(Environmental Science Engineering and Technology Series.) Degenovine, Kara M. - Semi-Arid Environments - Agriculture, Water Supply, and Vegetation-Nova Science Publishers (2011)

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE, ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
SEMI-ARID ENVIRONMENTS:
AGRICULTURE, WATER SUPPLY
AND VEGETATION
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ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE, ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
SEMI-ARID ENVIRONMENTS:
AGRICULTURE, WATER SUPPLY
AND VEGETATION
KARA M. DEGENOVINE
EDITOR
Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

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Semi-arid environments : agriculture, water supply, and vegetation / editor,
Kara M. Degenovine.
p. cm.
Includes index.
ISBN 978-1-61761-541-2 (eBook)
1. Arid regions. 2. Arid regions agriculture. 3. Groundwater--Arid
regions. I. Degenovine, Kara M.
GB611.S45 2010
630.915'4--dc22
2010029839
Published by Nova Science Publishers, Inc.  New York

CONTENTS
Preface vii
Chapter 1 The Semi-Arid Environment of the El Melah Lagoon
(Ne Tunisia) – Closing Evolution to a Future Sabkha 1
M. Isabel Prudêncio, Francisco Ruiz, M. Isabel Dias,
Emilio Galán, João Carlos Waerenborgh, Manuel Abad
and Isabel González
Chapter 2 Limiting Factors and Strategies for Improving Reproductive
Outputs of Small Ruminants Reared in Semi-Arid Environments 41
A. Gonzalez-Bulnes, C.A. Meza-Herrera, M. Rekik,
H. Ben Salem and RT Kridli
Chapter 3 Crop Residue Contribution to N Fertilization under Long Term
No-Till Systems in the Central Semi-Arid Region of Argentina 63
Noelia Casado-Murillo and Adriana Abril
Chapter 4 Cyanobacterial Soil Crusts: Analysing Resilience
in Kalahari Sand Soils 83
D. M. Mager
Chapter 5 Semi-Arid Vegetation in Brazil: Biodiversity, Impacts
and Management 99
Marcela C. Pagano and Francisca S. Araújo
Chapter 6 Small Hill Dams‟ Practice in Tunisia: Design and Planning 115
Slaheddine Khlifi
Chapter 7 Influence of Climate Change on Damages to Fruit Trees Produced
by Frost Temperatures at Spanish Semi-Arid Region of Murcia 131
A. Saa Requejo, R. García Moreno, M.C. Díaz Álvarez,
F. Burgaz Moreno and A.M. Tarquis
vi Contents
Chapter 8 Fragments of Caatinga in the Sub-Basin of Rio Bodocongó:

A Conservation Study in the Brazilian Semi-Arid Tropics 145
Dilma Maria de Brito Melo Trovão, Rômulo Romeu Nóbrega Alves,
José Dantas Neto, Pedro Dantas Fernandes
and Leonaldo Alves de Andrade
Chapter 9 Effects of Small Hill Dams on Farming Systems:
Bizerte Region – Tunisia 159
Mehrez Ameur, Nadhem Mtimet and Slaheddine Khlifi
Chapter 10 Semi-Arid Zone Afforestation in Northern Israel:
A Review 173
Paul Ginsberg and Nir Atzmon
Index 193
PREFACE
Semi-arid climate regions receive low annual precipitation and intermediates between
the desert climates and humid climates in ecological characteristics and agricultural potential.
Semi-arid climates tend to provide scrubby vegetations in regions where they exist. There are
two variations of the semi-arid climate, a hot semi-arid climate and a cold semi-arid climate.
This book presents topical research data in the study of semi-arid environments, including the
semi-arid environments of the El Melah Lagoon in Tunisia; improving reproductive outputs
of small ruminants reared in semi-arid environments; the presence of cyanobacterial soil
crusts in semi-arid ecosystems is associated with an increase in carbon and nitrogen
sequestration; semi-arid vegetation in Brazil; and the semi-arid zone afforestation in northern
Israel.
Chapter 1 - El Melah is a small coastal lagoon of the Mediterranean Sea (NE Tunisia),
with an artificial outlet and a closing evolution dynamic. The present scenario of this semi-
arid coastal environment has been characterized by several multidisciplinary studies. The
main results obtained so far are given in this chapter. The permanent waters of the lagoon are
mainly of marine origin. Several zones were distinguished in this limited area (200 ha),
according to the physical-chemical parameters and nutrient contents of waters, the grain size
and heavy metal contents of the bottom sediments and the micropaleontological distribution,
as well as the geochemical and mineralogical patterns of soils.
Physical-chemical parameters (temperature, salinity, pH) and nutrients (NO3-, NO2-,
PO4 , NH4+) of water point to hypoxic conditions. Locally high nutrient contents owing to the
3-
continuous flows coming from the Slimene treatment station (STS) and agriculture activities
were found.
The evaluation of anthropogenic inputs of trace elements contaminants in the lagoon
region, using surface sediments (trace elements contents normalized to Al and enrichment
factors (EF) of trace elements, calculated relative to Al and using an internal reference
sample) revealed a natural background variation of the potentially pollutant trace elements in
the majority of the sites. Exceptions were found for Cu, Ni and Zn in the confined area of the
STS, where deposits of urban solid wastes also exist without any protection for possible
drainage and leaching.
Ostracode and foraminifera assemblages distinguish several environments: (i) marine,
(ii) high brackish, and (iii) freshwater to low brackish.
The several studies already done, together with the revision of the recent evolution
(1948-1996) by aerial photos, suggest a future evolution towards a sabkha environment. The
geochemical and mineralogical patterns of soils were studied to evaluate variations associated
viii Kara M. Degenovine
with sediments emersion resulting from the reduction of the permanent water bed. High
element/Sc ratios and variations were found for As, Sb and Zn. Antimony seems to be
adsorbed on the quartz grain surfaces and As and Zn may be mainly incorporated into the
carbonates structure. A preferential incorporation of the heavy rare earth elements in
carbonates and the light rare earth elements in clay minerals / iron oxides seems to occur. Iron
is more reduced in the sandy spit where ankerite occurs suggesting the reduction of Fe3+ in
oxide/hydroxides by microorganisms and incorporation of Fe2+ in carbonates. Soils do not
appear to be significantly polluted as far as trace elements are concerned. Carbonates,
sulphates, and Mn oxides, seem to play an important role on the trace elements distribution.
Chapter 2 – In the semi-arid areas of Africa, America and Asia, small ruminants (sheep
and goats) are the main economic output under smallholder production systems. These two
species provide meat and to a less extent milk but at low yields as a result of the dominating
extensive systems. Productive outputs are limited, within other causes, by a lower
reproductive efficiency; mainly, a delayed onset of puberty, large anoestrus periods and low
fertility and prolificacy. Reproductive events, in all the species and ecosystems, are
determined by genetic and environmental cues. Animals reared, for a long time in semi-arid
environments are surely the best genotypes for surviving under the harsh climatic and
nutritional conditions of these areas, but genetic selection for improvement of reproductive
and productive yields is scarce. The second limiting factor, in the low-input systems of semi-
arid areas, is environment (specifically photoperiod, thermoperiod and nutrition) and its
modification by human handling. Photoperiod and thermoperiod are directly influencing the
onset of puberty and the circannual reproductive activity of sheep and goats; the application
of simple and non-expensive protocols for alleviating such limiting factors and, thereafter, for
inducing and/or synchronizing reproductive activity in animals with delayed puberty and
seasonal or reduced reproductive activity is of paramount importance. Finally, nutritional
resources are obviously scarce in semi-arid environments. Supplementation with concentrate
feeds and/or high-quality pastures is expensive and doesn‟t fit with a sustainable animal
production. Thus, resorting to less expensive alternative feed supplements (e.g.: agro-
industrial by-products, feed blocks, fodder trees, shrubs and cactus) and to natural products as
rumen modifiers (e.g. tannins, saponins, etc.) could be a promising way to tackle this
objective. Nutritive supplementation, like reproductive protocols, need to be carefully
handled, due to the economical conditions and management limitations of marginal producers
in harsh extensive conditions; the strategies of focus feeding may be a sustainable solution.
Chapter 3 – Author analyze nitrogen release from crop residues in no-till systems (14
years) in order to establish the N contribution to crop fertilization. The experiment was
conducted in Manfredi INTA Experimental Station, situated in a semiarid zone of Córdoba
province, Argentina, with Entic Haplustoll soils. Three treatments were evaluated: i) soybean
(monoculture), ii) soybean rotation (maize as preceding crop), and iii) maize rotation
(soybean as preceding crop). Crop residue and soil samples were collected monthly during
one year. The following parameters were evaluated in crop residue samples: biomass (total
and fractions), total N, NH4+-N, NO3--N, N2-fixing bacteria abundance and nitrogenase
activity, and in soil samples: NO3--N. The residues with high proportion of maize fraction
showed the greatest total and soluble N values. Accordingly, the maize cropped soils had
greater nitrate accumulation compared with soybean monoculture. Likewise, a significant
biological N fixation was observed in maize treatment. During the maize crop cycle, 95 kg N
ha-1 were mineralized from surface residues, of which 4 kg were mineralized as ammonium
Preface ix
after sowing. Great amount of nitrate in soil (61 mg kg-1) before sowing date was detected as
a result of N released from residues and its accumulation in soil during the fallow period.
Author conclude that after 14 years under no-till management, the N contribution from maize
residue is clearly significant. In consequence, N fertilizer doses in maize rotations are
overestimated, leading to unnecessary expenses for producers and high risk of environmental
contamination.
Chapter 4 – The presence of cyanobacterial soil crusts in semiarid ecosystems, also
known as drylands, is generally associated with an increase in carbon (C) and nitrogen (N)
sequestration, soil water content and surface stability. However, there are some apparently
contradictory studies on the role of cyanobacterial soil crusts in semiarid ecosystems surface
processes. Cyanobacterial soil crusts are mixed communities of organisms with different
metabolisms (photosynthesis, respiration, N-fixation), vertically stratified and sensitive to
availability of moisture and inorganic-N. Through photosynthesis, cyanobacteria produce
extracellular polysaccharides (EPS) that potentially increase the soil organic C pool as
carbohydrates. The layer of polysaccharides, though vulnerable to disturbance by livestock,
also acts as a mechanical structure surrounding the filamentous cyanobacteria. Together with
the soil particles, cyanobacterial soil crusts form stable aggregates in the top soil
(approximately 5 mm thick), decreasing C loss by water and wind erosion. Therefore, EPS in
cyanobacterial soil crusts affect C and N cycling, dominate soil C pool, affect soil
hydrological cycles and chemical properties of the soil and immobilise nutrients within the
surface. A better understanding of cyanobacterial soil crusts and EPS could provide an
indication of the resilience of dryland soils, especially in the nutrient poor Kalahari Sands.
Chapter 5 – The importance of ecosystems in supplying a range of services that
underpin productive human activities has been smothered, and so ecosystems are mismanaged
and degraded. This is also for seasonally dry tropical vegetation, which are under extreme
climatic and edaphic environmental conditions, generally presenting soils with low water
availability, and considered as one of the most threatened tropical ecosystems. The aim of this
review is to explore the current information on vegetation types, the associate soil microflora
diversity, and impacts in the semiarid of Brazil, and to speculate about the management of
semiarid sites. Studies revealed that arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi are present in
Tropical dry forests, where Leguminosae, Myrtaceae, Meliaceae and Euphorbiaceae are
commonly found. However, the different seasonal xerophilous vegetation types of the
Brazilian tropical semiarid zone have been poorly investigated, and little is known about the
soil biota. In the State of Ceará, core area of the Brazilian tropical semiarid zone, different
vegetational types, as the thorny deciduous savanna (Caatinga), the non thorny dry forest
(presenting trees higher than 7m height) and the closed, non thorny tall-shrubby deciduous
vegetation (namely Carrasco) are recently begun to study. Some perennial evergreen and
most deciduous species are dominant members of tree communities throughout the Brazilian
semiarid; however few studies have focused on their root symbioses. To define functional
types of trees or mycorrhizas is still difficult due to the lack of long-term data on the
dynamics of the vegetation types. The native vegetation is used to produce fuel wood, and
this resulted in a mosaic of vegetation stages. Moreover, cattle and agriculture are the main
activities in this region. Due to increasing population pressure, crops are planted before soil
fertility has recovered through long bush fallows, resulting in declines in soil fertility. Mixing
cropping is commonly practiced; however, commercial fruit monocultures of banana, cashew,
and acerola, under different irrigation systems, are also frequent. Future studies can indicate
x Kara M. Degenovine
benefits like a better plant growth of these cultures throughout the symbiotic plant association
with the AM fungi. Author end with the benefits and problems encountered, in order to
highlight the need for a continual and integrated study of the semiarid ecosystems, the
potential for regeneration in habitats subjected to disturbance, and, consequently, the wise
management of ecosystem goods and services, which can prevent a deepening of poverty.
Chapter 6 – This paper describes the guidelines used to design the small hill dams, one
of the most used soil and water conservation practices in Tunisia during the last three
decades. Recently, the implementation of these hydraulics structures, which are gaining more
importance as water harvesting technique, is increasing. It synthesise the knowledge on small
reservoirs and the methodologies adopted by the Tunisian technical service of the Ministry of
Agriculture and Hydraulic Resources for their design such watershed parameters, runoff
volume, peak discharge, sedimentation and silting up. The reservoirs characteristics and
dimensioning such as storage capacity, dead storage, spillway, freeboard and seepage were
also examined considering the designing of the previous structures.
Chapter 7 – Climate, often the most critical element in the sustainability of agricultural
systems, is a compendium of many factors. One of such factors is the freezing temperature.
These decreases of temperatures in spring, in semiarid regions, shorten the growing season
and may lower the yield and quality of fruit crops.
Furthermore, in Spanish semiarid regions, the values of the minimum temperatures
have increased in the past few years, mainly at the Mediterranean region. In this context
authors have studied the recorded minimum temperatures for the region of Murcia in the
context of the impact of the number of frost days in March 2004 on fruit production.
Analyzing series of temperatures since 1935, authors found that the range of the
absolute minimum temperatures (Tmin), -0.5 ºC to -4.0ºC, where frost events were the most
intensive in the target year, was statistically similar to the range recorded in 1993. While
mean minimum temperatures (tmin) have risen during the last studied years. In fact, the mean
minimum temperature through 1985 ranged from 4.0 to -2.0 ºC, depending on the sub-
regional area, while in more recent years the range shifted upward, to 7.0 to 0.5 ºC, for an
increase of around 3 ºC.
Such increases in temperature, which could induce a more sensitive phenological stage
in fruit trees, might explain fruit producers‟ perception of exceptional frost damage in 2004,
when the minimum temperatures were not exceptionally low.
Chapter 8 – The characterization of the vegetation in Caatinga remnants in the
Bodocongó River Sub-basin -PB was carried out through a floristic and phytosociological
survey of the tree stratum aiming to determine and record plant potentials and to identify any
possible threat of extinction. Forty plots of 4 x 50 m were used, distributed into four
vegetation remnants where information gathered included total height and stalk diameter at
the ground level (DNS) of the individuals in the plots where heights were ≥1m and DNS ≥ 3
cm. The families that had the highest specific representation were Mimosaceae (5),
Euphorbiaceae (5), Caesalpiniaceae (4), Cactaceae (4) and Anacardiaceae (3). The similarity
between the remnants of the Sub-basin reveals the homogeneity of the vegetation which is
characterized as a single Caatinga physiognomy. The most important species in the four
remnants have been reported as the most important in other surveys. Among the ten most
important species, four were coincident in the four remnants, namely Croton sonderianus.
Muell. Arg., Caesalpinia. pyramidalis Tul, Myracrodrum urundeuva Allem, Piptadenia
stipulaceae (Benth.) Ducke, and another four species were coincident in three fragments,
Preface xi
namely Aspidosperma pyrifolium. Mart., Jatropha pohliana Muell. Arg., Bauhinia cheilantha
(Bong.) Steud and Manihot glaziovii Muell. Arg., demonstrating the importance of these
species in the total area. The majority of species are concentrated in the smaller diameter strip
of land. The anthropic influence on the area is unquestionable, evidenced mainly by the
presence of characteristic species of intermediate successional stages, which means
perturbation and recovery of the environment.
Chapter 9 - This study focuses on the assessment of the impact of the small hill dams on
farming systems in north eastern Tunisia, Bizerte governorate. These hydraulic structures are
characterized throughout the study area and a farmers „sample was selected to carry out a
socio-economic questionnaire. Farmers, using water from seven representative small hill
dams, were surveyed. The beneficiaries of the small hill dam are highly aged and have a low
education level. The farms, with average area around 15.0 ha, are composed of multiple plots
not making easy intensification. Small hill dam implementation increased irrigation practices,
irrigated areas, fruit trees area, the cattle size and farmer income.
Chapter 10 - Afforestation activities in Israel take place over an extreme geobotanical
and climatic gradient of between 250-900mm of rainfall a year. A relatively moist,
Mediterranean climate, natural woodlands of evergreen, sclerophyllous oaks and planted
forests of Mediterranean pines and cypresses characterize the vast majority of forestlands in
northern Israel. In contrast, an eastern semi-arid pocket associated with the Syrian-African
Rift Valley presents challenging environmental conditions for afforestation efforts as
practiced by the British Mandatory Forest Department, the Israeli Governmental Forest
Department, the Keren Kayemeth Leisrael (KKL) and private entrepreneurs over the past 80
years. The accumulated experiences of planting new forests in this semi-arid zone, combined
with results from introduction plots and afforestation areas throughout Israel, led to the
development of a unique set of silvicultural tools and tree species employed to guarantee
successful afforestation plans. All of these new afforestations function as multipurpose
forestry systems offering landscape, watershed, soil conservation, pasture, recreational and
NWFP goods and services and can provide a relevant model of sustainable forest
management for semi-arid and arid zones worldwide.
In: Semi-Arid Environments ISBN: 978-1-61761-215-2
Editor: Kara M. Degenovine © 2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
Chapter 1
THE SEMI-ARID ENVIRONMENT OF THE

EL MELAH LAGOON (NE TUNISIA) – CLOSING
EVOLUTION TO A FUTURE SABKHA
M. Isabel Prudêncio1,2, Francisco Ruiz3, M. Isabel Dias1,2,

Emilio Galán4, João Carlos Waerenborgh1,
Manuel Abad3 and Isabel González4
1
Instituto Tecnológico e Nuclear, EN 10, 2686-953 Sacavém, Portugal.
2
GeoBioTec – GeoBiociências, GeoEngenharias e GeoTecnologias
(Foundation for Science and Technology), Portugal
3
Departamento de Geodinámica y Paleontología, Universidad de Huelva.
Avda. de las Fuerzas Armadas, s/n. 21071-Huelva, Spain
4
Departamento de Cristalografía, Mineralogía y Química Agrícola,
Universidad de Sevilla. Profesor González García, s/n. 41071-Sevilla, Spain
ABSTRACT
El Melah is a small coastal lagoon of the Mediterranean Sea (NE Tunisia), with an
artificial outlet and a closing evolution dynamic. The present scenario of this semi-arid
coastal environment has been characterized by several multidisciplinary studies. The
main results obtained so far are given in this chapter. The permanent waters of the lagoon
are mainly of marine origin. Several zones were distinguished in this limited area (200
ha), according to the physical-chemical parameters and nutrient contents of waters, the
grain size and heavy metal contents of the bottom sediments and the
micropaleontological distribution, as well as the geochemical and mineralogical patterns
of soils.
PO4 , NH4+) of water point to hypoxic conditions. Locally high nutrient contents owing
3-
to the continuous flows coming from the Slimene treatment station (STS) and agriculture
activities were found.
The evaluation of anthropogenic inputs of trace elements contaminants in the lagoon
region, using surface sediments (trace elements contents normalized to Al and enrichment
2 M. Isabel Prudêncio, Francisco Ruiz, M. Isabel Dias et al.
factors (EF) of trace elements, calculated relative to Al and using an internal reference
sample) revealed a natural background variation of the potentially pollutant trace
elements in the majority of the sites. Exceptions were found for Cu, Ni and Zn in the
confined area of the STS, where deposits of urban solid wastes also exist without any
protection for possible drainage and leaching.
Ostracode and foraminifera assemblages distinguish several environments: (i)
marine, (ii) high brackish, and (iii) freshwater to low brackish.
The several studies already done, together with the revision of the recent evolution
(1948-1996) by aerial photos, suggest a future evolution towards a sabkha environment.
The geochemical and mineralogical patterns of soils were studied to evaluate variations
associated with sediments emersion resulting from the reduction of the permanent water
bed. High element/Sc ratios and variations were found for As, Sb and Zn. Antimony
seems to be adsorbed on the quartz grain surfaces and As and Zn may be mainly
incorporated into the carbonates structure. A preferential incorporation of the heavy rare
earth elements in carbonates and the light rare earth elements in clay minerals / iron
oxides seems to occur. Iron is more reduced in the sandy spit where ankerite occurs
suggesting the reduction of Fe3+ in oxide/hydroxides by microorganisms and
incorporation of Fe2+ in carbonates. Soils do not appear to be significantly polluted as far
as trace elements are concerned. Carbonates, sulphates, and Mn oxides, seem to play an
important role on the trace elements distribution.
1. INTRODUCTION
Coastal lagoons are fragile ecosystems widely distributed along the coastal areas of the
world. Shallow coastal areas of marginal seas, particularly those in catchments areas of
populated and industrialized regions are endangered by the increasing of substances or heavy
metals at a rate faster than the environment can accommodate. The monitoring of several
parameters in these coastal areas, such as potentially pollutants chemical elements, is crucial,
since the accumulation of pollutants in the sediments of marginal seas is expected. In
addition, marine organisms and vegetation in coastal lagoon environments can uptake metals
and the incorporation of metals in aquatic food chain becomes a serious threat to the future.
Most of the coastal lagoon areas have a high biological diversity, rich and complex food
chains and may constitute important fishery and nursery grounds (i.e., Flores-Verdugo et al.,
1996). They can be polluted by a variety of different inputs, such as industrial effluents
(Bellucci et al., 2002; Frignani et al., 2004), agricultural wastes (Green-Ruiz et al., 2001),
urban sewages (Samir, 2000) and/or mining activities (Gasby and Szefer, 1998). Several
macrofaunal groups (bivalves, echinoderms, anemones, fishes) have been proposed for
biomonitoring the impacts associated to environment and anthropogenic actions (Hiss et al.,
1999; Fernández and Beiras, 2001; Ueno et al., 2002). Also, other biological markers have
allowed to assess the pollution effects, such as the harpacticoid copepods (Lee et al., 2001),
foraminifers (Yanko et al., 1999) or crustacean ostracods (Mosslacher, 2000).
Shallow lagoons (depths down to 20 m) are very frequent in the peri-Mediterranean
coasts, covering approximately 660,000 ha (Trabelsi et al., 2004). In the North African coasts,
numerous studies have focussed on the Morocco and Egypt lagoons, with the analysis of
sedimentological and geochemical facies (Inani, 1995; El-Alami et al., 1998), the ecological
features (Samir, 2000; Irzi, 2002), the agricultural drainage waters (Sorour et al., 2002), and
the consequences of local dredging (Frihy et al., 2004). Also the evaluation of environmental
The Semi-Arid Environment of the El Melah Lagoon (Ne Tunisia) 3
impacts in implementing projects concerning these transitional environments, have been done
(Frihy, 2001). As far as the Tunisian coastal areas are concerned, the Bizerte, Korba and
Tunis lagoons, and the Ichkeul lake, have been studied, focusing the sedimentological and
geological evolution, biological markers or the pollutants (Soussi, 1981; Carbonel et al.,
1981; Dellali et al., 2001; Mzoughi et al., 2002, Louiz et al., 2009), and the biomass
quantification (Casagranda and Boudouresque, 2010). A few works have also been done of
the remaining small lagoons, such as Ghar El Melh, and Bahiret el Bibane (Pilkey et al.,
1989; Added, 2001; Bouden et al., 2009).
In general metal pollution may derive from different origins such as geological
weathering, mining activities and industrial processing of ores, industries (the use of metals
and metals components), leaching from garbage and solid waste dumps, and effluents. The
evaluation of metal contents in sediments plays a very important role in the detection of
sources of pollution in aquatic systems, since due to physic-chemical processes, the major
part of heavy metals introduced into an aquatic system are deposited in the sediments. To
evaluate the potential environmental contamination of lagoons, the chemical analysis of the
surface sediments is very important since they represent the recent situation. The estimation
of possible variations with time must pass by a comparative study with “unpolluted”
sediments, i.e. the natural background determination of the area. In this way, spatial and
temporal variations must be taken into account. To establish the natural background vertical
sediment profiles obtained by coring are important since deep levels can give a reasonable
estimation of the baseline levels (Liaghati, et al., 2003). Identifying naturally elevated metal
concentration in sediments is important because some trace elements appearing to be enriched
may be due only to their natural source (geogenic origin). The evaluation of environment
quality alteration by anthropogenic activities through sediments composition must take into
account not only the total contents of trace elements but also other relevant factors. In fact,
the ability of sediments to concentrate and retain trace elements depends on physical
properties such as grain size / surface area of the sediments and the mineralogical
composition.
Spatial surveys of sediment-trace elements contents, as well as comparison of these
contents to non-polluted baseline values, are a key first step to understand the transport and
deposition of contaminant trace metals in coastal aquatic systems (Alexander, et al., 1993;
Chester and Voutsimou, 1991). Due to variations in sediments of lagoon areas, the data
should not be interpreted only using absolute concentration values in isolation. Thus, to
enable a more effective interpretation, a normalisation procedure is in general applied to the
chemical data set. Among the several normalisation methods usually used, the comparison
with conservative elements such as Al, Ti and Sc, has been done. The extent of
contamination, by using the ratios of metals to reference elements, can be calculated relative
to a reference sample (Villaescusa-Celaya et al., 2000; Liaghati, et al., 2003; Cobelo-García
and Prego, 2003; Loska, et al., 2004; Hung and Hsu, 2004; Conrad and Chisholm-Brause,
2004).
In this chapter a review of the present scenario of the El Mellah coastal lagoon semi-arid
area (NE Tunisia) is given. Physical-chemical parameters of waters, sediments and soils, and
microfaunal assemblages (collected in 2001-2003), together with aerial photos were used to
delimitate the main zones of the lagoon, giving a global environmental scenario.
Compositional characterization of sediments and soils in order to establish the geogenic and
anthropogenic sources, as well as to obtain a spatial and temporal reference to be used in the
future, are major goals for the El Melah lagoon semi-arid area. The delimitation of the main
zones of the lagoon has been done based on the environmental features and the impact of
different anthropogenic actions over each of them. A very important reduction of the
permanent waters occurred in the last decades, with a subsequent progressive emersion of
sediments. The exposure of new salt marshes integrated in an increasingly broader littoral
plain and the reduction of the central water bed is expected to happen in the future in this
semi-arid environment. The final scenario will be perhaps similar to other Tunisian coastal
sabkhas, with an ample extension of almost sterile marshes protected by sandy spits and
surrounded by dune systems. This type of evolution has been also observed in the nearby
Rhar el Melah and Tunis lagoons (Mansouri, 1979) and in L‟Ariana sabkha (Carbonel et al.,
1981).
This chapter is based on three studies (Ruiz et al., 2006; Prudêncio et al., 2007, 2010)
performed in the frame of the European Union Project - ICA3-CT-2002-10012 COLASU
“Sustainability of Mediterranean Coastal Lagoon Ecosystems Ander semi-arid climate”.
2. THE EL MELAH LAGOON AREA

