of the profile a source
placed below the inhomogeneous layers would give better results.

For land, the most common sources are seismic vibrators (Beaten and Ziolkowski,
1990), which are truck or buggy deployable, weak, but highly repeatable sources. A
metal plate is lowered to the ground, the weight of the truck is applied, imparting a
swept frequency wave with duration of 6–12 seconds. The cost of the survey is
directly related to the time spent sweeping and listening per source interval in the
survey. Dynamite is used when the area is not accessible by vibrators. The cost is
related to the number and depth of the holes; the best signals are obtained when the
dynamite is in competent rock below the weathering. For marine, the principal sources
are air-gun arrays. An air-gun array typically consists of several sub arrays containing
clusters of different-sized guns. Firing the guns causes a sudden release of high-
pressure compressed air into the water (Dragonet 2000; Caldwell and Dragonet 2000).
Desirable characteristics of seismic sources include:

1. Signal – High amplitude, broad frequency bandwidth produced.

2. Repeatability – The same amount of charge or impact and the time duration should
be repeated at each shot point position.

3. Controllable – The source must tell the recording system the exact instant time of
delivery of its energy into the ground to start recording.

4. Safety – Hazards in use, storage and maintenance can be managed without

excessive precautions.

5. Cost – Total cost of equipment (acquisition, operation and maintenance) and

supplies must be considered.

6. Operation – Relatively simple, efficient and fast operation generally preferred.

7. Environment –Minimal physical and biological damage to the surroundings

produced by the source (Dr. Abdel-Khaled 2019.

4.1.2 Seismic noise:-

Seismic noise is caused by many factors that range from solar and lunar tides within
the solid Earth and temperature and atmospheric pressure fluctuations to human
activities, storms an ocean waves (Zhang et al., 2009). Since these factors are
constantly acting on the Earth the crust is continually reverberating. Investigations
showed that noise mainly occurs at periods between 1 s and 10 s. The associated
seismic waves are called microseism (Stein and WY session 2007). Signal is what we
want to measure; it is the useful part of what is recorded. These seismic signals are
poorly localized in space and cannot be fixed to a specific origin time. Season (natural
noise) and/or time of day (cultural noise) often control the intensity of the seismic
noise. Per definition noise practically is present all the time but it is not felt by people
since the associated displacement amplitudes are usually by far smaller than those
caused by other natural and controlled sources.

-Sources of noises Seismic tomography 13 1. Uncontrolled (wind, traffic, aircraft,

human activity …etc.), 2. Controlled (instrument noise due to bad connection of
cables with connectors, source generated noise) 3. Geologic (diffraction, multiples ….
etc.).

Seismic Processing:
This raw data must then be processed by employing advanced methods within signal
processing and wave-theory to get better images of the subsurface. The prime
objective in the processing stage is to enhance the signal and suppress the coherent
and no coherent noises and multiples.

5. Applications of Seismic Tomography at some areas:

5.1 Seduction zone
Vertical cross sections of P-wave tomography beneath Northeastern Japan show the
sub ducting Pacific plate that appears as high velocity anomalies (blue colors) while
the low anomalies of p-wave are indicated by red colors and represent the zones that
occur beneath the active volcanoes (Fig.8, Dapping 2012).
5.2 Volcano:-
In this example, the seismic tomography results are imaging the magma chamber
beneath Unseen volcano, which is an active volcano located in Japan. The low
velocities anomalies of the p-waves are indicated by red colors which represents the
molten hot rocks of the magma chamber (Fig.9, Dapping 2012).

5.3 Hotspot:-
The Yellowstone Hotspot is the hotspot that is responsible for volcanic activity in the
states of Oregon, Nevada, Idaho, and Wyoming. In this example, the low p-wave
anomalies are represented by red colors and indicate the warm zone (Hotspot zone)
(Fig. 10, Smith et.al 2009).
5.4 North American Carton:-
Seismic tomographic results can also be performed on a continental scale to image the
heterogeneity of the carton and its relation to the surrounding plates (Fig.11, Bedloe
and van der Lee 2009).

5.5 Oil and gas exploration by Seismic Tomography:-

Seismic tomography has widely been used in earthquake seismology, but it also has
applications for the exploration and development of oil and gas. The principles of
tomography stay the same, but there are additional methods of seismic tomography
that are used for oil and gas monitoring.
Reference:-
Ausgeführt am (2015): Classification of signal sources based on seismic and acoustic
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Geophysics der Technischen Universidad Wien, Bedloe, H. and van der Lee S.
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Bormann P., Baum Bach M., Bock G., Grosser H., Choy G. L. and Boatwright J.
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Caldwell, J. and Dragonet W. (2000): “A brief overview of seismic air-gun arrays,”

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