The El Melah lagoon is a coastal, exoreic lagoon (200 Ha) located near the Slimene town
(NE Tunisia). This small lagoon is elongated in a W-E direction and presents an artificial
connection (8 m long) with the Tunis Gulf, crossing a littoral dune strand (Figures 1 and 2).
Four main geomorphologic units may be distinguished: a) the sandy spit, a littoral dune strand
with a small mean height (5 m); b) El Melah lagoon, with permanent waters and vegetated
bottoms (Ruppia, Zostera and Enteromorpha; MEAT, 1996); c) the littoral plain, formed by
old dunes and marshes colonized by a heterogeneous vegetation constituted mainly by
Melilotus salkata, Trifolium isthanacarpum, T. tormentosum and Medicagociliaris spp; and d)
the consolidated dune strand system of Slimene, extending from Borj-Cédria (western sector)
to Jebel Korbous (northeastern sector).
Figure 1. The El Melah lagoon area – Location and geomorphologic units (adapted and reproduced by
permission of Elsevier from J. African Earth Sci., 2006, 44, 289-302).
Figure 2. A view of the central area of the El Melah lagoon.
The hydraulic functioning of the lagoon depends on the balance between alimentation
and evapotranspiration. The natural alimentations of this lagoon are: a) the rainfalls, with an
annual mean of 457 mm; b) the fluvial contributions, with very scarce and episodic inputs
coming from an episodic stream (Oued El Bey); c) the marine waters through the artificial
inlet; and d) the groundwater flows from the El Bey and Sidi Said aquifers. In addition, this
lagoon receives directly the partially purified waters from the Slimene treatment station
(STS). The main wastages proceed from the evapotranspiration (1400 mm by year) and the
infiltration.
The external hydrodynamics is controlled by the very weak tidal regime of the Tunis
Gulf, varying between 0.12 m and 0.3 m. The net coastal drift currents are very slow (15-20
cm/s) and are directed towards the west. The more frequent waves proceed from the N-NW
and N-NE (Kouki, 1984).
The internal circulation is reduced and slow. The main water transport is located in the
central channel of the lagoon, connected artificially with the eastern sector through gigantic
tubings. A reduced hydrodynamical interchange occurs in this eastern area, with the presence
of an algal covert over black sediments in the lagoon margin. The western sector is very
confined and shows a limited tidal renewal, receiving the fresh water inputs from the waste
treatment station of the Slimene town and the adjacent areas. Thus the total hydraulic balance
between water supplying and evapotranspiration of the El Melah lagoon is clearly negative,
and sediments emerge originating soils.
Different anthropogenic activities cause variable environmental impacts around the
lagoon area (Figure 3). The public Slimene treatment station drains directly to the western,
confined area of the permanent lagoon waters. Constructed in 1992, this station became with
an insufficient capacity in a decade. The industrial wastes of Grombalia (SE Slimene) are
partially discharged to the catchment area of Oued El Bey and may be transported to the
lagoon during the rainy station or by the subterraneous flows. In addition, some residues
derived of a plant of parapharmacy are also conducted to the northeastern sector of the
lagoon. The southern border of the lagoon receives the liquid/solid residues of a broad area
occupied by farming exploitations. The solid residue deposit of Slimene is located in the
southeastern corner of the lagoon, near STS. These residues can be washed by the periodic
rains and some dangerous metals could be transported to the aquifers and finally to the
lagoon. In addition, remains of bricks, glazed tiles, concrete, cement or scrap-irons are
dumped and stockpiled along the road that joins Slimene and the beach. These residues are
also observed in the inner areas of the littoral dune strand, near the tourism centre of Solimar.
Some old, abandoned saltworks are found in the central lagoon (Ben Ahmed, 2002).
A very important reduction of the area permanently covered by water in the last decades
originated a progressive emersion of sediments in this semi-arid environment.
Figure 3. Main anthropogenic activities in the El Melah lagoon area.
Figure 4. Location of water and sediments samples in the El Melah lagoon area: W1-Winter 2001; W3-
Winter 2003; S3- Summer 2003 (adapted from Ruiz et al, 2006).
Figure 5. Sampling sediments in the El Melah area lagoon (a- sample W3-2; b- sample W3-9, see
Figure 4).
3. ENVIRONMENTAL ZONES OF THE EL MELAH LAGOON AREA

A first approach of the scenario, carried out by studying waters, sediments and
microfaune, collected in winter 2001, and in winter and summer 2003 (Figures 4 and 5),
allowed to delimit several zones in the El Melah lagoon area, taking into account
environmental features and the impact of anthropogenic actions (Ruiz et al., 2006, Prudêncio
et al., 2007).
PO4 , NH4+) of waters, were obtained. Nitrates and nitrites were determined by
3-
spectrophotometry. Orthophosphates were analyzed through colorimetry by the molybdate

method, whereas the indophenol method was applied for the ammonium ion determinations.
Surface and sub-recent (0-15 cm and 15-40 cm deep, respectively) samples of sediments
(>2mm) were analysed in order to obtain the grain size distribution and the chemical
composition (NAA and ICP-OS). Ostracodes and foraminifera were selected as tracers of the
environmental conditions. A fixed quantity (100 g dry weight) of the samples was sieved
through a 63 μm mesh. If possible, 500 individuals were picked in each sample, with an
extrapolation to the whole sample. The taxonomic identification of the species present in the
different areas of the lagoon was done. An approximation to the analysis of the ecological
assemblages, with the estimation of densities, diversities and the determination of the main
and secondary species allowed the delimitation of the areas occupied by the main
assemblages.
Waters and Nutrients
In the winter of 2003, the lowest temperatures of the permanent waters were measured
both in the eastern margin and the connection with the western confined area (12.5-12.7ºC);
the higher values were found near the STS‟s effluent (21ºC). The effect of this station is also
clear in the salinity distribution, with the lowest values being located in its influence area
(5.9-12.4 0/00). In the remaining areas, the intertidal margin waters showed lower values (< 30
0
/00) than the central lagoon areas (33-34 0/00 in most cases), whereas the highest salinities
were detected near the artificial outlet (34-36 0/00). The western and central areas of the
lagoon presented alkaline waters (pH = 7.8-8.5) in opposition to the slightly acidic values
(pH= 6.3-6.8) found in the eastern corner.
Concerning nutrients, the highest nitrate concentrations were found in a very inner area
located in the northern margin and near the artificial outlet (>35 μM). In the western confined
area, the freshwater inputs derived from the STS‟s effluent cause a partial dilution (even 1.6
μM); intermediate values were observed in the eastern sector (16.3-27.4 μM). The highest
contents of nitrites are closely related with the influence area of STS (1.2-2.5 μM). In the
eastern corner, values of these anions are very low (0.13-0.22 μM) and moderate
concentrations (0.15-0.74 μM) characterize the marine channel and some old saltworks. The
phosphate contents vary between 0.42 μM and 2.52 μM, except in the central lagoon (7.69
μM) and the boundary between this area and the western confined sector (13.79 μM). This
transitional zone showed also the highest ammonium concentrations (2 μM), in comparison
with the rest of the permanent waters (0.17-0.72 μM).
Sediments
Two main zones may be delimitated taking into account the grain size of sediments: a)
artificial outlet and adjacent marine channel, characterized by yellow, medium to fine sands
with minor percentages of silts and scarce clays; and b) inner lagoon, composed by greyish to
green silty clays with minor percentages of fine to very fine sands. Silt percentages are higher
in the confined western area, close to the STS‟s effluent (Figure 6).
In the surface samples from the southwestern littoral plain, surrounding the solid residue
deposit of Slimene, and the western confined area where the STS´s effluent is located, high
concentrations of some heavy metals were found (As: 10-12.3 mg/Kg; Cd: 1-1.5 mg/Kg; Cr:
116-169 mg/Kg; Cu: 16-29 mg/Kg; Mn: 228-389 mg/Kg; Zn: 101-138 mg/Kg). High
concentrations of Mn (347 mg/Kg) and As (12.1 mg/Kg) were found in the northeastern
corner, whereas Cd is specially concentrated near the plant of parapharmacy (4.5 mg/Kg).
Ecology
In winter 2003 more than 8000 ostracodes individuals picked (> 100,000 individuals
present) were assigned to forty-nine taxa. The higher diversities (29 species) were found in
the marine channel, whereas the inner lagoon is characterized by very lower number of
species per sample (2 - 5 in most cases). Some ostracode species found are shown in Figure 7.
Three main areas could be delimitated in the lagoon area (Figure 8):
i) Marine - mainly Cytheridea neapolitana, Aurila convexa, Bairdia mediterranea,

Pontocythere turbida and Xestoleberis communis, with a distribution restricted to the
marine channel and the adjacent marine areas. In the sub-recent samples, some
individuals of Cytheridea neapolitana were transported toward the next areas to old
salt-pans.
ii) Semi-permanent waters (SW) - very high subaerial exposure - few individuals (<
0.25 individuals/gram) and species (1-2 per sample) live here, being represented by
Ilyocypris gibba, Heterocypris salina and Cyprideis torosa.
iii) Permanent waters - ostracodes are extremely abundant in the shallow, permanent
waters of this lagoon, with densities up to 300 individuals/gr in most samples.
Cyprideis torosa dominates (60-95 %), and Loxoconcha elliptica are minoritary
species; minor contributions of Leptocythere spp.
Figure 6. Sand, silt and clay fractions proportions of El Melah sediments.

It should be noted that no ostracodes were found in samples obtained near the public
treatment station and the garbage deposit in winter 2003. This also occurred in a very
confined NE area of this lagoon (see Figure 8).
Figure 7. Ostracodes species found in the El Melah lagoon area.
Figure 8. Ostracodes species found in the El Melah laggon during winter and summer 2003 (see Figure
7 for ostracodes species identification).
In summer 2003, twelve species were distinguished in the 1618 individuals picked. Two
main areas were delimitated:
1) Semi-permanent waters - ostracodes are very scarce (0.2-0.3 individuals/gram), with

a main assemblage composed by Cyprideis torosa, Ilyocypris gibba together with
reworked instars of Pontocythere turbid.
2) Permanent waters and lagoon margins - Cyprideis torosa dominantes, being
accompanied by Loxoconcha elliptica in the eastern part. Near the effluent of the
public treatment station, Cyprideis torosa was found together with freshwater species
(Cyprinotus salinus, Ilyocypris gibba, Candona spp.).
In the sub-recent sediment samples (15-40 cm depth) rare specimens of Heterocypris

salina were found in 2003 in the STS‟s area; whereas Cyprideis torosa was frequent (> 16
individuals per gram) near the old saltworks and scarce (3 individuals per gram) in the eastern
margin. The northeastern margin and the southern littoral plain are characterized by the
absence of ostracodes.
Forty-one foraminifer‟s species were determined in the 3518 individuals picked in
samples of the El MeElah lagoon. The most frequent are shown in Figure 9. Three areas may
be distinguished (Figure 10):
a) Marine channel - very abundant and diversified; most representative species are
Rosalina bradyi, Ammonia beccarii, Triloculina oblonga, Triloculina trigonula and
Elphidium crispum.
b) Public treatment station - both diversity and density are very low - Haynesina
germanica, Ammonia beccarii and scarce Elphidium crispum.
c) Inner lagoon - Near the lagoon border, there is a moderate to low diversities and low,
constant densities - Ammonia beccarii, Ammonia tepida, Nonion depressulum,
Quinqueloculina vulgaris and Sinuloculina rotunda.
Figure 9. Foraminifera species found in the El Melah lagoon area.

Figure 10. Foraminifera species found in the El Melah laggon area in summer 2003 (see Figure 9 for
foraminifera species identification).
Figure 11. Microfauna main assemblages of the El Melah ecosystem.
According to microfauna (ostracodes and foraminifera) the main assemblages (Figures 11

and 12) may be delimited:
1. Stress conditions - very isolated areas of the lagoon margin and the adjacent areas to
the public Slimene treatment station.
2. Fresh-water assemblage - SW part of the lagoon, with semi-permanent waters and a
high sub-aerial exposure during the dry periods. This ecosystem is characterized by
both low densities and diversities.
Figure 12. Photographs of the four defined zones based on the microfauna - marine, fresh-water,
confined and stress conditions.
3. Brackish lagoon assemblage - bottom areas of the permanent waters, with very high
densities of Cyprideis torosa, and the lagoon margin, with minor concentrations of
this species.
4. Marine assemblage - marine channel and the adjacent marine areas. Numerous
Mediterranean reworked species are introduced in the lagoon during the tidal fluxes
and deposited in the marine channel. Most species live in the adjacent Posidonia
meadows of the Tunis Gulf.
Zonation of the Lagoon: The Environmental Scenario (2003)
Seven zones were distinguished according to the physical-chemical parameters and

nutrient contents of waters, grain size, and heavy metal contents of the bottom sediments as
well as the distribution of ostracode assemblages (Figure 13): (1) artificial outlet and marine
channel; (2) central permanent waters; (3) NE lagoon margin; (4) SE lagoon margin; (5)
Slimene´s Treatment Station (STS) and adjacent areas, which can be further divided in two
sub-zones (permanent waters and lagoon margin, and littoral plain); (6) the rest of the SW
confined area; and (7) SW littoral plain (Ruiz et al. 2006).
Zone 1. Artificial outlet and marine channel. The artificial outlet permits the entrance of
marine waters coming from the Tunis Gulf in the lagoon area, establishing both the marine
salinity ranges and the nitrate contents. This zone is well delimitated in the ostracode and
foraminifera records, with a limited introduction of marine species (Aurila, Bairdia,
Neocytherideis, Palmoconcha, Pontocythere, Rosalina bradyi, Ammonia beccarii, Triloculina
oblonga, Triloculina trigonula and Elphidium crispum) coming from the adjacent infralittoral
environments in the marine channel.
Figure 13. Environmental zonation of El Melah lagoons, with indication of the main features of each
zone. W: waters; S: sediments; OA: ostracode assemblages (reproduced by permission of Elsevier from
J. African Earth Sci., 2006, 44, 289-302).
Zone 2. Central permanent waters. The larger part of the area permanently covered by
water showed marine salinities (30-36 0/00) and low nutrient contents. The main characteristic
of this zone is the extremely high abundance of the high brackish ostracode assemblage (>
300 individuals per gram), constituted almost monospecifically by Cyprideis torosa. This
abundance of Cyprideis (>100 individuals per gram) is frequent in numerous coastal lagoons
of Africa (Carbonel and Pinson, 1979; Bidet and Carruesco, 1982) and Europe (Carbonel,
1980).
Zone 3. Northeastern lagoon margin. In winter, this marginal zone presented

polyhaline, slightly acid waters with the lowest temperatures and moderate to high contents of
NH4+. The lower salinity observed could be due to the agricultural and freshwater inputs from
the adjacent farms and dune systems. In these fine sediments, ostracodes are absent or are
represented by scarce individuals of the high brackish assemblage. This drastic diminution in
comparison with the adjacent permanent waters (Zone 2) could be due to the high subaerial
exposure of this margin, a very unfavourable factor for the ostracode (Carbonel, 1980). In
addition, the continuous action of slightly acid waters over the ostracode carapaces may cause
the disappearance of these microcrustaceans in some subrecent samples, seen in different
coastal environments subjected to acid industrial and/or mining effluents (Ruiz et al., 2004).
Zone 4. Southeastern lagoon margin. The shallow alkaline water bed of this zone
presented high salinities (36-37 0/00) and low nutrient concentrations. The bottom sediments
are similar to those of Zone 2, with a predominance of clays over silts and low to very low
heavy metal contents. Ostracodes decrease from the lagoon margin (> 13 individuals per
gram) to the contact with the consolidated dune strand of Slimene (3-4 individuals per gram),
confirming the influence of the subaerial exposure over the density of these microorganisms.
Zone 5. Slimene´s Treatment Station (STS) and adjacent areas. Two subzones can be
distinguished:
(1) Permanent waters and lagoon margin. The STS produces an important impact in the
southwestern confined area of El Melah lagoon, with the presence of polyhaline,
nearly oligohaline waters with the highest nutrient concentrations of the lagoon. In
this special area the clayey-silty sediments present the highest concentrations in Cr
and Cu of the lagoon, whereas Cd is more abundant near the STS´s effluent. These
special conditions affect the bottom ostracode faunas, dominated by freshwater
species near this effluent, and by the high brackish assemblage at the intersection
with Zone 2.
(2) Southwestern littoral plain. In this area, no ostracodes were found near the solid
waste deposit of Slimene, coinciding with the presence of numerous urban residues
and moderate to high concentrations of As and Cr in the clayey sediments.
Zone 6. Rest of the southwestern confined area. This zone is characterized by the
highest salinities observed in the permanent waters and low to very low nutrient
concentrations when compared with Zone 5. Freshwater and high brackish species coexist in
similar proportions indicating a transition towards a supratidal environment.
Zone 7 - Southwestern littoral plain. This area is isolated from the tidal cycles and only
receives periodic fresh water inputs (rains, El Bey stream, aquifers). These supratidal marshes
partially occupied by building and urban residues are colonized by the fresh water
assemblages, accompanied by some reworked high brackish species.
4. PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE OF THE EL MELAH LAGOON

The analysis of two historical aerial photographs permitted a delimitation of the main
changes of this lagoon in the last decades (Figure 14). In 1948 this lagoon presented a larger
outlet that flowed into a still broad channel margin. Saltworks were active, being connected
with the sandy spit by an artificial road which arrived at a central island and limited the tidal
renewal of the northeastern lagoon margin (Figure 14A). This limitation and the continuous,
natural filling processes isolated some marginal areas from the tidal fluxes, which constituted
brackish ponds initially, then freshwater beds and finally a part of the salt marshes belonging
to the present littoral plain.
In the southwestern corner, the confined area was wider, which may explain the presence
of both high brackish and marine species in the present sediments. An isolation process was
observed here between 1948 and 1996 (Figure 14B), with the addition of 25 new ha of salt
marshes. Finally, an important increase in width of the southwestern littoral plain close to the
first farms occurred.
All these data show an accelerated evolution from an open lagoon to a sabkha in the
whole lagoon system since the littoral spit closed the marine connection, with a reduction up
to 30 % in the permanent water surface despite the artificial outlet (Ben Ahmed, 2002). A
general approach to the future evolution of this limited area could be done:
(1) In a first phase (Figure 14C), the marine channel will be narrower and new salt
marshes may appear in the northwestern corner of the old saltworks. Some very
shallow permanent waters now located in Zones 3 and 6 will be isolated from the
tidal fluxes and converted gradually into salt marshes. This transition is presently
evident in Zone 6, with the presence of freshwater ostracode species in a slightly
oversaturated environment. In addition, the southwestern lagoon margin will move to
the north, thus becoming separated from the large farming areas for a spacious
littoral plain. This possible scenario may be partially delayed if the artificial outlet
was enlarged. However, this could imply an evaluation of the ecological
consequences of this alteration.
(ii) In a second phase (Figure 14D), the permanent waters will be restricted to Zone 2,
whereas most of the remaining parts now submerged will form new salt marshes or
lagoon margins and the STS‟s effluent will be transported to some new supratidal
environments. In this situation, the artificial outlet will not play any role and, in any
case, the result will be the progressive desiccation of the lagoon and the creation of a
sabkha, as a natural end result of this evolutionary process.
Figure 14. An approach to the past and future evolution of El Meleh lagoon. A: general scheme in
1948; B: situation in 1996; C: the future - first phase; D: the future - second phase (reproduced by
permission of Elsevier from J. African Earth Sci., 2006, 44, 289-302).
5. SEDIMENTS
Among the chemical elements determined in sediments of the El Melah lagoon area, a
special attention was paid to the potentially pollutants trace elements - As, Co, Cr, Cu, Mn,
Ni, Pb, Sb and Zn (treated in this chapter as trace elements), some being very toxic (Förstner
& Wittmann, 1983) . Surface sediments (0-15 cm) collected in 2001 and 2003 were studied
(see Figure 3). Despite the small area of the lagoon (permanent waters and lagoon margins),
significant spatial variations occur in clearly different environments. Three samples are from
marine environment (artificial outlet and marine channel) and seven samples from the littoral
plain. The deeper samples (20-40 cm) have the same reference of the respective surface
sample, followed by a D (Prudêncio et al., 2007).
Aluminum is assumed to have a uniform flux to the sediments from the crust rock
sources, and changes in the water, salt, CaCO3 or organic matter contents, can be
compensated. Besides, Al is indicative of the clay mineral content and other aluminium
silicates (Förstner & Wittmann, 1983). In this way, among the elements analysed, Al was
chosen as the conservative element for the normalisation of the chemical contents
([X]sample/[Al]sample). The enrichment factors were calculated using an internal reference
sample (r), which presented a very low variation of the [X/Al]S / [X/Al]D ratio from deeper
levels to surface. Thus, the enrichment factors (EF) of trace elements (potentially pollutant) in
all surface sediments compared to the reference sample, were calculated relatively to Al (EFX
= [X/Al]sample / [X/Al]r). Since analytical errors and natural processes that may shift the
enrichment factor, a factor of three was assumed as natural background variation (0.33 < EF
<3).
Thus the trace elements concentrations in surface sediments were compared to a
reference sample to identify enrichment in a setting with potentially levels of pollution and a
variety of material textures and land-use practices.
Grain Size Distribution, Trace Elements Contents and Enrichment Factors
The surface bottom sediment distribution indicates an input of fine to very fine sands
through the artificial outlet only restricted to the external part of the marine channel.
Significant percentages of very fine sands were found in the inner eastern areas, which may
be explained by the partial erosion of the old dune systems and a later transport through the
ebb-tide channels towards the lagoon. In the western confined area, the very high percentages
of silty-clayey sediments and the comparatively low sandy contents confirmed the scarce
hydrodynamic connection of this sector with the rest of the lagoon.
The chemical elements contents of surface sediments of the El Melah lagoon area
presented significant variations coefficients (c%= 31% - 176 %) in the following order: Cu >
Cd > As > Ni > Zn > Pb > Co > Cr > Mn > Sb. These variations can be partially explained by
the grain size/mineralogical composition. Nevertheless anomalous values appear to occur in
some sites.
Taking into account trace elements concentrations, the element/Al ratios, and the
enrichment factors, together with the sediment dynamics, five zones can be defined (Figure
15):
Zone A - Artificial outlet and marine channel - sandy sediments with high absolute
contents of trace elements, high element/Al ratios and high enrichment factors of trace
elements. The trace elements may be incorporated in carbonate mineral phases of these
sediments, taking into account the low amount of fine particles (see Figure 6) associated with
low Al contents (<1%), and the high contents of Ca and Sr (typical carbonate elements). The
incorporation of trace elements in precipitated phases such as carbonates in the marine
environment may be expected since exchangeable trace elements are released once freshwater
mixes with salt water (Callender, 2005).
Zone B - Central permanent waters - clayey-silty sediments with low absolute contents
of trace elements (except high contents of Pb and Zn). The enrichment factors are low (EF<
3), which can be considered within the natural variation / unpolluted.
Zone C - North eastern lagoon margin - Despite the low absolute concentrations of trace
elements, a general increase of EF is observed towards the most confined zones. Mn and Ni
are the most enriched trace elements in this zone.
Zone D - Slimene’s Treatment Station (STS) and adjacent areas - zone sub-divided in
two areas: D.1. NW area - low dynamic clayey-silty sediments, where significant enrichments
in trace elements, particularly Cu, Ni and Zn, were found; and D.2. STS area – sediments
with general high enrichment factors of trace elements.
Zone E. South western littoral plain – sediments with significant enrichment factors (EF>
3) of Mn, As and Sb were found in this zone, which receives the scarce contributions of the
Oued El Bey (during the rainy season) which transport the industrial wastes of Grombalia. It
should be noted that this area is almost isolated from the rest of the lagoon by a road that
connects Slimene and the beach.
Figure 15. Environmental zoning of the El Melah lagoon based on trace elements behaviour
(reproduced by permission of Elsevier from J. Arid Envir., 2007, 69, 285-298).
Statistical Analysis
Among the correlations found between elements concentrations (marine samples

excluded), it was observed that Cd and Sr are correlated with Ca, which can be explained by
the incorporation of cadmium in carbonates together with strontium (Figure 16a). An
association between Co, Cr, and Mn, and Al, Ti, K, Fe, and V was found which may express
the incorporation of these trace elements into solid minerals by processes such as adsorption,
co-precipitation, and/or precipitation of discrete Mn and Fe hydroxides. The presence of these
trace elements as coatings on other types of mineral surfaces such as clays, carbonates, and
grains of feldspar and quartz, may also occur. A correlation between Zn, Ni and Cu was
found, and together with Sb and As, have some affinity with S and P. Lead has a singular
behavior.
Figure 16. Hierarchical tree (Statistica, 2006) – (a) clustering of chemical contents by using the
UPGMA method; and (b) – clustering of chemical contents normalised to Al by using the UPGMA
method. D link – distance linkage; D max – distance maximum (reproduced by permission of Elsevier
from J. Arid Envir., 2007, 69, 285-298).
The elements normalised to Al content (elements/Al), confirmed the different

characteristics of the marine samples, due to higher concentrations of all elements relative to
Al, excepting Fe and V. Samples from the western confined area which receives the Slimene
public treatment station effluent‟s and one sample located in the NE lagoon margin, are also
differentiated by tree clustering after the removal of marine environment samples from the
data set. This differentiation is mainly due to high Cu/Al, Ni/Al and Zn/Al ratios in zone D
(STS and adjacent areas), and the highest Cr/Al, Pb/Al, Fe/Al, K/Al, Mg/Al, and Na/Al ratios
in the NE lagoon margin.
Concerning the correlation found between elements/Al ratios (marine samples excluded),
it should be noted that: (1) Zn is correlated with S and P, as well as Ni and Cu at a lower level
of similarity (Figure 16b), probably through bindings of these trace elements with
2 3
intermediate ( SO32 ) and hard bases ( SO4 and PO4 ); (2) Co and Cr appear to be
incorporated and/or adsorbed onto iron hydroxide phases and clay minerals, since a
correlation with Al, Ti, K, Fe, V was found. Pb is more correlated with Mn suggesting its
presence mainly in Mn hydroxides. Sb and As join this group at a lower level of similarity;
and (3) Cd is more correlated with Sr. This analysis showed a clear distinction between Zn,
Ni and Cu, and all the other trace elements. It should be noted that the statistical analysis
using the EFs of all chemical elements of the surface sediments as variables, gave similar
results to those obtained by using the element/Al ratios, indicating that the reference sample
chosen can be considered an appropriate reference sample.
6. SOILS
The main factors that explain the present zoning of the El Melah lagoon are the artificial
outlet, which allows the maintenance of a permanent water bed, the freshwater inputs of the
Slimene treatment station, and the natural filling of the lagoon. A very important reduction of
the permanent waters has occurred in the last sixty years according to the interpretation
analysis of aerial photos (1948-1996), with a progressive emersion of sediments, therefore
originating soils.
In this chapter, a geochemical and mineralogical study of the whole sample and the <2µm
fraction of soils collected in 2003 in the El Melah lagoon area is presented (Prudêncio et al.,
2010). A depth coring (down to 50cm) was performed in soils from the littoral plain
surrounding the nowadays central zone of permanent waters of the area, and in soils
developed in dunes. The locations of the soil profiles were selected taking into account the
different environmental conditions of the lagoon area, and land-use practices, namely the
littoral dune strand close to the mouth of the lagoon, littoral plains and cultivated as well as
non-cultivated soils developed on old dunes (Figure 17): soil 1- sandy spit; soils 2 and 3 –
SW littoral plain; soils 4 and 5 – developed in the consolidated dune strand and cultivated;
soils 6 and 8 – NE littoral plain; and soil 7- top of the consolidated dune hill occurring in the
central part of the lagoon area. Surface (S=0-25 cm) and deep samples (D=25-50 cm) of each
soil were studied. Most of the soils result from the emersion of previous sediments resulting
from the lagoon closing evolution. In this way, a detailed study of a depth core revealing a
clear interface between emerged and submerged layers was also done in order to evaluate
chemical and mineralogical variations due to emersion in this semi-arid environment. This
core was collected in the western part of the littoral plain, where industrial wastes of
Grombalia may arrive transported by the Oued El Bey (Ben Ahmed, 2002; Ruiz et al., 2006;
Prudêncio et al., 2007). Thus a surface sediment sample was also collected at the mouth of
this oued in order to evaluate possible contributions/contaminations of trace elements (Figure
18).
Due to the grain size and mineralogical composition variations in soils and sediments of
lagoon areas, the chemical data should be interpreted after normalization. Frequently used
normalization methods involve comparison with conservative elements, such as Al, Ti and Sc
(Conrad and Chisholm-Brause, 2004; Prudêncio et al, 2007; Dias and Prudêncio, 2008;
Villaescusa-Celaya et al., 2000). Scandium was selected for this study. The extent of
variation/contamination by using ratios of chemical elements to Sc has been estimated
considering reference samples.
Figure 17. Location of soils samples (adapted from Prudêncio et al., 2010).
Figure 18. Sampling location of the sediment collected at the mouth of the Oued El Bey (OE) and C9
core samples (adapted from Prudêncio et al., 2010).
Mineralogical Composition of the Soils - Whole Sample and <2 µm Fraction
Quartz and calcite are the dominant minerals in most of the whole samples. Alkali
feldspars and clay minerals occur in small amounts. In general, kaolinite is the dominant clay
mineral in the <2 µm fraction. Some differences on the mineralogical composition depending
on the depth and on the environment zones were found:
Sandy spit (soil profile #1) - the whole sample of the subsurface layer taken in the soil
profile of the sandy spit presents trace amounts of clay minerals. Calcite proportion is slightly
higher in the surface layer, where ankerite was also found. The mineralogical composition of
the < 2 µm fraction of both layers is similar: the clay minerals present are kaolinite, chlorite,
and illite; traces of smectite and interstratified illite/smectite (I/Sm) were also found. Quartz
was also detected in this fraction.
SW littoral plain (soil profiles #2 and #3) - gypsum is the dominant mineral in the whole
sample of the subsurface layer of the more subaqueous soil (profile #3). Quartz, calcite, clay
minerals, halite and anhydrite are also present in this sample. The gypsum proportion
decreases upwards, with the increase of all the other mineral phases, except halite, which was
not detected by XRD in the surface layer. The clay minerals present in the < 2 µm fraction of
this sample are I/Sm, kaolinite, Chl/Sm, illite and traces of smectite. Chlorite also occurs in
the subsurface layer. Quartz occurs in these fine fractions, and calcite is also present in the
surface layer.
In soil profile #2, less flooded than soil profile #3, dolomite and clay minerals were found
associated to quartz, calcite and traces of feldspars. The clay minerals present in the < 2 µm
fraction are I/Sm, kaolinite, smectite, illite and Chl/Sm. Quartz and calcite were also found in
this fraction.
NE littoral plain (soil profiles #6 and #8) - quartz was the only mineral found by XRD in
the whole samples of the surface and subsurface layers (samples 6-S and 6-D). The clay
minerals found in the < 2 µm fraction of sample 6-D are I/Sm, kaolinite, illite, smectite and
chlorite. In the surface layer (6-S) smectite and chlorite decrease, while Chl/Sm occurs.
Quartz and gypsum also occur in both layers.
In soil profile #8, also located in the same zone but in a more confined area (see Figure
17), in addition to quartz, small amounts of calcite and traces of clay minerals were also
found. The clay minerals present in the < 2 µm fraction are kaolinite and illite; I/Sm and
Chl/Sm occur in the surface layer and chlorite in the subsurface. Quartz and calcite, together
with gypsum in the deeper sample, were found in this fraction.
Old dunes - the samples taken in the soil profile located at the top of a small hill made of
a consolidated dune (soil profile #7) is mainly composed of quartz. Calcite decreases upwards
and feldspars could only be found in trace amounts at the surface; traces of clay minerals
occur in both layers. In the < 2 µm fraction kaolinite, illite and chlorite are the clay minerals
present; calcite, quartz and gypsum also occur.
The two cultivated soils of the dune strand (soil profiles #4 and #5) mainly differ in the
calcite proportion, which is higher in the soil profile nearest to the lagoon (soil profile #5).
Dolomite also occurs in the subsurface layer at this location. Small amounts of hematite and
traces of clay minerals were also found. The clay minerals present in the < 2 µm fraction of
samples taken in the soil profile #4 are kaolinite, I/Sm, smectite in trace amounts in the
surface layer, and illite. Chlorite and smectite were also detected. A high degree of disorder is
observed in the clay minerals present in these soil profiles. Quartz and calcite occur in all fine
fractions, and gypsum is also present in the surface layer.
Core and Oued El Bey Sediment- Mineralogical Composition and Micro-

paleontology
The core (C9), was drilled at the SW littoral plain (Figure 18), and selected for a more
complete study, since evidence of the lagoon sediment/soil interface was found. This core
(30cm depth) presents three distinct horizons from the bottom up to the surface: more clayey
horizons (samples C9-1, C9-2); a transition sandy-clay horizon (sample C9-3); and a surface
sandy horizon (samples C9-4 and C9-5). A surface sediment sample was also collected at the
mouth of the Oued El Bey (OE).
Clay minerals are dominant (~40%) in the fine sediment of the deeper horizon (samples
C9-1 and C9-2) followed by calcite, quartz, gypsum, halite and alkali feldspars. Nevertheless,
in the surface (sample C9-4) quartz dominates followed by calcite. Clay minerals, dolomite
and halite proportions are lower than in the deeper horizon. Aragonite and hematite were only
found in the surface horizon, where gypsum and feldspars were not detected.
The micropaleontological analysis of the core (C9) horizons showed important
differences between the deeper samples and the surface one. A large number of ostracodes
(>100 individuals/gr) are present in the bottom (mainly Cyprideis torosa and Loxoconcha
elliptica) together with marine specimens (Pontocythere elongata, Bairdia spp., Cytheretta
spp., etc.). This assemblage is usually found in brackish lagoons with marine connection
(Samir, 2000; Ruiz et al., 2006). In the surface sandy horizon, Cyprideis torosa dominates
while the marine species are almost absent, reflecting the progressive isolation of the lagoon.
The sediment collected at the mouth of the Oued El Bey (sample OE) is mainly
composed of quartz, calcite, clay minerals (kaolinite dominant) and alkali feldspars. Traces of
dolomite and hematite were also detected.
Mössbauer Spectrometry
Mössbauer spectra of the soil and core samples were collected at room temperature and at
10 K in transmission mode using a conventional constant-acceleration spectrometer and a
25 mCi 57Co source in Rh matrix. The spectrometer was calibrated with an α-Fe foil. Isomer
shifts are given relative to this standard. Details on the experimental procedure and data
analysis may be found in Waerenborgh et al (1990, 2002).
Mössbauer spectra of soil samples are very similar and only a few representative ones are
shown in Figures 19 and 20. Except for the S-1 sample the spectra taken at room temperature
consist of three resolved absorption peaks (Figure 19) which may be fitted by two quadrupole
doublets with parameters typical of high-spin Fe3+ and Fe2+. The doublet with higher isomer
shift, IS (relative to metallic Fe at room temperature), and quadrupole splitting, QS, is
attributed to Fe2+ incorporated in the structure of clay minerals. The doublet with lower IS
and QS, is due to Fe3+ incorporated in the structure of silicates and of fine-particle Fe3+
oxide/hydroxides that have superparamagnetic behaviour at room temperature. The signal to
noise ratio of the room temperature spectrum of sample S-1 (Figure 21) is lower than those of
C9-1 and C9-2 due to the lower Fe content of the former sample. The spectrum of S-1
sample, collected in the sandy spit near the lagoon mouth shows a third doublet with
parameters typical of Fe2+ in the calcium carbonate structure. This agrees with XRD data
which detects ankerite in the S-1 sample.
Table 1. Estimated parameters of surface samples of the El Melah lagoon area from
the Mössbauer spectra taken at 10K and room temperatre
(reproduced by permission of Elsevier from Catena, 2010, 80, 9-22).
sample depth T IS, mm/s QS, ε, mm/s Bhf , , I

(cm) tesla mm/s
S-1 0- 25 297 K Fe3+ 0.35 0.60 - 0.44 76%
Fe2+ clay minerals 1.12 2.74 - 0.29 13%
Fe2+ ankerite 1.30 1.48 - 0.26 11%
S-3 0- 25 297 K Fe3+ 0.36 0.57 - 0.55 92%
Fe2+ clay minerals 1.12 2.69 - 0.38 8%
S-3 0- 25 10 K Fe3+ clay minerals 0.47 0.58 - 0.63 67%
Fe2+ clay minerals 1.29 2.90 - 0.31 7%
Fe3+ goethite 0.49 -0.27 47.9 0.60 26%
S-4 0- 25 297 K Fe3+ 0.36 0.56 - 0.51 97%
Fe2+ clay minerals 1.17 2.68 - 0.29 3%
S-4 0- 25 10 K Fe3+ clay minerals 0.48 0.55 - 0.56 60%
Fe2+ clay minerals 1.28 2.84 - 0.27 2%
Fe3+ goethite 0.50 -0.27 49.6 0.44 38%
S-6 0- 25 297 K Fe3+ 0.36 0.55 - 0.57 93%
Fe2+ clay minerals 1.17 2.69 - 0.27 7%
S-7 0- 25 297 K Fe3+ 0.36 0.61 - 0.55 91%
Fe2+ clay minerals 1.12 2.73 0.39 9%
C9-3 10-12 297 K Fe3+ 0.37 0.60 - 0.45 86%
Fe2+ clay minerals 1.09 2.69 - 0.37 14%
C9-3 10-12 10 K Fe3+ clay minerals 0.48 0.50 - 0.60 30%
Fe2+ clay minerals 1.24 2.79 - 0.49 13%
Fe3+ goethite 0.50 -0.24 50.1 0.51 57%
C9-2 20-22 297 K Fe3+ 0.37 0.61 - 0.51 89%
Fe2+ clay minerals 1.10 2.69 - 0.37 11%
Fe2+ clay minerals 1.28 2.90 - 0.35 10%
Fe3+ goethite 0.50 -0.25 49.5 0.42 38%
C9-1 27-29 297 K Fe3+ 0.37 0.60 - 0.52 88%
Fe2+ clay minerals 1.12 2.73 - 0.37 12%
Fe2+ clay minerals 1.28 2.92 - 0.37 10%
Fe3+ goethite 0.49 -0.25 49.9 0.44 39%
IS (mm/s) isomer shift relative to metallic -Fe at 295 K; QS (mm/s) quadrupole splitting. ε =
(e2VzzQ/4) (3cos2 - 1) (mm/s) quadrupole shift estimated for the sextets. B hf (tesla) magnetic
hyperfine field;  (mm/s) line-width; I relative area. Estimated errors  0.02 mm/s for IS, QS, ε, ,
< 0.2 T for Bhf and <2% for I.
Low-temperature spectra (Figure 20) were collected for samples with higher Fe content
S-3, S-4, and core samples (C9-1, C9-2, and C9-3). They are fully consistent with room
temperature data confirming that a significant fraction of the Fe3+ is incorporated in small
particle size Fe oxide/hydroxides that have a superparamagnetic behaviour at room
temperature. Their characteristic magnetic interactions may however be observed in the
spectra taken at 10 K.
The present Mössbauer data of soil samples show that the S-4 soil is the most oxidized.
Sample S-1 collected in the sandy spit is the sample with the highest Fe2+ / Fe3+ ratio, having
a significant amount of Fe2+ incorporated in a calcium carbonate structure. The soil
periodically flooded (S-3) has a higher proportion of iron (Fe2+ and Fe3+) in clay minerals
when compared with the cultivated soils developed on the old dune (S-4). As far as the core
samples are concerned Fe2+ is only present in clay minerals, as observed in the soil samples
except S-1. In all core samples Fe3+ occurs both in clay minerals and in iron
oxide/hydroxides. According to Vandenberghe et al. (2000) a superparamagnetic Fe3+
oxide/hydroxide which at 297 K only gives rise to a doublet and at 10 K to a sextet with
magnetic hyperfine field approximately 49 T and quadrupole shift ≤ -0.25 mm/s is most likely
goethite. Considering the estimated parameters in Table 1 goethite should therefore be the
dominant Fe3+ oxide/hydroxide in the present soil and core samples. The presence of other
minor Fe3+ oxide/hydroxides, however, cannot be excluded since their minor contribution,
partially overlapping the broad goethite sextet peaks, may be undetected.
Figure 19. Mössbauer spectra of soil and core samples taken at 297K. The lines over the experimental
points are the sum of two or three doublets shown slightly shifted for clarity.
Figure 20. Mössbauer spectra of core samples taken at 10K. The lines over the experimental points are
the sum of two doublets and one sextet.
Chemical Composition of Soils
The chemical elements contents of soils of the El Melah lagoon area present significant
variations. For the majority of the studied elements the higher contents were found in the SW
littoral plain, followed by the old dunes, the sandy spit, and finally the NE littoral plain. The
following exceptions were found: (1) Hf and Zr contents in the soils developed in the old
dunes are similar to those of the SW littoral plain; (2) Sb contents in the sandy spit are similar
to those found in the old dunes, and in the subsurface layer of soil profile #3 (sample 3-D, SW
littoral plain); and (3) As is more concentrated in the sandy spit. Significant variations of the
As concentration were found within the soils developed on the old dunes.
The differences found in the chemical contents of soils may be partially due to the grain
size and mineral proportions variations. In order to compare soils from different
environmental conditions, normalization to Sc was performed to diminish those effects. The
normalized values of chemical data (element/Sc ratios) were used as variables for multivariate
statistical analysis. The results obtained by using tree-clustering showed that samples gather
according to the environmental zones (Figure 21). The plot of means for each variable of each
group resulting from K-means method shows the variables that contribute more significantly
for the differentiation of the four main groups (Figure 22).
Sandy spit – the soil collected in the sandy spit and near the mouth of the lagoon is more
enriched in Fe, Co, Zn and particularly As; and depleted in K, Cr, Ga, Br, Rb, Cs, Ta and Th.
Figure 21. Tree-clustering of the soils of the El Melah Lagoon area (reproduced by permission of
Elsevier from Catena, 2010, 80, 9-22).
SW littoral plain – soils enriched in Na, Ga and Cs, and depleted in As, Sb, Ba, middle
REE (MREE) and heavy REE (HREE).
NE littoral plain – soils clearly different from the others, as far as trace elements are
concerned – enriched in Cr, Br, Zr, Sb, Ba, REE, Hf, Ta, Th and U. Iron is the only element
that is depleted as compared to all the other groups of soils.
Figure 22. K-means for each variable of the soils of the El Melah Lagoon area (reproduced by
permission of Elsevier from Catena, 2010, 80, 9-22).
Old dunes – the cultivated and non-cultivated soil developed in old dunes present no
significant enrichment or depletion for most elements, except Zn which is depleted, when
compared with the other soil types (see Figure 22).
Analysis of variance shows that the normalized contents of the REE play an important
role in the soils differentiation of the several zones. In fact all REE are strongly enriched in
the NE littoral plain; the sandy spit, the SW littoral plain and the old dunes are well
distinguished from each other by the proportion of MREE and HREE relative to the LREE,
which are similar in these three groups. It should be noted that trace elements contribute more
for the differentiation of the soil types than the major elements studied.
Trace and Major Elements Distribution in Soils – In-Depth Variation (S/D)
The in-depth variations for each site were calculated for all elements in the soil samples,
comparing surface (S) with the respective subsurface sample (D) relative to Sc, thus obtaining
the enrichment factor (EF=[X/Sc]S / [X/Sc]D). The enrichment factors (EF) are in general
lower than 1.5, except in soil profile #1 (sandy spit near the mouth of the lagoon) for Ga, Br,
Zr, and Hf; and in soil profile #3, where a significant enrichment of Sb was also found
(Figure 23).
Sandy spit – the soil collected on the sandy spit close to the mouth of the lagoon presents
similar low Sc contents in both surface and subsurface layers, so the in-depth variations using
absolute contents and normalized values are similar (Figure 23a). A significant enrichment of
Ga, Br, Zr and Hf in the surface layer is observed. The HREE and U are depleted.
SW littoral plain - the two layers of the soil profiles are fine, with high Sc contents and
also high absolute contents of the majority of the elements studied. The chemical contents
normalized to Sc show a significant enrichment of Sb upwards, particularly in soil profile #3
(Figure 23b), and also of Cr in soil profile #2. Significant depletions were found for Na in
both sites, and also Br in soil profile #2.
Figure 23. Continued.

a) b)
c) d)
Figure 23. In-depth variations of the chemical contents normalized to Sc. a) sandy spit; b) SW littoral
plain; c) NE littoral plain; and d) old dunes (reproduced by permission of Elsevier from Catena, 2010,
80, 9-22).
NE littoral plain – the soils of the NE littoral plain present low absolute contents of the
elements studied. The normalized values in depth variation shows a general depletion
upwards, particularly of Sb in soil profile #6, and Na, Ga, As and Zr in soil profile #8 (Figure
23c). Enrichments of Co, Zn and U were found in both sites. An enrichment of Hf together
with an increase of enrichment of the HREE occurs in soil profile #6.
Old dunes - the cultivated soils of the old dune strand (#4 and #5) do not present
significant variations in depth. The normalized values show an increase of the HREE/LREE
ratio upwards, with an enrichment of the HREE in the surface layer of soil profiles #5 and #7
(Figure 23d). An enrichment of Sb occurs in soil profiles #4 and #7.
Rare Earth Elements Patterns of Soils
The REE patterns of soil profiles samples (S and D) relative to chondrites (Haskin et al.,
1971) are shown in Figure 24a. In general there is an enrichment of the LREE relative to the
HREE. Negative Eu and small negative Ce anomalies also occur. The REE of the soils
normalized to PAAS (post-Archean average Australian sedimentary rocks; McLennan, 1989)
show a flat pattern with relative enrichment of the MREE (Figure 24b). A positive Eu
anomaly and negative Ce anomaly occur. The soils from the NE littoral plain present the
lower REE contents, and also a higher differentiation between LREE and HREE mainly due
to a lower HREE content.
a)
b)
Figure 24. REE distribution patterns of the soils the El Melah Lagoon area (a) normalized to chondrites
and (b) to PAAS (reproduced by permission of Elsevier from Catena, 2010, 80, 9-22).
Trace, Minor and Major Elements Distribution in the Core and the Oued El
Bey
A general decrease of the concentration of the studied elements occurs from the bottom to
the surface of the core (C9), being particularly significant in the sandy surface horizon. The
only exception was found for As, which is more concentrated at the surface of the core where
a lower subaqueous condition prevails.
The in-depth variation of chemical contents normalized to Sc in the core drilling, was
calculated using the sample of the bottom of the core as reference. The enrichments factors
are shown in Figure 25. Concerning the major and minor elements, significant enrichments
upwards of Si and Ca were found, particularly in the sandy surface horizon. Mn, Na and P
have the same behaviour, but with lower enrichment factors. Fe, Mg, and K do not vary
significantly. Depletions of Al and Ti are found.
Among the trace elements studied, significant enrichments upwards were found for As,
Br, Sr, Sb, W and Pb, particularly in the samples of the sandy surface horizons. Enrichments
of Ni, Zr, Ba and REE (particularly MREE) also occur. Significant depletions were found for
Al, Ti, and Cs, and particularly Ga and Ta.
The sediment of the mouth of the Oued El Bey presents absolute contents of most of the
studied elements similar to those found in the deep clayey layer of the core, or slightly higher
in the case of Fe, Cr, Sc, Zn, Rb and Cs. Na and Br are the only elements that present lower
contents when compared to the bottom of the core. The chemical contents normalized to Sc of
the oued are in general similar to those found in the deeper horizon of the core, except for Na,
Ga, Br, Ba and Hf, which present lower values.
Figure 25. Variations in depth of the chemical contents normalized to Sc in the core drilling (C9)
calculated relative to the deeper sample (C9-1) (reproduced by permission of Elsevier from Catena,
2010, 80, 9-22).
REE Patterns of the Core and the Oued El Bey
In the core a decrease of the REE contents occurs upwards, particularly in the coarser
sandy layer. A negative Eu anomaly occurs in all samples, being smaller in the surface layer.
A relative Eu increase occurs, originating positive Eu anomalies. HREE are also enriched
relative to the LREE. The sediment of the mouth of the oued (OE) presents REE contents
similar to the deeper sample of the core, except for the HREE, which are more depleted
relative to the LREE.
Compositional Variability in Surface Samples of the El Melah Lagoon Area
In the present-day sandy spit, near the mouth of the lagoon, ankerite and high As content
(12 mg/Kg) were found in the soil. The presence of ankerite may explain the higher Fe/Sc
ratio found. In fact no iron oxides were detected by XRD and a high Fe2+/Fe3+ ratio occurs. A
significant amount of Fe2+ is incorporated in a calcium carbonate structure (11%). Part of the
Fe3+ (76% of the total Fe, determined by Mössbauer spectrometry) may be present in poorly
crystalline iron oxides. The higher Fe/Sc, Co/Sc and Zn/Sc, and As/Sc found in the sandy spit
compared with the other soils, suggest that these elements are mainly incorporated in calcite
and ankerite. A significant increase upwards of Ga and Br with the increase of carbonates at
the surface was also found. This may also be true for REE since no correlation of the
HREE/LREE ratio was found with the significant upward enrichment of Zr and Hf, indicating
that REE are not concentrated in zircon (see Figure 23a). In this way some trace elements
may be incorporated in carbonate mineral phases precipitated in this marine influenced
environment, as already suggested for the high contents of trace elements found in sandy
sediments collected in the mouth of this lagoon.
The soils developed in old dunes have in general intermediate element/Sc ratios between
the other types of soils. Some variations were found among these soils, particularly for Co,
which is correlated with calcite, pointing to the incorporation of this element in calcite, which
has already been found by Marques (2007). An enrichment of the HREE occurs upwards,
which can be due to the higher amounts of calcite.
In the NE littoral plain sandy soils are mainly composed of quartz, and traces of calcite
and clay minerals. Despite this mineralogical composition, significant enrichments of trace
elements such as Zr, Sb, Ba, REE, Hf, Th and U were found. As mentioned above, a general
increase of the enrichment factors of trace elements towards the most confined zones of the
NE littoral plain was also observed in the sediments. However, it should be noted that in the
soils resulting from the emersion of sediments due to the reduction of the permanent waters
bed, a general depletion of trace elements was observed. The lower HREE/LREE ratios found
in these soils are mainly due to lower HREE contents, which is in agreement with the lower
calcite contents where these elements appear to be concentrated.
In the SW littoral plain soils are fine, with high Sc contents and high amounts of clay
minerals. Also, high proportions of total iron in clay minerals occur as compared to the other
soils. These soils are the most frequently flooded and may be considered as present-day
lagoon marginal sediments, where high salinity conditions exist evidenced by the presence of
significant amounts of sulphates, namely gypsum, and also anhydrite and halite. Here
enrichments of Na and Ga were found. However, these soils do not appear to be more
enriched in trace elements than the other soils types. Despite the general higher absolute trace
elements contents found in these soils, clay minerals occur in small amounts (< 1.4%).
Among the mineral phases, carbonates and sulphates are the most likely candidates to
incorporate the high amounts of trace elements found. Soils of the SW littoral plain have the
chemical composition more similar to the samples of the bottom of the core, which
corresponds to deeper lagoon (higher water column) sediment.
The bottom of the core (sample C9-1) is mainly composed of clay minerals (40%), and
similar proportions of quartz, calcite and gypsum (17% each). Halite, dolomite and alkali
feldspar are also present (samples C9-1 and C9-2). An increase of the quartz proportion
occurs with the emersion of the sediment (60%), associated to the decrease of clay minerals
(7%). Close to the surface the fraction of the total iron in goethite is higher than in the
subsurface horizons. This is in agreement with the low clay minerals amount as well as with
the increase of iron oxides in the surface horizon. On the other hand, clay minerals occurring
in these sub-aerial conditions are less exposed to weathering, thus explaining the highest Fe2+
/ Fe3+ ratio when compared to the other sediment or soil samples.
Comparing the upper level of the core (sub-aqueous soil) with the fine subsurface horizon
(deeper water bed), a general decrease of the chemical elements concentrations occurs
upwards due to the significant increase of Si associated with the higher quartz proportion and
increase of the particles dimensions. This can be explained by the loss of fine sediment in the
surface exposed to wind erosion. Calcium also increases and Sr content is similar in both
layers of the core, which can be related with the upwards increase of calcite and aragonite.
Lead contents are also similar in both horizons and As concentration increases from the
deeper sample to the upper sandy horizon. The Sc-normalized values relative to the deeper
sample (see Figure 25) show significant enrichments in the upper sandy horizon of As, Sr, W
and Pb, and with a lower degree of Ni, Br and Sb, together with enrichments of Si, Mn, Ca
and Na. It should be noted that similar enrichment factors were found for Ca, As and Sr,
which suggest the incorporation of these trace elements in carbonates. Also the HREE are
concentrated relatively to the LREE, pointing to the precipitation of carbonates and
preferential incorporation of the HREE. An upward depletion mainly of Al, Ti, Ga, Cs and Ta
occurs.
The enrichment upwards the core of some trace elements can also be explained by
adsorption in, or coprecipitation with, hydrous ferric oxides. In fact the fraction of the total
iron in goethite is higher close to the surface than in the subsurface horizons, and an increase
of iron oxides in the surface horizon was also found by XRD. Sorption and co-precipitation
on Mn oxides (biogenic ones included) may also take place since a significant enrichment of
this element exists in the upper sandy layer (see Figure 25). In fact, microorganisms have
been shown to accelerate the oxidation of Mn2+ (Tebo et al. 2004; Morgan, 2005), pointing to
the biological origin of most of the nanoparticles of Mn4+ oxides in the environment, coating
grains found in soils and superficial sediments. Biogenic Mn oxides are strong sorbents of a
variety of metal cations as shown by Villalobos et al. (2005). Lead is also enriched,
particularly in the upper sample of the sandy horizon. Enrichments of Pb, normally observed
in shallow marine sediments, were also found in sediments collected in the margins of this
lagoon. The ability of incorporation of Pb, Cd and other toxic metals is known, and recent
studies have been done in order to better understand and use biogenic Mn oxides or calcite in
the remediation of metal-contaminated wastewaters, soils and sediments (Nelson et al., 2002;
Tani et al., 2004; Yavuz et al., 2007).
The contribution of the sediments arriving from the industrial Grombalia region does not
appear to be significant as far as trace elements pollution is concerned. In fact, the chemical
composition of the sediment collected in the mouth of the Oued El Bey shows that in general
trace elements are not more concentrated than in the soils and the core samples studied, and in
general the normalized values to Sc of the sediment are of the same order of magnitude as
those found in soils. Sodium and bromine are mainly related to marine environment.
Iron is more oxidized in the cultivated soil from the old dune strand. On the littoral plain
(SW e NE) where sediments are exposed to air the Fe3+/Fe2+ ratio is similar. Fe is more
reduced in an environment with higher marine influence, particularly in the sandy spit soil
where ankerite occurs. In this environment the reduction of Fe3+ in oxide/hydroxides by
microorganisms and incorporation of the resulting Fe2+ in the carbonate structure (including
biogenic ones) seems to take place in agreement with ankerite detection. In the flooded soil
the fraction of Fe3+ in clay minerals relative to Fe3+ in oxide/hydroxides is higher than in the
cultivated soil of the dune strand. Therefore Fe3+ used in biological activity seems to originate
rather from oxide/hydroxides than from clay minerals.
Among the potentially pollutant trace elements, high element/Sc ratios and variations
were found for As, Sb and Zn. In Figure 26 these elements normalized to Sc are plotted vs. Sc
content. Antimony behaviour appears not to depend on the environmental/geological
conditions, being probably mainly adsorbed in Fe or Mn oxides coating quartz grain surfaces.
Arsenic appears to be mostly controlled by carbonates, including the biogenic ones. The low
Zn/Sc ratio found in the Oued El Bey and the bioability of Zn (Summons, 1993) suggests that
Zn may be concentrated in marine-shallow water precipitates and organic matter formations.
Besides carbonates, sulphates appear to play an important role on the Zn distribution since the
highest Zn contents were found in samples with significant amounts of sulphates. The low
Zn/Sc ratios found in the soils developed in the old dunes may be due to loss of this element
during the chemical weathering of carbonate phases. The higher loss of Zn when compared to
As during weathering of old dunes may be explained by the different way how these trace
elements occur in carbonates (Cheng et al., 1998, Alexandratos et al., 2007).
High Ga contents are associated with high contents of alumina and clay minerals,
suggesting the incorporation of Ga3+ in the clay minerals structure substituting Al3+ (see
Figure 26). Rare earth elements, particularly the heavy ones, are correlated with carbonates,
indicating the preferential incorporation of the HREE in carbonates, and the LREE in clay
minerals and also probably in iron oxides as previously observed by Compton et al. (2003).
7. CONCLUSION
The multidisciplinary analysis carried out in El Melah lagoon area (NE Tunisia) of
waters, sediments and microfaune collected in 2003, allowed to delimit seven zones with
similar environmental features and the impact of different anthropogenic actions over each
one of them. The main factors that explains the zonation of the lagoon are: a) the artificial
outlet, which permits the entrance of the tidal fluxes and the maintenance of an area
permanently covered by water; b) the freshwater inputs of the Slimene‟s treatment station,
with a strong impact in the water parameters and the microfaunal assemblages; and c) the
natural filling of the lagoon, with a very important reduction (up to 30 %) of the permanents
waters in the last sixty years according to the photointerpretation analysis.
The integration of all these data allowed to get insight into the future evolution of this
lagoon, characterized by the reduction of the central water bed and the progressive emersion
of new salt marshes integrated in an every time broader littoral plain. The final scenario will
be perhaps similar to other sabkha environments located in the Tunisian coasts, with an ample
extension of almost sterile marshes protected by sandy spits and surrounded by dune systems.
A detailed geochemical study of the El Melah surface sediments, using absolute contents,
element/Al ratios and enrichment factors calculated relative to Al and to the reference sample,
showed that the artificial outlet and the marine channel present a complete different
environment compared to the lagoon area (permanent waters, lagoon margins and littoral
plain). Trace elements appear to be concentrated in sediments of semi-permanent waters, like
the NE lagoon margin and the SW littoral plain, with the closing of the lagoon, which can
occur by sorption and coprecipitation on Fe and Mn hydroxides, since a significant
enrichment of Fe and particularly of Mn is observed. Lead has a singular behavior, being
most enriched in the NE lagoon margin and in the SW littoral plain in summer 2003 (EF  2),
which is normally found in shallow marine sediments. The chemical characterisation and
geochemical approach of surface sediments of the El Melah lagoon showed that in general
trace elements are within background levels, except the confined zone adjacent to the Slimene
treatment station, where pollution of Cu, Zn and Ni was found.
Figure 26. Sb/Sc, As/Sc, Zn/Sc, and Ga/Sc vs. Sc contents in surface samples of the El Melah Lagoon
area - soils, core and Oued el Bey (reproduced by permission of Elsevier from Catena, 2010, 80, 9-22).
In the marine environment (outlet and channel), the sediments present in general high
absolute contents of trace elements, particularly Cd. Very high element/Al ratios as well as
high enrichment factors were found, due to low Al concentrations (and low fine particles
amount). The high contents of trace elements are probably due to their presence in carbonate
phases (organic included) since high contents of Ca and Sr (typical carbonate element) exist.
The soils collected in 2003 in the different environmental zones of the El Melah lagoon
area do not appear to be significantly polluted as far as trace elements are concerned. Among
the mineral phases present in the sub-aqueous soils, carbonates and sulphates, and also Mn
oxides, appear to play an important role on the trace elements distribution, as could be
expected in this carbonated coastal shallow semi-arid region.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The financial support of the European Union (Project ICA3-CT-2002-10012 COLASU
“Sustainability of Mediterranean Coastal Lagoon Ecosystems Under semi-arid climate”) is
gratefully acknowledged.
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Chapter 2
LIMITING FACTORS AND STRATEGIES

FOR IMPROVING REPRODUCTIVE OUTPUTS
OF SMALL RUMINANTS REARED IN
SEMI-ARID ENVIRONMENTS
A. Gonzalez-Bulnesa, C. A. Meza-Herrerab,
M. Rekikc, H. Ben Salemd and R. T. Kridlie
a
Departamento de Reproduccion Animal, INIA, Avda, Puerta de
Hierro s/n. 28040, Madrid, Spain
b
Universidad Autonoma Chapingo, Unidad Regional Universitaria
de Zonas Aridas, Bermejillo, Durango, Mexico
c
Ecole Nationale de Médecine Vétérinaire, 2020 Sidi Thabet, Tunisia.
d
INRA-Tunisie, Laboratoire des Productions Animales et
Fourragères, Rue Hédi Karray, 2049 Ariana, Tunisia
e
Jordan University of Science and Technology, Irbid, Jordan
ABSTRACT
In the semi-arid areas of Africa, America and Asia, small ruminants (sheep and
goats) are the main economic output under smallholder production systems. These two
species provide meat and to a less extent milk but at low yields as a result of the
dominating extensive systems. Productive outputs are limited, within other causes, by a
lower reproductive efficiency; mainly, a delayed onset of puberty, large anoestrus periods
and low fertility and prolificacy. Reproductive events, in all the species and ecosystems,
are determined by genetic and environmental cues. Animals reared, for a long time in
semi-arid environments are surely the best genotypes for surviving under the harsh
climatic and nutritional conditions of these areas, but genetic selection for improvement
of reproductive and productive yields is scarce. The second limiting factor, in the low-
input systems of semi-arid areas, is environment (specifically photoperiod, thermoperiod
and nutrition) and its modification by human handling. Photoperiod and thermoperiod are
directly influencing the onset of puberty and the circannual reproductive activity of sheep
42 A. Gonzalez-Bulnes, C. A. Meza-Herrera, M. Rekik et al.
and goats; the application of simple and non-expensive protocols for alleviating such
limiting factors and, thereafter, for inducing and/or synchronizing reproductive activity in
animals with delayed puberty and seasonal or reduced reproductive activity is of
paramount importance. Finally, nutritional resources are obviously scarce in semi-arid
environments. Supplementation with concentrate feeds and/or high-quality pastures is
expensive and doesn‟t fit with a sustainable animal production. Thus, resorting to less
expensive alternative feed supplements (e.g.: agro-industrial by-products, feed blocks,
fodder trees, shrubs and cactus) and to natural products as rumen modifiers (e.g. tannins,
saponins, etc.) could be a promising way to tackle this objective. Nutritive
supplementation, like reproductive protocols, need to be carefully handled, due to the
economical conditions and management limitations of marginal producers in harsh
extensive conditions; the strategies of focus feeding may be a sustainable solution.
INTRODUCTION
The arid area of the globe is home for extensive livestock production mainly based on
small ruminants. Sheep and goats are the main economic output under smallholder production
systems. However, the contribution that small ruminants make to farmers‟ livelihoods in
harsh arid regions is usually inferred, but not well quantified. The distribution of small
ruminants shows a concentration of animals in small scale households, where sheep and goats
play a crucial role in the financial security of the poor families through sales of animals, milk
or wool. Wool prices are depressed in many parts of the world and wool is mainly used at
family or small scale traditional manufacturers for crafts production. The main production in
arid and semi arid climates is lambs, muttons or kids for meat consumption. Small ruminants‟
meat makes large contribution to total meat production in most of arid countries. Such
contribution is even more important in countries where other meats are not consumed for
religious reasons. Therefore, in many arid countries of West Asia and North Africa, there is a
continuous increase in the annual meat production of small ruminants and this has lead to a
wide expansion of more efficient fattening systems particularly around large cities (Iniguez,
2005). Biologically, milk production is more demanding in nutrients and therefore, this type
of production is less common in arid countries where pastures production is erratic and cannot
therefore sustain milk production at an intensive commercial scale. Nevertheless, in many
countries, milk is retrieved for family consumption but no data is available to show the
importance of such practices.
Productive outputs are limited, within other causes, by a low reproductive efficiency;
mainly, a delayed onset of puberty, large anoestrus periods and low fertility and prolificacy.
Reproductive events, in all the species and ecosystems, are determined by genetic and
environmental cues. Animals reared, for a long time in semi-arid environments are surely the
best genotypes for surviving under the harsh climatic and nutritional conditions of these areas,
but genetic selection for improvement of reproductive and productive yields is scarce. Thus,
the constraints of the arid environments have largely contributed to establishment of sheep
and goat breeds that are reproductively less efficient than breeds of more temperate areas.
Sheep and goat breeds of arid and semi arid zones are often late-maturing animals, reaching
puberty at a delayed age and starting their reproductive life later than in more favourable
natural conditions. Delaying initiation of the reproductive life is also a deliberate decision of
the farmers ensuring sufficient growth and development of the females prior to reproduction.
Limiting Factors and Strategies for Improving Reproductive Outputs … 43
Furthermore, in utero undernutrition, a very common event when pregnant dams are
inadequately fed under arid and semi arid conditions, contributes to a reduced reproductive
fitness of the progeny (Ashworth et al., 2009).
The second limiting factor, in the low-input systems of semi-arid areas, is environment
(specifically photoperiod, thermoperiod and nutrition) and its modification by human
handling. In fact, the effects of environment and human management on animal physiology is
a matter of energy. Reproduction is a complex and energy-demanding function. Internal and
external conditions might impair reproductive success and repress reproductive activity
through environmental stress or negative energy balance (Silanikove, 2000a,b; Kadzere et al.,
2002; Bronson, 2009; Clarkson et al., 2010). Environmental stress and energy balance are
determined, directly or indirectly, by nutritional, photoperiodical and thermoperiodical cues.
Moreover, photo- and thermoperiod determine food availability; which, in turns, will affect
the energy balance, the most important signal modulating, among others, the reproductive
function. In fact, while both photoperiod and thermoperiod are important external cues
affecting reproductive function, energy balance will be the ultimate factor regulating breeding
in all animals (Bronson, 2009; Clarkson et al., 2010).
Semi- and arid zones cover one-third of the world surface, between 15 and 40º of latitude
at either side of the warm and wet equatorial area. The most important sheared characteristic
of such zones, despite the high variety of biotopes, is aridity. Arid environments provide a
defined balance of solids, water and air that are highly variable for promoting plant growth,
with an almost unimpeded supply of light for photosynthesis. For this reason, the resultant
pattern of primary productivity over these different environments coincides closely with the
supply of light, heat, and water; in other words, with photoperiodical and meteorological
patterns, which defines food availability through the seasons of the year.
In summary, most sheep and goat breeds of the arid and semi arid zones are low-prolific.
However, most breeders and technicians agree that there are no advantages of increasing litter
size, either genetically or hormonally, because the prevailing environment would suppress
any benefit of having more than one lamb per ewe. Therefore, all efforts should be directed
towards maximising fertility in the flocks. Fertility is determined by the regularity of oestrus,
the number and quality of ovulations and the incidence of embryo losses; all of which can be
modified by nutrition and other management practices. Amongst all reproductive traits,
maximisation of conception rate should be regarded as the main objective to be achieved in
harsh arid zones. This is probably why in traditional management, rams or bucks are kept
permanently within the flocks so as to take advantage of each single mating opportunity.
Practically, this leads to a wide spread of lambing that is not necessarily coherent with
“rational” concepts of resource optimisation and marketing described in sheep management
books and where compactness of lambing is an essential element.
BREED DIVERSITY AND FEATURES OF PRODUCTION

SYSTEMS AND MANAGEMENT
The arid and semi-arid geographical parts of the world account for a large sheep and goat
genetic diversity. In general, goat breeds are less well-characterised, which has resulted in
them being poorly documented and, in many parts, goat producers have also been neglected
by development efforts. The lack of true information on the genetic characterisation of

different sheep and goat breeds causes that the existing breeds within a country or between
neighbouring countries could be very much phenotypically and genetically interrelated
(Iniguez, 2005). The common local breed of the area is a very well adapted animal to drought
conditions, to the use of poor native vegetation and to other unpredicted rapid changes in the
production environment.
In some countries of North Africa, Egypt as well as Mediterranean and continental West
Asia, several sheep breeds are fat-tailed. The fat tail is an adaptation that allows the sheep to
cope better with fluctuations in feed availability; they utilise feed stored as fat deposits in
periods of scarcity, and replenish their fat tails in periods of plentiful feed. This cyclic
mobilisation of fat reserves of sheep breeds thriving under harsh arid conditions affects
productivity of the flocks and modifies the reproductive efficiency, namely the aptitude to
breed, the litter size and the survival of offspring. Market tendencies to have carcasses with
less fat are encouraging farmers to use thin tailed or cross-bred breeds. In some countries,
these breeding practices very often arbitrary, are putting a risk to the integrity of some fat-
tailed breeds that are extremely well adapted to the natural difficult conditions. Such shift can
be further accentuated by the fact that some fat-tailed breeds have additional labour
requirements to reproduce (i.e.: lifting of the fat tail at mating).
Together with breeds‟ diversity, there is a large variation in the production and
management systems of sheep and goats in arid and semi arid regions. The dominating
systems of raising sheep and goats are traditional; with a minimal input in housing, labour
and health care. The rudimentary housing conditions, especially the absence of shelter, would
expose animals, particularly newborns, to wide variations in temperature; hence, it would
affect their potential for surviving and growing. In many parts of the arid regions, sheep and
goats production system still rely on transhumance and nomadism in order to valorise
growing vegetation and crop residues available in nearby agricultural areas. Therefore, the
majority of the flocks do traverse extensive distances and this negatively affects their
reproductive and productive performances through immense expenditure of energy. From a
strictly pastoral point of view, these practices of wide movements of the flocks are regarded
as indigenous strategies to valorise complementarities between ecologically different zones
having a positive impact on the management of the primary resource. Moreover, movements
of the flocks are sometimes driven by research for water. It is a characteristic of grazing land
in arid zones that water points are not permanent throughout the year and, in addition, water
quality is very much different between winters and the hot dry summers; becoming, in
summer, heavily charged in salts and infested with worms and parasites, thus presenting a
high risk for metabolic and health disorders. However, we lack crucial scientific information
on the effect of water deprivation (quantitatively and qualitatively) on the productive and
reproductive performances of sheep and goats.
Nomadic systems are less and less practiced as the populations involved are more
vulnerable to risks, and have practically no access to basic social and health care. More and
more settled production systems are emerging as a result of decreasing flock sizes and the fact
that farmers are growing more field crops. The degree of settlement depends upon the type of
land tenure and access to grazing. In the case of legally owned private land, agro-pastoral
systems of sheep and goat production become important where animals are integrated to the
rest of the agricultural practices (cropping, trees production…). The “nutritional threat”
within this system is not as important as in other fully grazing systems.
Still under arid and semi arid climatic conditions, more intensive production systems for
sheep and goats are met. These production systems are usually associated to cropping in
irrigated land or the very famous oasis system that is described in many North African and
Middle East countries. Grass production under these systems is not limiting and therefore,
animals with a higher productivity are kept. This is the case of the prolific D‟Man sheep in
Morocco (Boujenane, 2005), the Damascus goat in several Middle East countries (Iniguez,
2005) and crossbred dairy goats in the south of Tunisia (Rekik et al., 2005). In some countries
like Tunisia, animal production within the oasis is a multipurpose activity providing animal
products, organic matter for the stability of the soils and also an alternative to decreasing
revenues from palm trees and production of dates.
MODULATION OF REPRODUCTIVE ACTIVITY

BY ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
Environment defines lifestyle and activity of the animals by three important interacting
components: the basic stress intensity, the magnitude and timescale of fluctuations and the
availability of energy and resources (Willmer et al., 2006; Bronson, 2009). The living
organisms, in turns, develop responses in different time-scales:
 evolutive and behavioral strategies built-up during decades, hundreds or thousands of

years
 adaptive strategies in circannual, lunar or solar basis
 short time-scale circadian and circohoral strategies.
In response to seasonal patterns of photoperiod, thermoperiod, rainfall and food

availability, animals out of the equatorial zone have developed an interesting reproductive
strategy: seasonal breeding. A specific breeding season assures that the vulnerable offspring
would appear in periods with abundance of food and reasonable environmental conditions
(West, 2003; Willmer et al., 2006; Roth, 2008; Hansen, 2009; Nienaber and Hahn, 2009).
Breeding seasons are rigidly fixed by hormonal triggers, dependent upon endogenous timing
systems, upon the invariant signal of photoperiod and even upon thermoperiod. Under such
scenario, each stage of the reproductive process must be regulated both intrinsically as well as
in relation to the changing environment to insure that offspring is produced at a time when
their survival chances are maximal.
The endocrine system is often the mediator between internal mechanisms and changes in
the external environment; firstly, by changes in reproductive anatomy and physiology and,
later, in reproductive behavior. A variable set of hormones is involved, but the common
undisputable initiator is the gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) pulse generator, which
constitutes the key link between the perception of environmental conditions by the brain and
the reproductive system. GnRH is delivered via the hypothalamic portal vessels to the
pituitary gland and stimulated the release of the gonadotropins LH and FSH from the
gonadotrophs in the anterior pituitary. Other endocrine players involved are the gonadal sex
steroids estrogen plus progesterone in females and testosterone in males (West, 2003;
Willmer et al., 2006; Roth, 2008; Hansen, 2009; Nienaber and Hahn, 2009; Urrutia-Morales
et al., 2009; Meza-Herrera et al., 2010a,b).
ROLE OF THERMOPERIOD IN MODULATING

REPRODUCTIVE FUNCTION
Substantial progress has been made in the last quarter-century in delineating the
mechanisms by which thermal stress influences performance of animals. Heat-stress
sensitivity and tolerance influences all the reproductive features, from estrus behavior to
seminal characteristics and embryonic survival (Silanikove, 2000a,b; Kadzere et al., 2002;
West, 2003; Roth, 2008; Hansen, 2009; Nienaber and Hahn, 2009). In fact, thermoperiod may
affect reproductive performance in several species; mainly, because heat stress causes large
reductions in fertility due to large effects on most aspects of reproductive function in
mammals. These include disruptions in spermatogenesis and oocyte development, oocyte
maturation, early embryonic development, fetal and placental growth and lactation (Hansen,
2009).
Specifically in females and, particularly, in sheep, potentially elevated ambient
temperature can impact on the physiological mechanisms regulating follicular development
anywhere from primordial follicle through antral formation to ovulatory follicle
(Scarammuzzi et al., 1993). Elevated ambient temperature not only has detrimental effects on
follicular development, but also can reduce the drive for sexual behaviour, leading to „silent
oestrus‟. Ovulation was not accompanied by oestrus in 35% of ewes exposed to elevated
ambient temperature prior to ovulation, and in those animals displaying oestrus, the period of
oestrus was shortened by about half (Sawyer et al., 1979). Because oestradiol is essential for
oestrous expression in ewes, it is possible that the effects of heat stress on the developing
follicle reduces the capacity of the dominant follicle to produce oestradiol and limits oestrous
behaviour. This might explain that in extensively managed systems of arid and semi arid
regions where mating seasons of local sheep and goats can extend to hot months, „silent
oestrus‟ inhibits the usual behavioural interactions between the ram and the ewe and leads to
missed reproductive opportunity.
These deleterious effects of heat stress are the result of either the hyperthermia associated
with heat stress or the physiological adjustments made by the heat-stressed animal to regulate
body temperature. Many effects of elevated temperature on gametes and the early embryo
involve increased production of reactive oxygen species. Genetic adaptation to heat stress is
possible both with respect to regulation of body temperature and cellular resistance to
elevated temperature. The adaptive capabilities of animals and livestock production systems
are key elements when an animal faces different environmental insults. Acclimation to
thermal stress is now identified as a homeorhetic process under endocrine control. The
process of acclimation occurs in 2 phases (acute and chronic) and involves changes in
secretion rate of hormones, as well as in amount of receptors in target tissues. The time
required to complete both phases is weeks rather than days. In addition, biometeorology has a
definitive role when implementing a rational management to meet the challenges of thermal
environments. Under heat stress, either reductions of heat load or increase of heat loss are the
primary management tools. Actions to mitigate environmental heat insults may be based on
risk management, by considering perceived thermal challenges, assessing the potential

consequences and acting accordingly. Appropriate actions include: shadow, sprinkling, air
movement, or active cooling.
The ability of ruminants to adapt to marginal production systems is partially determined
by their capacity to develop appropriate compensatory responses to counteract different
environmental stressors (Silanikove, 2000b; Smith and Dobson, 2002). Despite the fact that
most of small ruminants in the world are raised in the dry and humid tropics, limited
information is available on the effect of thermal stress on reproduction of this species.
Traditional goat production systems under arid and semiarid conditions have been developed
under restricted conditions on both water and food supply besides high temperatures (Nagy,
1994; Silanikove, 2000a,b). Under this scenario, goats have exerted metabolic and renal
compensatory responses throughout some neuroendrocrine controls related to an efficient use
of both metabolic and water reserves (Silanikove, 1989; Silanikove, 2000a,b).
When facing stress, goats activate two response mechanisms:
 a short-term activation of the hypothalamic-hypophyseal-adrenal axis with the

concurrent increase in cortisol release
 a middle-term adaptation response to stress, which is characterized by a decrease of
cortisol to basal levels (Minton, 1994; Von Borell, 1995; Silanikove, 2000).
ROLE OF PHOTOPERIOD IN MODULATING REPRODUCTIVE FUNCTION

Circadian systems in a wide variety of organisms appear to include three basic
components:
 biological oscillators that maintain a self-sustained circadian periodicity in the

absence of environmental time cues.
 input pathways that convey environmental information, especially light cues, that can
entrain the circadian oscillations to local time
 output pathways that drive overt circadian rhythms, such as the rhythms of
locomotive activity and a variety of endocrine rhythms.
In mammals, the circadian system is employed in the regulation of reproductive

physiology and behavior in two very important ways. First, in some species, there is a strong
circadian component in the timing of ovulation and reproductive behavior, ensuring that these
events will occur at a time when the animal is most likely to encounter a potential mate.
Second, many mammals exhibit seasonal reproductive rhythms that are largely under
photoperiod regulation; in these species, the circadian system and the pineal gland are crucial
components of the mechanism used for measuring day length. The rhythm of pineal
melatonin secretion is driven by a neural pathway that includes the circadian oscillator in the
suprachiasmatic nuclei. Melatonin is secreted at night in all mammals, and the duration of
each nocturnal episode of melatonin secretion is inversely related to day-length. The pineal
melatonin rhythm appears to serve as an internal signal that represents day-length and that is
capable of regulating a variety of seasonal variations in physiology and behavior (Goldman,
1999).
As previously mentioned, animals restrict the time of birth of offspring to the most
advantageous time of year, usually spring or summer. This is achieved by controlling the
preceding period of fertility and, in some cases, by delaying implantation of the zygote.
Seasonal changes in day-length are the principal, though not the only cue, regulating pulsatile
release of hypothalamic releasing factors that, in turns, activate the pituitary-gonadal axis.
The role of the neuroendocrine system is therefore to translate the photoperiodic stimulus into
an endocrine signal. The measurement of day-length is a function of the circadian system,
environmental light being sampled on a 24-hour basis. Photic information is conveyed from
the retina to the pineal gland via the suprachiasmatic nuclei of the hypothalamus and the
cervical sympathetic trunk. The pineal gland is an essential mediator of the photoperiodic
response. The gland is neither anti- nor pro-gonadotrophic; it merely provides a signal
(Hastings et al., 1985). As mentioned by Ebling and Foster (1988), a decrease in photoperiod
is necessary for the normal timing of puberty in the spring-born maiden sheep, whereas
mature sheep in seasonal anoestrous can resume breeding activity at a normal time in the
absence of decreasing photoperiod. Such data are suggesting that the requirement for a
decreasing photoperiod by the spring-born lamb reflects its limited photoperiodic history as
compared to the adult. This is a model that fits satisfactorily with temperate breeds under
favorable feeding conditions. In arid areas, results show that for the desert adapted Barbarine
breed, the decrease in live weight after weaning, retards the onset of puberty during short
days. However, access to a good level of nutrition, even without full recovery in bodyweight,
allows the animals to achieve acceptable fertility at the age of 18 months when photoperiod is
increasing (Ben Salem et al., 2009). These results stress that models describing seasonality in
small ruminants to be exhaustive, should take into account other factors of the environment in
addition to photoperiod.
Photoperiodism can be therefore defined as a process whereby organisms are able to use
both absolute measures of day-length and the direction of day-length changes as a basis for
regulating seasonal changes in physiology and behavior. The use of day-length cues allows
organisms for tracking time-of-year and to "anticipate" relatively predictable annual
variations in important environmental parameters. Thus, adaptive types of seasonal biological
changes can be molded through evolution to fit annual environmental cycles. Studies of the
formal properties of photoperiodic mechanisms have revealed that most organisms use
circadian oscillators to measure day-length. In mammals, it is hypothesized that a circadian
oscillator in the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus receives photic stimuli via the
retinohypothalamic tract (Goldman, 2001).
The circadian system regulates the rhythmic secretion of the pineal hormone, melatonin.
Melatonin is secreted at night, and the duration of secretion varies in inverse relation to day-
length; thus, photoperiod information is "encoded" in the melatonin signal. The melatonin
signal is presumably "decoded" in melatonin-target tissues that are involved in the regulation
of a variety of seasonal responses. Variations in photoperiodic response are seen not only
between species but also between breeding populations within a species and between
individuals within single breeding populations. Sometimes these variations appear to be the
result of differences in responsiveness to melatonin; in other cases, variations in photoperiod
responsiveness may depend on differences in patterns of melatonin secretion related to
circadian variation. Sites of action for melatonin in mammals are not yet well characterized,
but potential targets of particular interest include the pars tuberalis of the pituitary gland and
the suprachiasmatic nuclei. Both these sites exhibit uptake of radio-labeled melatonin in
various species, and there is some evidence for direct action of melatonin at these sites.
However, it appears that there are species differences with respect to the importance and
specific functions of various melatonin target sites (Goldman, 2001).
MANAGEMENT OF PHOTOPERIOD AND

SEASONALITY BY THE “MALE EFFECT”
Reproductive activity may be resumed, during the anoestrous season, either by
pharmacological or management techniques. Pharmacological procedures are commonly
based in the use of treatments either combining progestagens and gonadotrophins or applying
melatonin implants. However, in developing countries, the use of pharmacological procedures
is still limited as a result of technical and economic limitations.
The alternative is the use of management practices; mainly the male effect, a practice
well-known by the breeders from ancient times. The male effect consists of the induction of
fertile reproductive activity during seasonal anoestrous in small ruminant females by the
introduction of males after a previous isolation period. Main advantages are its negligible cost
and its easiness of performing.
The response to the male effect has been described accurately in small ruminants (for
reviews, see Martin et al. 1986 for sheep and Walkden-Brown and Restall 1996 for goats). In
brief, the exposition of females to males induces an increase in the secretion of luteinizing
hormone (LH) by the pituitary, followed by a preovulatory LH surge and ovulation, from 48
to 60 h after buck introduction (Chemineau 1983); although this can be delayed for several
days in some cases (Ott et al. 1980). Usually, ovulation is accompanied by estrus behavior in
goats, but not in sheep (silent estrus).
However, the quality of these first ovulations is very poor and most of them are short
cycles with low luteal activity and fertility. Several studies in sheep have shown that short
cycles can be avoided by combining the male effect with pharmacological treatments, i.e. by
the administration of 20–25 mg of progesterone in a single intramuscular dose (Oldham et al.
1985). Most of the females treated with progesterone show estrus behavior and ovulation with
luteal phases of normal length; moreover, the interval from male introduction to fertile estrus
is reduced, allowing a better synchronization of mates and births. However, possibilities for
treating with progesterone depend on law regulation in each country. For sheep breeds with a
shallow anoestrus, thriving under arid and semi arid conditions, it has been shown that a high
level of synchronization can be obtained by combining the ram effect and the use of
exogenous progestagens and that fixed time artificial insemination can be carried out with
acceptable conception rates (Rekik et al., 2003).
NUTRITION AS MAIN FACTOR MODULATING PRODUCTIVE YIELDS

The lack of adequate year-round feed resources is probably the most important factor
contributing to low animal production in arid and semiarid regions (Ben Salem and Smith,
2008). The continuous leap in prices of concentrate feeds and the increasing use of some of
them (soybean, rapeseed, maize, etc.) in bio-fuel industry are making machinery-based
agriculture in serious difficulty and threatening livestock sector. Therefore, there is an urgent
need to develop appropriate strategies for better use of local feed resources and to identify
technologies optimizing the potential use of these unconventional feedstuffs in livestock
feeding.
Forage production in the arid and semi arid regions is low. Fresh forage cultivated in
these areas under irrigated system (e.g. Alfalfa) is often offered to dairy cattle rather than to
sheep and goats. Important quantities of dried forages moved from humid zones towards dry
areas in the form of baled hay and or straw for livestock feeding. Extension of appropriate
species and cultivars of various forages and legumes for specific agro-climatic and field
situations is required to enhance livestock sector. Because fertile land and water are limiting
factors of fodder production in the dry areas, the strategy for increasing fodder production
should explore the inclusion of selected forages and legumes into prevailing cropping patters
in the context of more intensive systems of land use.
Agro-industrial by-products (AGIBPs) refer to the by-products derived in the industry
due to processing of the main products. They are, in comparison to crop residues, less fibrous
and more concentrated, and often have a high nutrient content. They could be classified into
four main categories:
 Energy-rich feeds from citrus pulp and molasses.

 Nitrogen-rich feeds from tomato pulp and brewery waste.
 By-products from cereal milling (e.g. wheat bran, wheat flour meal).
 Secondary compounds-rich feeds (e.g. grape marc).
The limited use of many of them in livestock feeding is likely due to proximity of the
AGIBPs to livestock flock (transportation and storage needs), alternative uses and the relative
opportunity costs, the nutritive value of the new feed, and the managerial capabilities of the
farmer. Some technologies have been developed to overcome this situation, thus to enhance
the utilisation of these unconventional feed resources in ruminant feeding. Possible
alternatives are AGIBPs ensiling, feed blocks and AGIBPs-based pellets.
For those farmers having transportation facilities and their flocks are raised in proximity
of a specific food industry manufactory (e.g. olive oil extraction, fruit juice extraction, etc.)
appropriate ensiling is a promising technique for better use of AGIBPs in livestock feeding
(e.g.: ensiled citrus pulp and tomato pulp for dairy animals).
Feed blocks (FB) manufactured by the cold process are made from a mixture of one or
more AGIBP (e.g. olive cake, tomato pulp, etc.), binder (e.g. quicklime, cement and clay),
water and common salt, as well as urea with or without molasses. They should be air-dried
until hardness and compactness criteria are met, and then offered to stall-fed or grazing
ruminants on low quality diets. The technique of FB making is well described in the literature
(e.g. Ben Salem and Nefzaoui, 2003). Some variations in the blocks have been the
incorporation of polyethylene glycol as a tannin-inactivating agent, which has increased the
utilization of tanniniferous browse foliage in sheep and goat feeding. Medicated blocks
containing anthelmintic agents and tannins to control internal parasites have been used in
Australia and Ethiopia. Mineral enriched FBs (e.g. phosphorus, copper, etc.) were distributed
to animals to mitigate their deficiency and improve reproduction in ruminants. Feed blocks
could be used as carrier of some specific nutrients, tannin-deactivating agents and
anthelmintics. Haboby et al. (1999) evaluated the effect of incorporating by-pass proteins and
vitamins (AD3E) in feed blocks on semen characteristics of Awassi Rams. They noted after 3
months of block supply a significant decrease of mass activity (78.7 vs. 56.2%), individual
motility (87.5 vs. 67.5%), ejaculate concentration (1.84 vs. 0.93 billion per ejaculate) but an
increased dead rate (9 vs. 22.2%) and head abnormalities (2.25 vs. 11%) in sperms.
Depending on the formula, FBs can replace partially or totally concentrate feeds, thus
alleviates feeding costs without detrimental effects on livestock performances.
Conserving AGIBPs in the form pellets is another promising option. Nefzaoui and Ben
Salem (unpublished data) have developed and determined the nutritive value of olive cake
based pellets. The formula was inspired from ingredient composition of FB. The FBs are set
aside for supplementing the basal diet and their hardness and compactness oblige the animal
to consume small amounts, pellets due to their smaller size will be consumed in higher
amounts. In contrast to FBs, mechanisation is necessary to make pellets. In any case,
AGIBPs-based pellets is an interesting technology to reduce the use of conventional feed
resources and to satisfy feed demands in the dry Mediterranean areas.
On the other hand, the use of shrubs and trees as animal feeds (FST) probably goes back
as far as when animals were domesticated. FST are integral parts of smallholder farming
systems in many parts of the world such as the Mediterranean area. Shrubs are made up of
different fractions of diverse quality. Some species are high in essential nutrients but low in
anti-nutritive factors (e.g. Morus alba), some others are low in nutrients but high in secondary
compounds (e.g. Pistacia lentiscus) while some shrubs are high in both nutrients and
secondary compounds (e.g. Acacia cyanophylla, Atriplex spp.). This is an ecological factor
adapted to withstand grazing and to provide ground for selective grazing.
In arid and semi-arid regions where forage species available are of poor quality, FST
could be used as feed supplements to increase animal intake of native resources. They can be
used also to defer grazing after the autumn/winter opening rains, so that more production
could be obtained. With proper treatment and management, FST could constitute a greater
proportion of livestock diets. The type of shrubs and trees used as fodder by smallholder
farmers varies from country to country. But, these species are in general drought- and or salt-
tolerant like saltbushes (e.g. Atriplex nummularia, A. halimus, etc). The potential use of
oldman saltbush (A. nummularia) in sheep and goat feeding was recently reviwed by Ben
Salem et al. (2010).
There are many advantages of promoting fodder shrubs and trees, because of their wider
adaptability to harsh agro-climatic conditions and ability to produce for a longer period. As
trees require little care after the establishment, the cost of production will be low. Hence,
multipurpose shrubs and trees not requiring high inputs and withstanding harsh conditions are
generally welcomed by small-farmers.
Plant defensive compounds commonly but loosely addressed as plant secondary
compounds include those in categories such as phenolics, saponins, alkaloids, non-protein
amino-acids, essential oils and glycosides. Tannins and saponins are the most widely
occurring components from these groups (Makkar et al., 2007). These two compounds have
both beneficial and adverse effects depending upon the nature and the amount an animal
consumes. In various studies, foliage as well as fruits and seeds of shrubs and trees have been
reported to suppress ruminal protozoa population. This natural defaunating, i.e. protozoa
eliminating, activity of some multi purpose trees and shrubs-derived feeds was shown to be
the result of their plant secondary metabolites. Dietary manipulations result in methane
reduction by decreasing fermentation of organic matter in the rumen and shifting the site of
digestion from the rumen to the intestines, diverting hydrogen away from CH4 production
during ruminal fermentation, inhibiting methanogenesis by ruminal bacteria or by optimizing

the rumen fermentation and thereby decreasing methane emission per unit of organic matter
digested.
The term «tannin» refers to «tanning» or preservation of skins to create leather, and
tannins also contribute to the astringency of many popular drinks, for example tea and wine.
These secondary compounds are classified into two categories:
 Hydrolysable tannins HT are potentially toxic and decrease the nutritive value of
feedstuffs, thus have in general negative effects on livestock performance. In the
Mediterranean area, these compounds could be encountered for example in Quercus
spp. foliage. We are not aware of any studies reporting positive effects of HT on
animal production.
 Condensed tannins (CT), also known as proanthocyanidins, are widespread in
dicotyledonous species and occur infrequently in graminacae. They are present
mainly in the foliage of a wide range of Mediterranean shrubs and trees. These
secondary plant metabolites were identified in the foliage of some herbaceous
species like Sulla (Hedysarum coronarium) and sainfoin (Onobrychis viciifolia). CT
bind to proteins in the rumen, reduce protein degradation and when dietary crude
protein (CP) concentrations exceed animal requirements for CP, these effects can
improve performance. The association of a small amount of the Acacia cyanophylla
Lindl. foliage, a tanniniferous shrub, with soyabean meal resulted in a significant
increase of the daily gain of Barbarine lambs (67 vs 43 g/d) on oaten hay (Ben Salem
et al., 2005). However, when dietary CP concentrations are low and fibre
concentrations are high, CT are nearly always detrimental.
Nutritional manipulation of the host animal in order to improve the host resistance and/or
resilience to parasitic infections seems a promising option. Recent studies showed that the
incorporation of CT-containing feedstuffs in the diet reduced GIP. But, the rate of such
decrease varied among these studies probably because different CT sources, CT levels, diet
composition and animals were used. According to Hoste (2005), tannins might interfere
directly with the biology of various nematode stages and they could indirectly improve the
host nutrition by protecting the diet proteins from ruminal degradations and this could
modulate worm biology. Recent studies in France, Spain and Tunisia showed that distribution
of sainfoin hay (Hoste et al., 2006), heather (Frutas et al., 2008) and Acacia cyanophylla
foliage (Akkari et al., 2008) reduced faecal egg counts in goats and sheep.
Saponins are glycosides of aglycone linked to one or more sugar chains. They are
available in many herbeacous and woody species (Agava americana, fenugreek seeds, etc.).
The biological effects of these compounds include increased nutrient absorption, and
antiprotozoal activity. The defaunating effect of saponins could contribute to the lower level
of ammonia in the rumen fermentation system, thus improves the efficiency of microbial
synthesis. Therefore, productive and reproductive performances of sheep and goats could be
improved when receiving saponins-containing diets.
Overall, the interesting results about the advantageous use of tanniniferous and/or
saponin containing feed resources to improve feed efficiency and to control GIP, thus to
improve productive and reproductive performances of ruminants should encourage the
establishment of practical options for agronomical applications of plants containing these
natural secondary compounds in grazing systems. These options offer also solutions to reduce
the use of chemicals in livestock feeding and health control.
Alley-cropping technique consists of cultivating herbaceous vegetation (graminae and or
legumes) between rows of tree or shrub species. In the intercropping system, shrubs are
grown along with cash crops in the form of wind rows (Acacia cyanophylla or Atriplex
nummularia in timber crops like barley), between cash crop plants, with the cash crop plant or
scattered among the cash crop plants. The shrubs and trees should be lopped periodically to
prevent overshading the cash crops. Among the advantages of this system are: (i) improves
soil; (ii) increases crop yield; (iii) reduces weeds, and; (iv) improves animal performance.
Properly managed, alley-cropping allows diversification to benefit from several markets. It
also promotes sustainability in both crop and livestock production. The benefits from cactus-
barley cropping system have been evaluated in a semi arid region Tunisia (Alary et al., 2006).
Wealth information on the complementary nutritional role of shrub species and the
benefits from shrub mixed diets for ruminants, mainly sheep and goats, is reported in the
literature (see for example the review by Ben Salem and Smith, 2008). This technique permits
to balance the diet for nutrients and to dilute the adverse effects of secondary compounds and
the excess of minerals, like salt. The association cactus-atriplex is a typical example of the
benefits from shrub mixing. The high salinity and the low energy content of atriplex foliage
could be overcome by cactus (Ben Salem et al., 2010).
ROLE OF NUTRITION IN MODULATING

REPRODUCTIVE FUNCTION
Over the last two decades, several major reviews have addressed the topic between
nutrition and reproduction with a particular interest in sheep and goats (Robinson, 1990;
Smith, 1991; Brown, 1994; O‟Callaghan and Boland, 1999; Martin et al., 2004). While these
reviews have mainly focussed on the female sheep, a relatively small body of information on
rams or goats is available in the literature. Several established facts of the effect of nutrition
on the different components of reproduction can be drawn out of the published studies, some
of which are reported in the following:
 Pre-natal under-nutrition has a more negative effect in females than in males on later
reproductive development and adult function (Rae et al., 2002).
 In males, reproductive function in young animals appears to be more susceptible to
dietary restrictions of energy and protein than in adult and may lead to permanent
histological changes at the level of the testis (Brown, 1994).
 In females, the most prominent effect is around the time of mating on the wave-like
pattern of follicle development, embryo survival and twinning rate (Viñoles, 2003).
 Changes in levels of dietary intake are associated to changes in gonadotropin
secretion, hence of the functioning of the gonads which also respond to dietary-
induced blood-borne metabolic hormones and substrates (Rhind, 1992; O‟Callaghan
and Boland, 1999).
 In arid and semi-arid dry regions, breeds of sheep and goats have a reproductive
pattern that varies much greatly in relation to food availability than other
environmental inputs (Folch et al., 2000).
However, and in many cases, these reviews refer to very variable inconsistent results and
some of these discrepancies can be explained by the use of different breeds, the nature of the
nutritional resources, hence of management and also by differences in the experimental
designs. It is also important to point out that most of the available data on interactions
between nutrition and reproduction in small ruminants is obtained in temperate conditions
where feed resources are high in available nutrients that promote feed intake. Also, these
studies refer to breeds with moderate to elevated levels of twinning allowing dietary-induced
changes in litter size to be depicted.
These conditions are different of those commonly encountered in low input systems of
the arid regions where feeding resources are quantitatively scarce and their nutritional value
could be handicapped by the presence of several anti-nutritional factors. In contrast to the
wealth of information dealing with the subject of interactions between nutrition and
reproduction with a particular reference to conventional feed resources (grasses,
concentrates), research findings specifically related to the use of alternative feed resources
growing or available in arid regions are very scarce.
Under semi-extensive systems, additional feed (like secondary cereal grains) is provided
at critical physiological stages; usually corresponding to mating seasons or end of pregnancy
and suckling stages. These feed inputs, although not quantitatively important, can have a
major impact on the productivity of the flocks when the animals are experiencing drought
periods and their body condition is deteriorated. New concepts of focus feeding can be
disseminated and adopted by sheep and goats owners to better optimise these supplementary
feeding resources in these arid, low input systems. When additional feed is provided at an
appropriate timing of the animal physiological stage, it can boost sperm production, increase
ovulation rate and improve offspring survival through a better colostrum synthesis (Blache
and Martin, 2009). The originality in this field is to combine strategies of focus feeding that
rely on locally grown and available feeding resources rather than resorting to imported,
economically non viable feeding supplements. In many cases, shrubs, agro-industrial by-
products and other locally available feedstuffs were shown to be as effective as conventional
feed sources in preserving productive performances of sheep and goats in low input systems
of arid and semi arid areas (Ben Salem and Smith, 2008). Beyond the strict economic view of
using locally available feeding resources, there are other important concepts of sustainability
of the production systems especially in hot dry areas where it is predicted that global warming
will make these areas even drier (IPCC, 2001). Indeed, the option of using alternative feed
resources under arid and semi arid climates, is of course more economic, more ecological as
integrates the animal to its surrounding environment and can improve soil and water
conservation in the case of shrubs (Rekik et al., 2007). Under such conditions, adaptation
merits (physiological, behavioural, nutritional…) such as those available in the local breeds
thriving in arid areas may therefore be extremely valuable. The strategy to capitalise
alternative feed resources in arid and semi arid regions will be further discussed below when
addressing the relationship between nutrition and reproduction in sheep.
IMPROVEMENT OF REPRODUCTIVE
FEATURES BY FOCUS-FEEDING
Nutritional management, having in mind the key-role of nutrition upon reproductive
events, is considered essential for optimizing reproductive performances in small ruminants,
like in other species. As previously mentioned, the endocrine system is often the mediator
between changes in the external environment and triggering of internal responses, first in
reproductive anatomy and physiology, and then in reproductive behavior. While a variable set
of hormones is involved, the common undisputable initiator is the gonadotropin-releasing
hormone (GnRH) pulse generator, building the key link between the brain and the
reproductive system, delivering via the hypothalamic portal vessels to the pituitary gland. In
turn, the two gonadotropins, LH and FSH, will be released from the gonadotrophs in the
anterior pituitary. Other endocrine players involved are the gonadal sex steroids estrogen plus
progesterone in females while testosterone in males (Meza-Herrera, 2008; Meza-Herrera et
al., 2010a,b).
Both reproductive cyclicity or seasonality of breeding may arise from direct neuronal
inputs, governed either by photoperiodic or thermoperiodic pathways, and ultimately
affecting energy balance, stimulating in this way the GnRH releasing terminals in the
hypothalamus, giving then the key environmental control of seasonal reproduction (West,
2003; Willmer et al., 2006; Roth, 2008; Hansen, 2009; Nienaber and Hahn, 2009; Urrutia-
Morales et al., 2009; Meza-Herrera et al., 2010a,b). Additionally, clear links exist between
energy balance, the pool of metabolic fuel (glucose, pyruvate and lactate) availability as well
as reproductive function (Cheung et al. 1997, Ebling 2005; Meza-Herrera et al., 2010a,b). In
fact, changes in blood level of metabolic hormones are important signals that inform the
nutritional status of mammals (Meza-Herrera et al. 2007, Gamez-Vazquez et al. 2008, Meza-
Herrera, 2008; Meza-Herrera et al. 2008). An explanation is that the response to a feed
supplementation alters glucose, insulin, leptin or IGF-I and probably other metabolic
hormones (Meza-Herrera et al. 2004, Scaramuzzi et al. 2006, Meza-Herrera et al. 2008,
Guerra-Garcia et al. 2009, Arellano-Rodriguez et al., 2007 and 2009; Meza-Herrera et al.
2010a,b).
Nutrition is a direct regulator of seasonal reproduction (Forcada and Abecia, 2006) and a
main cue regulating fertility in cycling animals (Webb et al. 2004). Therefore, nutritional
supplies are even considered alternative to hormonal treatments for increasing reproductive
efficiency (Martin et al. 2004). Positive effects of nutrition on reproductive yields are
commonly obtained through increases in body weight and condition (Smith and Stewart
1990); either at long-term (“static effect”, in which heavy females have higher ovulation
rates) or at short-term (“dynamic effect”, by a higher feeding over 3–4 weeks before mating).
However, reproductive features may be also enhanced by supplying nutritional inputs in a
very short period of time, less than 10 days, without changing body weight and condition.
The concept is named as “immediate nutrient effect”, “acute effect” or “focus feeding” and
consists, in brief, in a supplementation for 4–6 days around timing of preovulatory follicle
selection, which increases the ovulation rate over 20–30%, without detectable changes in
body weight (Martin et al. 2004; Scaramuzzi et al. 2006). The effect is also known as “lupin
effect” since it was firstly described to be obtained by supplementing sheep with lupin grains
(Lupinus angustifolius; Nottle et al., 1985, Stewart and Oldham 1986, Teleni et al. 1989).
The supplementation with lupin grains increases the ovulation rate seemingly due to the
large amounts of digestible energy that provides, causing a high increase in plasma insulin
and glucose levels (Stewart and Oldham, 1986; Teleni et al., 1989; Williams et al., 2001;
Muñoz-Gutierrez et al., 2002, 2004), which would be associated with increased ovarian
activity (Scaramuzzi et al., 1999). The lupin effect is a very attractive concept, but lupins are
not commonly available worldwide. Possible alternatives should be based either in
supplementation with corn grain, steam-flaked corn, soybean meal and high-quality pastures
or in administration of glucose and other glucogenic compounds (Letelier et al., 2008a,b;
Viñoles et al., 2009).
In arid and semi-arid areas, concentrate feeds and/or high-quality pastures can be a
limiting resource for a sustainable animal production; it is necessary to keep in mind that
nutritional strategies may be linked to systems that are socially acceptable and economically
viable (Martin et al., 2004a). Thus, resorting to alternative cost-effective and easy-available
feed supplements having high carbohydrate content (e.g.: agro-industrial by-products, feed
blocks, fodder trees and shrubs) is recommended (Ben Salem and Smith, 2008). A possible
option is the abundant native spineless-cactus or nopal (Opuntia ficus-indica f. inermis).
Cactus is a promising shrub species and its plantation is welcomed mainly by farmers
from the southern Mediterranean region. This preference is not only based on the
profitability, but also on market demand. Cactus plantations are available and expending at
high speed in North Africa but also in many countries in Africa (Ethiopia, Mauritania, South
Africa, etc.), Asia (India, Iran, Jordan, Pakistan, etc.) and America (Argentina, Brazil,
Mexico, etc.). The popularity of cactus lies in its low demand for water, its high water use
efficiency, tolerance to high temperature, rapid growth, high biomass, and the high content of
its cladodes in water and energy. Additionally, it represents a source of income through
selling its fruits and cladodes. Benefits from the integration of cactus cladodes in the diet of
sheep and goats are well documented. Literature data suggest that cactus could be
incorporated of sheep and goats to improve feed intake and digestibility, thus to increase
growth rate and to decrease and even to stop water consumption. But, one should bear that
such positive effects could be obtained only when appropriate nitrogen supplementation and
adjunction of fibrous source are emphasized.
Feeding with cactus cladodes is an economic supplement that has a high energy-content,
providing up to 700 g/kg dry matter of carbohydrates (Nefzaoui and Ben Salem, 2002). Thus,
cactus cladodes can be used as a feed supplement (Ben Salem et al., 2004; Ben Salem and
Smith, 2008). In this respect, late pregnancy and early lactation are periods when nutrient
demands are greatest for sheep and goats. The challenge of adequately feeding the late
pregnant-early suckling ewe in arid and semi arid regions is difficult to achieve as a result of
food scarcity. Total replacement of barley with cactus cladodes in the diet of late pregnant-
early suckling ewes of the Barbarine breed did not change or did not significantly improved
physiological and productive traits (Rekik et al., 2010).
Previous studies of our group have found that a short-term supplementation with cactus
cladodes, for less than 10 days, increases ovulation rate when compared to supplementation
with concentrate; these changes in ovulation rate are related to changes in the population of
ovarian follicles and, in coincidence with the lupin effect, are independent of changes in live
weight or body condition of the sheep. Similarly, we showed that preparation of rams to
mating using cactus cladodes maintained sperm output and the underlying endocrine balance
in terms of LH and testosterone secretion as the use of conventional concentrates.
CONCLUSION
In low input systems of the arid and semi arid regions, techniques or ways to improve
reproductive efficiency must be low-cost and easy to handle because of the overall reduced
education level of sheep and goat farmers. These conditions should not be in contradiction
that for farmers, to adopt these techniques, efficiency is required. The male effect is a
privileged technique in these areas for inducing and synchronising oestrus where size of the
flock and other management practices (permanent presence of mature males in the flocks) do
not represent an obstacle. The output is an improvement of fertility of the flocks which is the
primary objective for these two species extensively managed. Appropriate utilisation of local
feed resources and rumen manipulation using natural products (e.g. tannins and saponins)
could be considered as a promising and cost-effective way to ameliorate productive and
reproductive performances of sheep and goats raised in arid and semi arid conditions. The
concept of focus feeding particularly when relying on locally grown feedstuffs can further
improve reproductive yield through a moderate, easy to handle increase in litter size. The
synchronisation potential of the ram effect and its predicted response can be used to apply
focus feeding in the flocks with a fairly good level of precision.
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Chapter 3
CROP RESIDUE CONTRIBUTION TO

N FERTILIZATION UNDER LONG TERM
NO-TILL SYSTEMS IN THE CENTRAL
SEMI-ARID REGION OF ARGENTINA
Noelia Casado-Murillo and Adriana Abril

Departamento Recursos Naturales. Facultad de Ciencias Agropecuarias.
Universidad Nacional de Córdoba. cc. 509_ 5000. Córdoba. Argentina
ABSTRACT
We analyze nitrogen release from crop residues in no-till systems (14 years) in order
to establish the N contribution to crop fertilization. The experiment was conducted in
Manfredi INTA Experimental Station, situated in a semiarid zone of Córdoba province,
Argentina, with Entic Haplustoll soils. Three treatments were evaluated: i) soybean
(monoculture), ii) soybean rotation (maize as preceding crop), and iii) maize rotation
(soybean as preceding crop). Crop residue and soil samples were collected monthly
during one year. The following parameters were evaluated in crop residue samples:
biomass (total and fractions), total N, NH4+-N, NO3--N, N2-fixing bacteria abundance
and nitrogenase activity, and in soil samples: NO3--N. The residues with high proportion
of maize fraction showed the greatest total and soluble N values. Accordingly, the maize
cropped soils had greater nitrate accumulation compared with soybean monoculture.
Likewise, a significant biological N fixation was observed in maize treatment. During the
maize crop cycle, 95 kg N ha-1 were mineralized from surface residues, of which 4 kg
were mineralized as ammonium after sowing. Great amount of nitrate in soil (61 mg kg-
1) before sowing date was detected as a result of N released from residues and its
accumulation in soil during the fallow period. We conclude that after 14 years under no-
till management, the N contribution from maize residue is clearly significant. In
consequence, N fertilizer doses in maize rotations are overestimated, leading to
unnecessary expenses for producers and high risk of environmental contamination.
Keywords: N release, N biological fixation, maize, soybean.

64 Noelia Casado-Murillo and Adriana Abril
INTRODUCTION
In the semiarid region of Argentina, no-till (NT) has been widely accepted as agricultural
management system, becoming the paradigm of sustainable agriculture. Originally, producers
adopted NT system in order to prevent soil erosion during the fallow periods. Subsequently,
other benefits were associated with surface deposition of crop residues, such as improvements
in organic matter content, microbial diversity and water infiltration in soil (Barrios et al.
2006; Steinbach & Álvarez 2006; Abril et al. 2005).
The conversion of conventional tillage (CT) systems to NT systems brought about the
application of higher fertilization doses, with the aim of counteracting the immobilization of
nutrients in surface crop residues (Power & Peterson 1998; Mc. Keeney et al. 1995). This
increase of fertilization rates represents a significant disadvantage of NT management, since
it is widely known that the excessive use of fertilizers leads to unnecesary economic costs for
the producers and high environmental risks by contamination of groundwater and aquatic
systems (Abril & Roca, 2008; Galloway et al. 2004; Vitoukek et al. 1997). However, several
research on nutrient release from decomposing surface residues indicate that fertilization rates
in NT systems would be overestimated (Abril et al. 2007; Schomberg & Cabrera 2001;
Schoenau & Campbell 1996). This hypothesis is supported by different evidence:
 It is well known that the decomposition of crop residues is largely influenced by their
location in the soil profile (Salinas-García et al. 2002; Kladivko, 2001). When crop
residues are incorporated into the soil, both substrate and O2 availability increase.
This results in a) a massive growth of microorganisms that require large amounts of
nutrients that will be immobilized in microbial biomass, and b) an increase of the
aerobic activity in soil, which promotes organic matter oxidation and N
mineralization. In contrast, residue decomposition in NT systems occurs gradually,
and decomposer microorganisms cover their nutrient requirements by nutrient
released from residues, thus, nutrient availability in soil is not affected (Meyer et al.
1996; Schoenau & Campbell, 1996). Nevertheless, the magnitud of nutrient release
from surface residues (which depends on the quantity and quality of the
residue_Henriksen & Breland 2002; Reeves et al. 1997_), is rarely considered in the
estimation of fertilization rates.
 Timing and climatic conditions when deposition of residue takes place are also
relevant aspects in the evaluation of the N contribution from crop residues to soil
fertility. For example, soybean crop provides residues after harvest, but the
deposition of easily decomposable leaves before harvest, with high N content, could
greatly contribute to the N availability in soil. Besides, it has been stated that the
lower rate of nutrient release in NT systems is offset by the lower N losses by
leaching and volatilization (Salinas-García et al. 2002; Mitchell et al. 2000). In this
sense, several studies reported a greater availability of nitrate in soils under NT
management compared to CT management (Roldán et al. 2007; Abril et al. 2005).
However, the relation between the amount of soluble N released from surface residue
and the N availability in soil has been scarcely assessed.
 According to Abril et al. (2005) and Bertol et al. (2004), long-term NT systems
present a fraction of crop residue (non identifiable residue_NIR_) in an advanced
Crop Residue Contribution to N Fertilization Under Long Term ... 65
degree of decomposition. This fraction of the surface residue is constituted by a

mixture of highly decomposed residue and inorganic soil particles, and would be
responsible for soil organic matter formation and nutrient availability in soil.
However, neither the dynamics of the NIR fraction nor its contribution to soil fertility
have been measured so far.
 The influence of non-symbiotic biological N2 fixation (BNF) in the N input is
another little known aspect of residue decomposition dynamics, particularly in
agroecosystems. Deposition of surface residues modifies some environmental
conditions (temperature, moisture, availability of residues with high C/N ratio, etc.),
and promotes N2-fixing microorganisms activity (Roper et al. 1994). Moreover, BNF
has been mentioned as one of the factors responsible for the increase of N amounts
frequently observed during the litter decomposition process (Abril et al. 2008; Torres
et al. 2005; Vitousek & Hobbie 2000). A significant proportion of research on BNF
has been developed in soil samples (Kavadia et al. 2007; Roper et al. 1994), but few
studies have been conducted on plant residues (Abril et al. 2008; Vitousek et al.
2002).
Non-symbiotic BNF presents a high spatial and temporal variability (Chapin III et al.
2002), mainly related to the numerous factors that regulate the activity of the
nitrogenase enzyme (O2 concentration, moisture, N availability for microorganisms,
etc.) (Kavadia et al. 2007; Vitousek & Hobbie, 2000). In this regard, it has been
observed a greater BNF in vegetal residues compared with soils, suggesting that the
total amount of N fixed in terrestrial ecosystems would be higher than the traditional
estimations based on measurements in soil samples, and indicating that BNF could
be a significant N source for crops in agroecosystems (Abril et al. 2008; Abril et al.
2005; Vitousek et al. 2002). Despite this, there are barely any studies that assess the
BNF process and its relation with the chemical transformations that occur throughout
the decomposition of crop residues. Currently, quantification of biologically fixed N2
and its application in agroecosystems is considered one of the biggest challenges to
reduce the rates of inorganic N fertilizers (Herridge et al. 2008).
Based on this evidence, the aim of this chapter was to analyze nitrogen release from crop
residues in semiarid long-term NT systems in order to stablish the residue N contribution to
crop fertilization.
MATERIALS AND METHODS

Our study was conducted in Manfredi INTA Experimental Station, located in a semiarid
zone of Córdoba, Argentina (31°49‟ S and 63°46‟ W). The climate in the region is temperate
subhumid. Mean annual precipitation in the area is 750 mm, concentrated during the summer
(October-March). Soils are Typical Entic Haplustolls, slightly acid pH (6.2 to 6.5) and low
organic matter content (<2%).
The experimental units were plots of 35 m x 110 m, with a completely randomized design
with 2 replications. The treatments evaluated were a) soybean monoculture (SbM), b)
soybean rotation (maize as preceding crop) (SbR), and c) maize rotation (soybean as
preceding crop) (MzR), all of them under NT management since 1992 and weed chemical
control in the fallow period (winter fallow).
Soybean and maize were sowed in November and harvested in April. Soybean treatments
(SbM and SbR) were fertilized with 70 kg ha-1 of diammonium phosphate (DAP) at sowing.
Maize treatment (MzR) was fertilized with 90 kg ha-1 of DAP at sowing and 200 kg ha-1 of
urea-ammonium nitrate (UAN) at 4-5 leaves stage. Crops management and fertilization
schemes represent the common practices in the region.
Ten samples of soil (0-20 cm) and five samples of surface crop residue (by a square of 40
cm side) were collected monthly in each plot during one year (August 2005-July 2006).
November and April samples were collected after sowing and harvesting, respectively. Soil
samples were air-dried and passed through a 2-mm pore sieve. NO3--N content in sieved soil
samples was determined through colorimetric method (Keeney & Nelson, 1982).
Crop residue samples were weighted and fractionated to determine: a) total biomass, b)
soybean residue biomass, c) maize residue biomass, and d) non identifiable residue biomass
(NIR). Fresh residue samples were kept at 4ºC until processing (within 48 h). The following
biological parameters were determined in fresh residue samples: a) N2-fixing bacteria
abundance (Döbereiner 1995), and b) nitrogenase activity (Nasa), using the acetylene
reduction technique (Alef 1995). For chemical analysis, crop residue samples were oven-
dried at 60ºC (until constant weight), weighed and milled, to determine: a) moisture by
gravimetric method, b) total N by Kjeldahl, and c) NH4+-N and NO3--N by colorimetric
method (Keeney & Nelson, 1982).
We calculated the N2 fixation index by dividing nitrogenase activity and abundance of
N2-fixing bacteria. Data of chemical analysis in crop residue samples were transformed to net
values (kg ha-1) and analyzed by ANOVA and Tuckey test for mean comparison (P<0.05).
RESULTS
In this chapter it must be borne in mind that results obtained from the analysis of crop
residue samples correspond to a mixture of residues with different decomposition degrees
(depending on the time since its deposition in soil surface) and different initial chemical
quality (depending on the origin of the residue, soybean/maize). This consideration is of
particular significance, since almost all research in crop residues quality is based on the
evaluation of the decomposition of fresh residues, and do not consider the presence of
residues from preceding crops, which is a situation virtually non-existing in realistic
conditions of NT systems.
Total Residue Biomass and Fractions Biomass
Total residue biomass and its fractions (soybean residue, maize residue and NIR) differed
significantly between treatments in most sampling dates (Figure 1). Generally, the highest
total residue biomass was obtained in SbR treatment, with a mean of 14.07 Mg ha-1 (range
between 8.92-22.63 Mg ha-1) , whereas the lowest total residue biomass was found in SbM,
with a mean of 6.47 Mg ha-1 (range between 3.12-12.58 Mg ha-1).
Soybean and maize residue values were highly conditionated by both, the new inputs of
fresh residue and the persistence of the residues from preceding crops. Before soybean
defoliation (august-february), the rotation with soybean as preceding crop (MzR) showed the
greatest soybean residue biomass, whereas the greatest maize residue biomass was detected in
the rotation with maize as preceding crop (SbR). Besides, in January we found a significant
amount of maize residue (12% of total residue biomass) in MzR, corresponding to the two
years ago harvest, while the amount of soybean residue detected in SbR (also corresponding
to the two years ago harvest) was insignificant (1% of total residue biomass).
Although non identifiable residue biomass (NIR) dynamics did not followed an especific
pattern, we observed that NIR values were greater in rotation treatments, particularly in SbR.
(a)
(b)
Figure 1. (Continued).
(c)
(d)
Figure 1. Annual dynamics of the crop residue biomass (total and fractions) corresponding to the
different treatments analyzed. SbM: soybean monoculture; SbR: soybean rotation (maize as previous
crop); MzR: maize rotation (soybean as previous crop). (a) Total biomass; (b) soybean residue biomass,
(c) maize residue biomass; (d) NIR biomass. Error bars correspond to SD (p<0.05).
Residue Total and Soluble N
Most part of the evaluation year, the amount of residue N, NH4+-N and NO3--N were
significantly higher in rotation treatments, particularly in SbR (Figure 2). The amount of
residue total N in SbR during the year of evaluation was on average 55% and 130% higher
than in MzR and SbM respectively. Similarly, the average amount of NH4+-N in SbR was
57% higher than in MzR, and nearly 110% higher than in SbM, whereas the amount of NO3--
N in SbR was on average 54% higher than in MzR and 142% higher than in SbM.
(a)
(b)
Figure 2. (Continued).
(c)
(d)
Figure 2. Annual dynamics of the crop residue N fractions and soil nitrate-N corresponding to the
different treatments analyzed. SbM: soybean monoculture; SbR: soybean rotation (maize as previous
crop); MzR: maize rotation (soybean as previous crop). (a) Residue total N; (b) residue NH 4+-N, (c)
residue NO3--N; (d) soil NO3--N. Error bars correspond to SD (p<0.05).
Total N dynamics followed the same pattern in all treatments, summarized as follows: a)
a net N-release period, from the first sampling date (August) to the date when first significant
deposition of fresh residue occurred (January in SbM, February in SbR and March in MzR),
b) a net N-accumulation period, from the first significant deposition of fresh residue to 30-60
days after harvest (May-June), and c) a second net N-release period, from 30-60 days after
harvest to the last sampling date (July).
Soil Nitrate Content
During the most part of the evaluation cycle, soil NO3--N content was similar between
treatments (Figure 2). The greatest differences were observed in those months with low
precipitations. For example, in May-July, maize rotation treatment showed the highest soil
NO3--N content (18% higher than SbR and 177% higher than SbM), whereas in August-
October, rotation with maize as preceding crop (SjR) showed the greatest soil NO3--N content
(33% greater than MzR and 39% greater than SbM).
Soil NO3--N dynamics was similar in all treatments evaluated, with higher values during
the fallow-dry period and lower values during the wet period and crop cycle. Besides, soil
NO3--N content in pre-sowing sampling (October) were exceptionally high in all treatments
(SbM = 53 mg kg-1; SbR = 81 mg kg-1; MzR = 61 mg kg-1).
N2 Fixation Parameters
N2 fixing microorganisms dynamics showed a great stability throughout the annual cycle
(Table 1). The annual average of abundance of diazotrophs was similar between treatments
(SbM = 5.48 log g-1; SbR = 5.75 log g-1; MzR = 5.10 log g-1), and with values within the range
found by Abril et al. (2008), and Torres et al. (2005) in different vegetal samples under arid
and semiarid conditions. Nitrogenase activity in rotation treatments showed less significant
differences among sampling dates than monoculture treatment (Table 1). In August and
September, nitrogenase activity was not detected in any treatement evaluated. Nitrogenase
activity in May samples was not be measured due to technical problems.
As the single presence of diazotrophs does not guarantee BNF, some authors consider it
very useful to estimate the relationship between the nitrogenase activity and N2-fixing
organisms (N2 fixation index) as an indicator of diazotroph efficiency in different situations
(Abril et al. 2008; Roper & Ophel-Keller 1998). In this chapter, annual dynamics of N2
fixation index followed a similar pattern in all treatments, with significant decreases in
November-December and significant increases after crops harvest.
Table 1. Annual dynamics of N2-fixing microorganisms abundance (log10 g-1), nitrogenase activity (ng g-1 d-1) and N2 fixation index
dynamics in crop residue corresponding to the different treatements analyzed.
Au Sp Oc Nv Dc Ja Fb Mr Ap My Jn Jl P CV
N2 fixers SbM 5.13 b 4.73 bc 3.39 c 1.74 c 5.20 b 5.66 ab 6.62 ab 8.06 a 6.03 ab 5.57 ab 6.84 a 6.78 ab 0.0001 10.09
(log10 g-1) SbR 5.73 a 4.97 a 3.59 b 5.72 a 5.55 a 5.67 a 6.67 a 7.02 a 5.63 a 6.18 a 5.30 a 6.99 a 0.0001 12.69
MzR 4.97 4.31 3.70 4.73 5.15 6.00 5.53 6.22 5.40 5.44 3.38 6.36 0.0564 19.98
Nitrogenase SbM <0.03 c <0.03 c 84.84 a 62.44 11.48 c 44.24 36.40 22.96 69.16 a NA 34.44 34.44 0.0001 38.20
activity ab abc abc bc abc abc
(ng g-1 d-1) SbR <0.03 b <0.03 b 160.44 30.80 b 19.04 b 37.24 b 22.40 b 41.16 b 38.64 b NA 94.92 ab 25.48 b 0.0003 78.64
a
MzR <0.03 b <0.03 b 76.16 40.60 28.56 b 92.12 62.16 66.92 146.44 NA 189.00 a 88.76 0.0084 75.59
ab ab ab ab ab ab ab
N2 fixation SbM - - 25.00 b 35.90 a 2.16 c 7.74 bc 5.51 bc 2.83 bc 11.37 b NA 5.03 bc 5.09 bc 0.0001 32.52
index SbR - - 44.70 a 5.39 c 3.51 c 6.53 c 3.35 c 6.06 c 6.49 c NA 18.33 b 3.65 c 0.0001 44.43
MzR - - 20.56 8.60 b 5.61 b 15.33 11.21ab 10.45 27.40 NA 56.19 a 14.25 0.0177 104.06
ab ab ab ab ab
SbM: soybean monoculture, SbR: soybean rotation (maize as previous crop), MzR: maize rotation (soybean as previous crop).
The letters indicate significant differences among sampling dates (Tukey test, P0.05). NA: Not analyzed.
CONCLUSION
Residue Biomass Dynamics
Our results reveal a greater persistence on soil surface of maize residue compared with
soybean residue. It is well known that the persistence of crop residues depends significantly
on both, the chemical composition and the amount of residue left on the soil surface after crop
harvest (Andriulo & Cordone, 1998; Bertol et al. 1998). In this regard, the lower
decomposition rates of cereal residues with respect to legume residues (Aita & Giacomini
2003; Rannells & Wagger, 1996), and the large amount of residue left in soil surface after
maize harvest favoured the greater persistence of maize residue detected in our study.
According to Bertol et al. (2004), the greatest biomass loss in maize residue occurs
during the 2 first months of its decomposition, and then, maize residue biomass decreases
slower over time. Contrary, our data showed that the decline of maize residue biomass in the
2 first months after its deposition on the soil surface (May-July) was clearly lower than the
decline detected 9 months later (corresponding to data from February-April in SbR treatment)
(1.6 Mg ha-1 month-1 vs. 2.8 Mg ha-1 month-1). It is known from many studies that residues
with high N concentrations may stimulate decay of more recalcitrant residues (Hättenschwiler
et al. 2005), thus, it is likely that the deposition of fresh soybean residue (high-nitrogen
residue) in February-April might have increased significantly the development of microbial
community and facilitated decay of more recalcitrant fractions of maize residue (Scherer-
Lorenzen 2008). Our results suggest significant differences in residue decomposition patterns
in NT systems between realistic field conditions and controlled conditions (e.g. residues
placed on the soil surface, residues confined in mesh bags, pure residue vs. mixed residue,
etc.).
We found a greater amount of NIR in rotation treatments compared to monoculture
treatment, which would be related to the greater amount of total residue biomass in rotations
and with a slower but gradual decomposition of maize residue. During the crop cycle months
(November-March), the amount of NIR in rotation treatments was on average 1.2-2.0 Mg ha-1
month-1 higher than the amount detected in monoculture treatment. As the NIR fraction has
been considered an important source of high mobility nutrients (Abril et al. 2005), our results
suggest a marked greater availability of easily assimilable compounds when crops are under
rotation management.
Residue N Dynamics
The higher amount of total and soluble N (NH4+-N and NO3--N) detected in rotation
treatments, and particularly in rotation with maize as preceding crop (SbR) is consistent with
the presence of a significant amount of maize residue. These results agree with Studdert &
Echeverría (2000), who stated the significance of maize in crop sequences as a source of
mineralizable N.
As expected, the increases detected in residue total N were highly conditionated by both,
the magnitud of fresh residue depositions and the initial residue quality (N concentration).
However, our results reveal that the above-mentioned factors (quantity and quality of residue
depositions) would not be the only factors responsible for the residue total N increase in NT
systems. For example, despite the fact that soybean fresh residue depositions in soybean
treatments (SbM and SbR) are of similar quantity and quality, the increase of residue total N
in SbR (155 kg N ha-1, February-May) was 130% higher than the increase detected in SbM
(67 kg N ha-1, January-June). These results strongly suggest that the residues from preceding
crops exert a significant role in each treatment´s ability to accumulate N in surface residues.
In this regard, some authors observed important differences between the decomposition
process in pure residues and the decomposition process in mixtures of residues with different
biochemical quality (Scherer-Lorenzen 2008; Hättenschwiler et al. 2005; Torres et al. 2005).
Even more, some research show greater and faster N mineralization in pure legume residues
than in mixtures of legume-cereal residues (Aita & Giacomini 2003; Schomberg & Cabrera
2001; Schoenau & Campbell 1996). Probably, the N mineralization from soybean fresh
residue would be faster in the monoculture treatment than when it is mixed with maize
residue (SbR), which could clearly explain the lower N accumulation observed in this chapter
in the soybean monoculture treatment.
It results of particular interest the fact that in all study cases, total N values increased
even 30-60 days after the last addition of fresh residue (harvest depositions). Although it is
commonly assumed that total N gain during surface residue decomposition is related to a
significant immobilization by decomposer microorganisms, our data show evidence that
reject the immobilization process as main responsible for such gain. For instance, some
authors stated that during the decomposition of residues exists an initial N release phase
(particularly important in legume residues) followed by a subsequent immobilization phase
(Burgess et al. 2002; Ranells & Wagger 1996). On the contrary, in this chapter the greatest
total N gain was observed at the early decomposition of residues, and remarkably in soybean
rotation (ie, when theoretically the conditions of N-availability for decomposer community
would be more convenient). Besides, in rotation treatments we observed a coincidence
between the largest increases of total N and significant increases of soil NO3--N content.
Therefore, our results agree with other works in that soil nitrate is not immobilized by the
greater abundance of decomposer microorganisms in NT systems (Roldán et al. 2007; Unger
1991), but microbial developement takes place gradually at the expense of the nutrients from
residue (Meyer et al. 1996; Schoenau & Campbell 1996). Thus, as supported by the
simultaneous increase in nitrogenase activity of N-fixing microorganisms detected in this
chapter, our results are consistent with that reported by some researchers (Abril et al. 2008;
Torres et al. 2005; Vitousek & Hobbie 2000) that consider the NBF process as one of the
main factors responsible for N increases during the decomposition process.
Our data suggest that residue NH4+-N dynamics is highly influenced by: a) the climatic
conditions, particularly rainfall, and b) the NBF process. During the October-November
period, the significant increase of NH4+-N amount detected in all treatments was associated
with an important increase of N-fixing activity. Aditionally, the beginning of the warm and
wet period might have promoted the activity of ammonifiers community in the residues of
preceding crops. These considerations, along with the application of N fertilizer (DAP) at
sowing, may explain such NH4+-N increase. Similarly, a greater nitrogenase activity in May-
June seems to be the origin of the incresase of NH4+-N observed in those months, probably
favoured by the scarcity of rainfall and the consequent lower risk of N-losses by leaching.
The rapid decline in the amount of NH4+-N in all treatments evaluated during November-
December (SbM: 2.85 kg ha-1; SbR: 5.28 kg ha-1; MzR: 3.87 kg ha-1) was not reflected as an
increase in the amount of residue NO3--N. These results suggest that such decline would not
be caused by the nitrification process in the residue. Probably, the high rainfall of those
months would have caused significant NH4+-N losses by leaching from the surface residue to
the soil. Taken this into account, soil in maize treatment (MzR) would be receiving about 4 kg
NH4+-N ha-1 from the above-ground residue at the same time that 60 kg N ha-1 are applied as
inorganic fertilizer (UAN), and even more, in a stage of the crop cycle that the plant barely
needs it. This significant amount of N released from surface residue is rarely considered when
planning N fertilization, contributing to the oversize of fertilization rates, therefore leading to
higher economic costs and environmental risks (Abril & Roca 2008; Abril et al. 2007;
Galloway et al. 2004; Vitoukek et al. 1997). In contrast, the decrease of residue NH4+-N
detected in July was not related to a significant increase of rainfall. It is likely that much of
the NH4+-N would have been consumed by decomposer population to continue the
decomposition process, as it is reflected by the decrease of total residue biomass during this
month. However, it was observed a coincidence between the decrease of the amount of NH4+-
N and a decrease of nitrogenase activity, and this consideration would be indicating once
again the influence of NBF process in N dynamics.
After 14 years of NT management in semiarid Argentina, residue NO3--N dynamics
seems to be highly conditionated by a) fresh residue depositions from crops and the climatic
conditions when such depositions occur, and b) the influence of residue from preceding crops
in the decomposition process. As expected, the significant increase of NO3--N detected in
soybean monoculture during the January-March period (800%, equivalent to 5 kg NO3--N ha-
1
) was clearly caused by the huge biomass of soybean fresh residue (>10 Mg ha-1) deposited
in soil surface (pre-harvest deposition), and its high content of soluble compounds (Aita &
Giacomini 2003). Similarly, the amount of residue NO3--N in soybean rotation treatment
increased greatly in February (9 kg ha-1) but contrary to that observed in the monoculture
treatment, such increase was not related with significant additions of soybean residue. This
comparison suggest that in rotation treatment, the decomposition of preceding maize residue
would be responsible for the significant increase of residue NO3--N in SbR. These findings
are in accordance with those reported previously in this chapter about the influence of
residues from preceding crops on N dynamics in semiarid NT systems.
Our data showed that after soybean harvest, crop residues have released the totality of the
accumulated NO3--N during the previous 2-3 months (SbM: 4.5 kg NO3--N ha-1 released from
March to April; SbR: 9.3 kg NO3--N ha-1 released from February to April), probably related to
both, a significant activity of microbial population on the most labile fraction of soybean
fresh residue and important N losses by leaching due to the high precipitations in April (Abril
& Roca 2008; Abril et al. 2007; Abril et al. 2005). Even more, if we consider that the large
decrease of surface residue NO3--N is not reflected as an increase of soil NO3--N content, and
that in April there is no N consumption by the crops, our results would be suggesting the
existence of an important lixiviation of soluble N through the soil profile. In consequence, our
findings are consistent with those reported by Abril et al. (2007) and point the need of further
research aiming to a better synchronization between N release from surface residues and N
requirement of crops.
It is particularly interesting the fact that treatments with highest maize residue biomass
show the highest amount of residue soluble N (NH4+-N and NO3--N) and also the highest
amount of soil NO3--N. Although it is widely accepted that residues with high C/N ratio (such
as maize residue) experiment a significant N-immobilization during the decomposition
process, our results reveal that this statement would be no true in realistic conditions of NT
systems, where exists an interaction between residues with different degrees of

decomposition. This consideration is greatly important, since N-immobilization in
decomposing residues is the basis for the higher N fertilization doses in NT systems (Mc
Keeney et al. 1995). Again, our results are in accordance to several researchers who stated
that in NT systems, decomposer comunity develope at the expense of the nutrients of surface
residue, without compromising the nutrient availability in soil (Meyer et al. 1996; Schoenau
& Campbell 1996).
Soil Nitrate Dynamics
The effect of tillage practices on soil nitrate content has been largely studied, and results
are controversial. For example, while some researchers found higher soil nitrate levels in
conventional tillage managements, others found higher contents in soils under NT
management (Roldán et al. 2007; Abril et al. 2005). In this sense, it has been strongly
suggested that the time since the implemetation of NT system can justify the disagreement
mentioned above. Besides, differences in soil sampling depth have also been considered as a
factor responsible for these controversial conclusions. The fact that these factors (tillage
method, years since its implementation and sampling depth) are identical in all treatments
evaluated in our study would partially justify the similarity between treatments detected in
soil NO3--N content.
Contrary to what it was expected, no significant differences between maize treatment and
soybean treatments (SbM and SbR) were observed in soil NO3--N content after the
application of of 60 kg N ha-1 (200 kg ha-1 UAN) at 4-5-leaf stage of maize growth in MzR.
In this connection, Abril & Roca (2008) found a huge availability of nitrates in soil 24 hours
after UAN application at five-leaf stage of maize growth and a great subsequent decrease
(87%) in just 15 days. On this basis, we can assume that in our study, after the application of
UAN fertilizer in MzR a significant increase of soil NO3--N occurred, but it is likely that such
increase would not have been detected due to the time elapsed between UAN application and
subsequent sampling (19 days). Even though N fertilization at five-leaf stage of maize growth
is a widely recommended practice in Argentina, our results are consistent with those reported
by Abril & Roca (2008), who stated that in the case of UAN fertilization, maize would have a
huge availability of nitrate when the plant barely needs it, while the great subsequent decrease
might lead to N deficit prior to flowering. Once more, our findings confirm the need of
improve synchronization between N availability and crop requirements (Abril & Roca 2008;
Chen et al. 2006).
Both, the scarcity of rainfall and lack of N consumption during the fallow period would
have favoured significantly nitrate accumulation in soil and can partially explain the huge
amount of soil NO3--N detected in pre-sowing sampling (October). Besides, our soil NO3--N
values after 14 years of NT management were much higher than those obtained by Abril et al.
(2005) in the same study plots after 5 and 10 years of NT management, confirming the
conclusion of some authors (Abril et al. 2005; Reeves et al. 1997) that indicated the
accumulative effect of NT system on nutrient availability in the long term.
In Argentina, maize is one of the most fertilized crops, and the evaluation of soil NO3--N
content at sowing is a common diagnostic method used to determine N-fertilizer requirement
of crop and to establish thresholds of response to fertilization (Álvarez 2007). In our chapter,
soil NO3--N content detected in maize treatment before sowing (October sampling) widely
exceeded all the thresholds of response to N fertilization stablished in major maize crop areas
of Argentina (Álvarez 2007). It may be argued that part of those nitrates would have been
leached as a consequence of the rainfall recorded from October sampling to sowing date (60
mm). But even if half of nitrates detected in October would have been leached, maize crop
would still have an amount of soil NO3--N exceeding the thresholds of response to N
fertilization. Further more, there are some considerations that also point to an overfertilization
in maize crop. For example, according to Guerrero (1992), 75% of total N requirements in
maize crop correspond to the period between 10 days prior to flowering and 25-30 days after
flowering. If we consider that total N requirement in maize crop is about 22 kg N ha-1 and
maize yield in our study was 10 Mg ha-1, we can estimate that maize crop consumed about 55
kg N ha-1 between pre-sowing sampling and December sampling. Given that a) in October,
the amount of NO3--N in soil was 150 kg NO3--N ha-1 ( bulk density = 1.23 Mg m-3), b) 76 kg
N ha-1 were added as fertilizers (UAN + DAP) before December sampling, and c) residual
NO3--N in December was 25 kg N ha-1, we can assume a NO3--N loss equivalent to 146 kg N
ha-1 from surface soil (0-20 cm) during October-December period. In addition, two great
decreases in residue total N (equivalent to 95 kg N ha-1) occurred during the maize cycle, and
probably a great part of this N would be available for the crop. However, this important N
release from the surface residue is rarely taken into account in fertilization balances.
As stated by different researchers in long-term NT systems in Córdoba province (Abril et
al. 2007; Abril et al. 2005), our results would be indicating a significant oversizing of N
fertilization, as a result of a) a poor synchronization between N availability and crop
requirements, and b) a important N release from surface residue that is not properly
considered as an N source for crops. As it has been previously discussed, these statements
have important consequences in economic and environmental terms, and support the results
obtained by Abril & Roca (2008) and Abril et al. (2007) in our study area, who found a clear
correlation between excessive doses and incorrect timing of fertilization, and the presence of
high NO3--N content in the groundwater.
Regarding the soybean crop, producers frequently apply small N fertilization doses at
sowing, with the aim to cover the crop requirements until nodules are completely developed
and symbiotic biological N2 fixation begins (Gutiérrez Boem, 2007). However, numerous
studies carried out in soybean crops with different initial NO3--N availability indicate that
there is no response to N fertilization. Thus, the application of 13 kg N ha-1 as DAP at
soybean sowing in our study could be considered as an unnecesary N fertilizer application.
Biological N2 Fixation in Crop Residues
The great stability observed in abundance of N2-fixing microorganisms throughout the

year would be significantly related to the great ability of this microbial group to overcome
environmental variations by forming resistant structures (cysts) (Abril et al. 2008; Dobereiner
1995). Besides, the large amount of residue biomass in rotation treatments provides a
continue supply of soluble C from the residue (Abril et al. 2005) that is used by N2 fixing
microorganisms as an energy source. In this regard, the lower amount of residue biomass in
monoculture treatment would be a poorer C source for microorganisms, and this
consideration probably explains the greater variation between sampling dates detected in the
abundance of diazotrophs in SbM treatment.
Several researchers stated the influence of the NH4+-N availability in the nitrogenase
activity of diazotrophs (Abril et al. 2008; Kavadia et al. 2007; Vitousek & Hobbie 2000). In
coincidence with this research, the higher nitrogenase activity detected in the residue of maize
rotation during a great part (December-July) of the year, would be significantly related to
both, the lower NH4+-N concentration and higher residue moisture (data not available in this
chapter) observed in MzR.
Our results reveal that annual dynamics of N2 fixation index is highly influenced by
seasonality and additions of new residue from crops. Both, the absence of nitrogenase activity
in August and September, and the significant decrease of N2 fixation index in July would be
related to the low temperature and precipitation typical of the winter season. By contrast, in
October, the beginning of the wet and warm season led to a significant increase in N2 fixation
index. It is particularly interesting the important decline of N2 fixation index detected in all
treatments during November-December. Probably, the slight removal of surface residue at
sowing, and the application of herbicides and N-fertilizers would have negatively affected the
N2-fixing activity of microorganisms (Roper et al. 1994). Moreover, the lower N2 fixation
efficiency in soybean treatments (SbM and SbR) during December-March period would be
related to the deposition of fresh residue with high content of soluble N (soybean leaves,
petioles, etc.). Conversely, the increase of N2 fixation index detected after the harvest of crops
(April-June), particularly important in MzR treatment, would be related to a higher N
requirement of microorganisms for decompose post-harvest residue, since such residue
(steams, cobs,...) is characterized by a high C/N ratio.
Traditionally, it has been assumed that non-symbiotic NBF is of low significance in
terrestrial ecosystems, on the basis of measurements of BNF in soils (Myrold et al. 1999; Paul
& Clark 1996). However, the average N2 fixation index detected in crop residues in this
chapter (SbM = 9.16; SbR = 8.89; MzR = 15.37) was higher than the values obtained by Abril
et al. (2008) in soil samples of different arid and semiarid areas (including our study area). As
observed by these researchers, our results would be indicating a significant NBF in crop
residues, and point to the need of improving methods for N2 fixed cuantification, so its
measurement can be representative of environmentally realistic conditions.
In summary, our chapter reveal that in the semiarid agricultural area of Argentina, and
after 14 years of NT management and crop rotation (soybean-maize), crop residue provides a
significant amount of available N gradually throughout the year. In long-term maize rotations,
the high persistence of surface residue results in a great accumulation of highly decomposed
residue (non-identifiable residue), which is considered as a nutrient source for subsequent
crops. In contrast to what commonly accepted, our findings show that maize residue
constitutes a major N source than soybean residue. Due to the high lability of soybean residue
(particularly leaves fraction), N is rapidly released in a period when there are no crops planted
in the plots. These considerations confirm the convenience of including maize crop in the
rotation management.
The results found within this study show that surface crop residue must be considered as
an important reservoir of soluble N, particularly in dry periods, whereas during the crop
cycle, a significant N release from the residue occurs, which in the case of maize rotation with
soybean as preceding crop, reached 95 kg N ha-1 that could be available for the maize plant.
The fact that generally this N release from surface residue is not taken into account in the
estimation of N fertilization rates results in a lack of synchronization between N requirements

of the crop and N inputs, as well as the application of excessive N-fertilizer doses.
Besides, our data showed a marked relation between non-symbiotic NBF process and N
content increases in decomposing residues, which strongly suggest that NBF would be
responsible for such increases instead of the immobilization process. This finding leads to
important consequences, as the application of higher fertilization rates in NT systems is based
on the existence of a significant N-immobilization in surface residues.
Our chapter confirm all the evidence about that in long-term NT systems, N fertilization
requirements are oversized. Thus, further research on nutrient release from surface residues is
needed to achieve more rational production by improving producers profitability and reducing
environmental risks.
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Chapter 4
CYANOBACTERIAL SOIL CRUSTS: ANALYSING

RESILIENCE IN KALAHARI SAND SOILS
D. M. Mager
Manchester Metropolitan University, UK
ABSTRACT
The presence of cyanobacterial soil crusts in semiarid ecosystems, also known as
drylands, is generally associated with an increase in carbon (C) and nitrogen (N)
sequestration, soil water content and surface stability. However, there are some
apparently contradictory studies on the role of cyanobacterial soil crusts in semiarid
ecosystems surface processes. Cyanobacterial soil crusts are mixed communities of
organisms with different metabolisms (photosynthesis, respiration, N-fixation), vertically
stratified and sensitive to availability of moisture and inorganic-N. Through
photosynthesis, cyanobacteria produce extracellular polysaccharides (EPS) that
potentially increase the soil organic C pool as carbohydrates. The layer of
polysaccharides, though vulnerable to disturbance by livestock, also acts as a mechanical
structure surrounding the filamentous cyanobacteria. Together with the soil particles,
cyanobacterial soil crusts form stable aggregates in the top soil (approximately 5 mm
thick), decreasing C loss by water and wind erosion. Therefore, EPS in cyanobacterial
soil crusts affect C and N cycling, dominate soil C pool, affect soil hydrological cycles
and chemical properties of the soil and immobilise nutrients within the surface. A better
understanding of cyanobacterial soil crusts and EPS could provide an indication of the
resilience of dryland soils, especially in the nutrient poor Kalahari Sands.
1. DRYLAND ECOSYSTEMS
Dryland ecosystems cover up to 40 % of the earth‟s land surface and over one-third of the
human population inhabit them (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005). Because these
ecosystems are temporally variable and dynamic, drylands are inherently vulnerable and
susceptible to disturbance and degradation of ecosystem function (Thomas and Singhvi,
1993). For example, drylands are characterised by changes in resource availability (e.g.
84 D. M. Mager
water) that affect vegetation dynamics (e.g. grass cover) leading to more frequent degradation
of the grass resource (Williams and Albertson, 2006).
Drylands have been described as resilient due to their ability to recover from disturbances
(Holling, 1973). The inherent resilience of drylands was attributed to their ability to exploit
the very opportunities that system instability offers (Walker et al., 1981). For example,
dryland vegetation has adapted to irregular rainfall, high solar radiation and drought periods
(Williams and Albertson, 2006), indicating a high potential for plasticity. However,
degradation may drive ecosystems beyond their resilience potential for recovery. Firstly,
global climate change increases temperatures and rainfall variability. Secondly, land use
intensity increase the pressure in the capacity of dryland ecosystems to sustain productivity
(Le Houérou, 2002).
Due to low and variable vegetation cover, aeolian processes are prevalent in drylands
(Okin et al., 2006) and they are known to be the world‟s primary dust source (McTainsh and
Strong, 2007). Wind erosion not only produces transport of dust locally, but it has been
reported over long distances and over a large range of ecosystems (McTainsh and Strong,
2007). Saharan dust contributions have been documented in other areas of Africa and Europe
(Herrmann et al., 1996) and even as far away as the Caribbean (Herwitz and Muhs, 1995;
Prospero and Lamb, 2003). For example, it was recently discovered that a single location
(Bodélé depression) in the Sahara Desert supplies half of the amount of the critical mineral
dust to the Amazon Rainforest (Koren et al., 2006). A recent review by McTainsh and Strong
(2007) evaluated the ecological impacts of dust transport on different ecosystems. In some
cases dust transport to forest ecosystems can enhance the growth of certain leaves while also
reducing the amount of light reaching the photosynthetic apparatus of leaves, or enrich
surface soils with a wide range of nutrients that may favour certain plant species over other
species, or increase iron content in oceans enhancing phytoplankton growth while increasing
coral mortality with polluted dust.
Soil erosion is among the most pressing environmental problems and is considered a
major cause and symptom of desertification processes (Lal, 2001). Soil erosion and
degradation have decreased the productivity and sustainability in drylands such as in southern
Africa (Lal, 1990; Gröngröft et al., 2006). Within the landscape, the relationship between
desertification and soil erosion is often associated with either a net loss of fertility or a
redistribution of soil nutrients from plant interspaces to underneath shrub canopies
(Schlesinger et al., 1990). Currently, it is the presence of vegetation that protects
unconsolidated soils from wind erosion (Wiggs et al., 1994).
2. THE KALAHARI ENVIRONMENT

The Kalahari is the world‟s most extensive mantle of unconsolidated sand covering 2.5
million km2 of southern Africa and about 80 % of the territory of Botswana. Kalahari Sands
are largely composed of fine grained sand of nearly pure quartz of aeolian origin (Thomas
and Shaw, 1991). Most of the landscape of the Kalahari consists of a gently undulating plain
broken by pans, dry river valleys, rock outcrops and linear dune fields (Main, 1990). Dunes
are of intermediate size, although some rise above 100 m (Thomas and Shaw, 1991). Climate
has influenced erodibility and erosivity in the landscape. Year to year climatic variability in
Cyanobacterial Soil Crusts: Analysing Resilience in Kalahari Sand Soils 85
both rainfall and temperature controls evapotranspiration that ultimately influences the
magnitude and frequency of winds capable of moving sand (Bullard et al., 1997).
The climate of the Kalahari has not always been arid to semi-arid, but has been both drier
and wetter in the past. The most significant changes in climate have occurred over the last 2
million years during the Pleistocene and Holocene climatic changes, having a strong impact
in the marginal areas (Livingstone, 1975). It is now considered that over the last 4,500 years,
the amplitude of climatic changes has probably not been very great, however, climatic records
indicate the recurrence of periods (centuries and decades) when climate has differed
significantly from the means (Goudie, 2006). The contemporary climate is characterised by a
strong north to south rainfall gradient (Thomas and Shaw, 1991). Rainfall is highly variable
spatially and temporally, seasonally and annually (Nicholson, 1993). Kalahari rainfall is also
characterised by intervening dry periods of variable lengths (Nicholson, 2000). During the
summer rainfall months, temperatures are high enhancing evapotranspiration. During periods
of drought, vegetation cover decreases leading to increased wind erosion rates, decline in soil
fertility and soil moisture storage capacity (Thomas and Shaw, 1991).
The Kalahari Sands are covered by open shrub or tree savannas and open dwarf shrub or
grassland formation (Ringrose et al., 2003). Despite the homogeneity of the Kalahari Sands,
the structure of the vegetation presents spatial variability (Ringrose et al., 2003). The spatial
variation in vegetation communities is a response to a combination of several factors. First,
the natural distribution of the water table, the presence of underlying calcareous or saline
deposits and the spatial and temporal redistribution of nutrients forming islands of fertility
(Dougill et al., 1998b). Second, the increase in bare areas as a consequence of pastoralism,
especially close to water sources, creates a competitive relationship between shrub/tree and
grass layers (Thomas, 2002).
Soils are generally acidic and nutrient poor, determined by the rainfall gradient (Wang et
al., 2007). Kalahari Sand soils are known to have a high resilience (Dougill et al., 1998a) due
to their ability to recover from short and long-term environmental stresses. Both vegetation
cover (Wiggs, 2001) and biological soil crusts (BSC) play an important role in stabilising
unvegetated areas in the Kalahari (Thomas and Dougill, 2007). Research attention has started
to turn towards soil ecology and the role of BSC in stabilising soils against wind erosion. To
date, very little information is available about BSC in the Kalahari.
3. BIOLOGICAL SOIL CRUSTS IN THE KALAHARI

BSC are a common feature of drylands worldwide and are important for soil stability and
nutrient cycling in these ecosystems (West, 1990; Viles, 2008). BSC are formed by an
association of soil particles and microorganisms which live in the top few millimetres of the
soil (Belnap et al., 2003). Because they are concentrated in the surface of the soil, BSC are
able to affect processes between the soil-air interface such as nutrient sequestration and
surface stability (Viles, 2008). BSC are composed of cyanobacteria, mosses, green and brown
algae and lichens but can also contain fungi, bacteria and liverworts (Belnap et al., 2003),
however, BSC in the Kalahari are dominated by cyanobacteria (Shushu, 2000).
Cyanobacterial soil crusts are widely distributed across the Kalahari, covering up to 40 %
of soil in pastoral areas compared to undisturbed wildlife management zones and game
reserves where cover can reach 95 % of the surface (Thomas and Dougill, 2007).
86 D. M. Mager
Cyanobacterial soil crusts have formed preferentially under the protection of bush canopies
where disturbance by livestock is very low, especially the thorny bush encroached species
Acacia mellifera (Berkeley et al., 2005). Cyanobacteria have colonised all soil types in the
Kalahari of Botswana, with a wide variety of soil textures like calcrete-pan soils, where they
are most widespread (approximately 80 % cover compared to a 40 % around pastoral areas)
than on Kalahari Sands (Thomas and Dougill, 2007). Because BSC can physically modify,
maintain or create habitat for other organisms, they have been considered ecosystem
engineers (Jones et al., 1997; Viles, 2008). Given their widespread distribution, BSC offer the
potential to control several ecosystem processes that could increase Kalahari Sand soils
resilience. For example, because microorganisms can remain dormant throughout long
periods of drought, they can recover their metabolic activity even with small amounts of
moisture (Belnap, 2003b).
The formation of BSC is often initiated by filamentous cyanobacteria that, given the right
conditions for growth (i.e. substrate and moisture availability), entrap mineral particles
through the synthesis of EPS (Mazor et al., 1996) forming a stable aggregate in the surface
(Belnap and Gardner, 1993; Sutherland, 1999) . In the Kalahari, cyanobacterial soil crusts can
significantly increase cohesion of the unconsolidated surface decreasing surface erodibility
and erosivity (Thomas and Dougill, 2007) thus increasing surface stability. The relationship
between crusting and wind erosion, however, is not a simple one. Studies have demonstrated
not only that BSC disturbance may lead to increased wind erosion rates (Belnap and Gillette,
1997) but that BSC are vulnerable to wind erosion (Belnap and Gillette, 1998).
4. BIOLOGICAL SOIL CRUSTS AND NUTRIENT CYCLING

The spatial distribution of nutrients in the Kalahari is characterised as topsoil
concentrated as a consequence of nutrient absorption by soil particles (Dougill et al., 1998a)
and the widespread presence of cyanobacterial soil crusts. BSC have been shown to increase
soil nutrient inputs from the trapping of dust on crusted surfaces (Littmann, 1997; Eldridge
and Leys, 2003). The presence of cyanobacteria in dryland soils is also important for C and N
cycling (Figure 1) as they can contribute to CO2 and N2-fixation (Beymer and Klopatek,
1991). Cyanobacterial soil crusts are considered a major source of organic C in dryland soils
(Housman et al., 2006). Through photosynthesis, cyanobacteria are capable of increasing the
C content of the soil in the form of carbohydrates (Bertocchi et al., 1990). This newly fixed C
can significantly contribute to the soil labile C pool (Mager, 2010) that is readily available for
plant growth and other soil bacteria (Martens and Loeffelmann, 2002). This is especially
significant for Kalahari Sands where cyanobacterial soil crusts are widely distributed and
organic matter (OM) from other sources (i.e. through litter decomposition) is known to be
limited (Mistry, 2000).
EPS and chlorophyll a (as a measure of microbial biomass) in the soil present a
distinctive vertical distribution, with most of the chlorophyll a concentrated in the surface
(Mager, 2010). Carbohydrates are topsoil concentrated with an exponential decrease
(approximately 75 %) with depth. This vertical distribution of cyanobacteria (chlorophyll a)
and EPS can be divided into two distinctive layers (from surface to bottom): a cyanobacteria
rich-layer in terms of biomass and maximum carbohydrate content (approximately 0-5 mm),
and an inorganic layer consisting mainly of EPS (Mager, 2010). The surface layer has been
identified as the euphotic or critical zone with the greatest microbial biomass (Garcia-Pichel
and Belnap, 1996; Chorover et al., 2007). Within the euphotic zone, most of the metabolic
and geochemical activity takes place (Chorover et al., 2007). For example, autotrophic
cyanobacteria are capable of transforming CO2 to carbohydrates and O2 within the sunlit
surface. Because the euphotic zone is approximately only 0-5 mm deep, the cyanobacterial
layer would therefore be vulnerable to disturbance by livestock and wind erosion.
Livestock
Rainfall & Game N2 CO2
Denitrification Respiration
+ + +
- -
Mineralisation N2-fixation Photosynthesis
Bare soil
Cyanobacterial Soil Crusts
NH4+
Plant uptake
Soil N Soil C C6H12O6
NO3-
Water infiltration below - -

the rooting zone
Leaching
Figure 1. Carbon and nitrogen cycling associated with cyanobacterial soil crusts in Kalahari Sand soils.
The rate of microbial activity, however, is dependent on soil moisture availability

(Belnap et al., 2004). Due to the episodic nature of rainfall in drylands, cyanobacterial crusts
present very low activity most of the time when moisture is limiting, however, they are
known to restart both respiration and photosynthesis within minutes after rewetting (Garcia-
Pichel and Belnap, 1996). Several studies have coupled the effect of temperature,
precipitation and light exposure on the metabolism of different microorganisms associated
with BSC with contradictory results mainly regarding the dynamics of the cyanobacterial
response to moisture availability (e.g. Austin et al., 2004; Darby et al., 2006). Photosynthetic
activity varies with cyanobacterial species and availability of moisture (Satoh et al., 2002).
Different cyanobacterial species have different metabolic requirements that affect
photosynthetic rates. Therefore, both photosynthetic and respiratory activity by cyanobacteria
are constraint by moisture availability (Lange, 2003), however, the extent of these metabolic
responses is yet not known (Thomas et al., 2008).
The availability of soil C is also essential for N cycling, as cyanobacteria requires C as
energy source in order to assimilate N into the microbial biomass and soil N pool (Phlips et
al., 1989; Otero and Vincenzini, 2003). N metabolism by cyanobacteria requires ATP as an
energy source with C derived from CO2 (photosynthesis) in the light or catabolism of organic
C sources (respiration) in the dark (Tandeau de Marsac et al., 2001). This relationship
suggests that cyanobacteria require C as energy source for N metabolism (Belnap, 2003a) and
is controlled by C/N ratios in the soil. Yet the levels of C and N and environmental conditions
(i.e. moisture) required for C/N balance still remains unknown. In return, C/N balance in the
crust will ultimately affect nutrient availability in the topsoil.
88 D. M. Mager
N inputs in the Kalahari occur as deposition (N compounds in rainfall and livestock dung
and urine) and by biological fixation by bacteria and legumes (Aranibar et al., 2004).
Cyanobacteria are not only capable of N uptake from environmental sources (Figure 1), but in
the absence of inorganic-N they are able to fix atmospheric-N (Herrero et al., 2001; Flores
and Herrero, 2005). In drylands, the presence of cyanobacterial soil crusts thus suggests that
N inputs (whether urea or N2) are metabolised into ammonium, which is ultimately
assimilated or readily available for plant uptake. The contribution of cyanobacterial soil crusts
to the N cycle in drylands, where nutrient availability is low and spatially and temporally
heterogeneous, constitutes a major input to Kalahari Sand soils (Aranibar et al., 2003). To
date, only a few studies have quantified N2-fixation rates from Kalahari Sand soils (Aranibar
et al., 2003; Aranibar et al., 2004) as evidence of the lack of sufficient data regarding
cyanobacterial soil crusts and C and N cycles in the Kalahari. Understanding the fate of N
pools in cyanobacterial soil crusts is important to determine whether N inputs are lost to the
atmosphere through denitrification, to the soil with leaching or assimilated into the soil N
pool (Johnson et al., 2005). Because the availability of N in the Kalahari is temporally or
seasonally limiting and is mainly related to rainfall pulses and N inputs by livestock, nutrient
cycling and production of microbial biomass are therefore maximised when sources and sinks
of C and N are also effectively coupled by moisture availability (Collins et al., 2008).
5. BIOLOGICAL SOIL CRUSTS AND SOIL MOISTURE DYNAMICS

Drylands are water-limited ecosystems characterised by variability in rainfall event size,
frequency and timing (Noy-Meir, 1973). The variability in rainfall patterns supplies resources
in pulses. In drylands, rainfall patterns, vegetation cover, soil texture and temperature control
soil moisture dynamics and residence time of water in the soil surface (D'Odorico et al., 2000;
Asner et al., 2001; Lehmann and Schroth, 2003; Seyfried et al., 2005). Rainfall generally
occurs during the summer months of high temperatures. Due to high evapotranspiration rates,
single rainfall events usually cause brief periods of soil moisture with limited infiltration
depth (Chesson et al., 2004). The availability of rainfall pulses and the short residence of
water in the soil affects all biological processes regarding the cycling of OM and nutrients
(Austin et al., 2004). In order to address the dynamics of primary production and soil water
partitioning in drylands it is therefore necessary to describe accurately soil moisture dynamics
(Reynolds et al., 2004).
The most common biological factor affecting soil water content in drylands is the
distribution of vegetation (Caylor et al., 2004). Soil moisture is spatially heterogeneous and is
greatly influenced by plant interception of rainfall and subsequent infiltration (Ludwig et al.,
2005). Therefore, soil moisture may have consequences for the distribution of soil resources
and the magnitude and duration of microbial responses to rainfall events. Because vegetation
affects water movement into the soil by enhancing rates of infiltration, the presence of
vegetation decreases evaporation losses (D'Odorico and Porporato, 2006). In the Kalahari,
higher infiltration rates are most commonly found under canopies rather than in intercanopy
spaces (D'Odorico et al., 2007). In return, intercanopy spaces have higher evaporation rates
due to higher solar irradiance and absence of canopy interception (D'Odorico et al., 2007).
A better understanding of the roles of BSC in dryland hydrologic cycles would not only
provide information on soil moisture dynamics (i.e. water holding capacity), but would also
determine whether nutrients are stored within the topsoil or are lost by leaching below the
root zone during discrete events of increased rainfall magnitude. Numerous studies have
evaluated the role of BSC on soil water content. The work by Belnap (2006) represents to
date the most comprehensive review of the role of BSC in dryland hydrologic cycles. The role
of BSC in the redistribution of rainfall has been related to the stability provided by the EPS
produced by surface cyanobacteria (Hawkes and Flechtner, 2002; Belnap et al., 2004). EPS
have long been recognised as the key for structuring cyanobacterial soil crusts in drylands
(Mazor et al., 1996; Mager and Thomas, submitted). A recent study of the effect of
cyanobacterial soil crusts on soil water loss and C and N leaching has shown that BSC affect
soil surface hydrochemical properties, such as soil texture, porosity, bulk density, OM and
cation exchange capacity (CEC) (Mager, 2009). Cyanobacterial soil crusts were found to
decrease porosity and bulk density and increase OM and CEC of the surface in comparison to
the subsoil. An increase in OM is generally accompanied by an increase in CEC that are
directly related to a higher capacity of the soil to retain nutrients (Gerrard, 2003). By
decreasing soil porosity and bulk density, cyanobacterial soil crusts are not only capable of
absorbing more water but retains moisture for much longer periods than bare surfaces
(Eldridge et al., 2000). The longer cyanobacteria delays desiccation, the longer water is held
in the soil (Potts, 2001). EPS affects water infiltration in the topsoil by decreasing soil
porosity and increasing absorptivity (water and nutrient absorption) and by trapping airborne
silts and clays increasing surface roughness. As cyanobacterial biomass increases, porosity at
the soil surface decreases. Hence, cyanobacterial soil crusts are capable of controlling soil
water movement through the synthesis of EPS as presented in Figure 2, decreasing
evapotranspiration, infiltration rates and leaching losses into the soil.
Coarse-textured soils such as the Kalahari Sands have large potential for leaching losses
during rainfall events (Hawkes, 2003). Soil moisture content and the movement of nutrient
through the soil are affected by several soil physical (i.e. texture), hydrological (i.e.
infiltration), chemical (e.g. cation exchange capacity) and biological properties (i.e. BSC) and
by climatic (i.e. rainfall) conditions (D'Odorico and Porporato, 2006). Nutrient leaching in
drylands has caused recent concerns after large nitrate reservoirs (up to ~104 kilograms of
NO3- per hectare) were found in drylands of North America (Walvoord et al., 2003).
Although these reservoirs are the result of long-term accumulation during the past 10,000-
16,000 years, large reservoirs of nitrate below the root zone could potentially affect
groundwater in these ecosystems, on which pastoralists are dependent. However, losses of N
and C by leaching could be negligible in drylands due to low rainfall availability and the
presence of BSC.
To date, BSC are thought to immobilise nutrients within the surface crust preventing
leaching losses (Veluci et al., 2006). Large rare rainfall events can lead to nutrient
translocation through leaching (Ludwig et al., 2005). When the soil is dry, significant
leaching losses of carbohydrates, ammonium or nitrate from Kalahari Sand soils occur only
during rainfall events of at least 50 mm (Mager, 2009). This particular observation is highly
significant as to the magnitude of a given rainfall event needed to produce significant
leaching losses below the root zone. A decrease in surface carbohydrates with extreme
rainfall events, however, could lead to a decrease in surface aggregate stability due to the
decrease in compressive strength given by the EPS matrix (Thomas and Dougill, 2006).
However, even with frequent rainfall events of large magnitude and because carbohydrates
90 D. M. Mager
are found to remain within the topsoil, the concentration of C leached from the surface would
remain within reach of adjacent plants and/or contributing to the C pool of dryland soils.
EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
LOW MOISTURE CONTENT WATER SATURATION
CYANOBACTERIAL CRUSTS UNCONSOLIDATED SOILS
> Porosity
Capillarity
Gravity > Capillarity
> Compressive strength
< Porosity
Capillarity Capillarity > Gravity
Soil water content EPS
Figure 2. Sketch of sand grains and EPS within crusted soil and unconsolidated soils, with low moisture
content and water saturation.
6. IMPLICATIONS OF DESERTIFICATION AND FUTURE

CLIMATE CHANGE IN KALAHARI SAND SOILS
To date, there is still debate over the extent of desertification by land use changes,
climatic processes or changes in soil chemical, physical and biological properties, whether it
is reversible or irreversible and whether it occurs only in drylands (Stringer, 2008). However,
desertification is likely to play a greater role in global biogeochemical cycles in the future as
the area of drylands is expected to increase with an associated loss of fertility or a
redistribution of soil nutrients from plant interspaces to patches of increased fertility under
shrub canopies (Schlesinger et al., 1990).
Many causes of desertification are related to grazing intensity (Skarpe, 1990) and to the
impact of climate change linked to the greenhouse effect (Schlesinger et al., 1990; Sivakumar,
2007). Although it has been hypothesised that dryland soils could act as a C sink under
increasing atmospheric CO2 (Cao and Woodward, 1998), some studies have shown that even
carbonate-rich soils are losing C annually (Emmerich, 2003). This particular study suggested
that C losses are not only from both the inorganic and organic C pool but also depend on
growing season. In the Kalahari, recent studies have just begun to evaluate CO2 fluxes from
cyanobacterial soil crusts under different scenarios of precipitation patterns (i.e. Thomas et
al., 2008) showing that when the soil is wet CO2 loss is highly sensitive to changes in
temperature.
To date, there is no clear indication of a decrease in total annual rainfall over the region
(Nicholson, 2000), however, the frequency of extreme rainfall events is currently predicted to
increase in the future (IPCC, 2007). Changes in precipitation patterns, however, could affect
C input losses from the soil. Recent simulation models have suggested that an increase in
annual rainfall with a decrease in summer rainfall (where higher temperatures are common)
would benefit C sequestration while an increase in rainfall event size would result in C loss
through respiration (Shen et al., 2008).
The vast area that Kalahari Sands occupy has been predicted to undergo a temperature
rise between 4 to 6 °C (IPCC, 2007). Warming could carry significant implications for
sustainable pastoralism as soil aridity increases (Sivakumar, 2007) as well as affecting soil
microbial communities. The switch of the terrestrial biosphere as a C sink to a C source is
controversial and it is associated with the sensitivity of the respiration of soil microbes to
global warming. Most studies on cyanobacterial stress responses have been laboratory based,
thus field studies should be considered for evaluation. Because cyanobacteria have a wide
range of temperature tolerance (Zhao et al., 2008), rates of photosynthetic C fixation under
elevated temperatures in the future would be expected to remain without much alteration.
However, with increasing temperatures, evapotranspiration would also increase. EPS
produced by cyanobacterial soil crusts can contribute to delay stress from wetting/drying
cycles. Because C fluxes are dependent on water use efficiency, an increased
evapotranspiration will lead to an overall decrease in photosynthetic flux of CO2 (Albertson et
al., 2006). Thus, increased soil aridity could decrease the amount of time for microbial
activity during rainfall events and increase soil vulnerability to wind erosion.
Africa‟s primary net C source is attributed to land use changes (Williams et al., 2007).
Because organic C is related to the distribution of woody vegetation in the Kalahari (Wang et
al., 2008), changes in vegetation composition as a result of the intensification of land use (e.g.
grazing) can result in very rapid declines in soil organic C by increasing decomposition
leading to desertification. Soil organic C decreases along the Kalahari transect with decreased
rainfall (Ringrose et al., 1998; Feral et al., 2003; Bird et al., 2004). With decreased woody
vegetation in the drier parts of the Kalahari (Feral et al., 2003), soil organic C and C/N
decreases. With increased grazing intensity, C and N contribution by cyanobacterial soil
crusts would also decrease (Aranibar et al., 2004).
A reduction in cyanobacterial soil crust cover under different disturbances is therefore a
component and accelerator of desertification (Belnap et al., 1994). Livestock grazing reduces
cyanobacterial soil crust cover by physical rupture increasing the surface area of
unconsolidated sediments (Thomas and Dougill, 2006) affecting C and N2-fixation rates
(Belnap et al., 1994), water infiltration associated with livestock-induced soil compaction
(Castellano and Valone, 2007) and recovery rates(Williams et al., 2008).
7. CONCLUSIONS
Cyanobacterial soil crusts dominate the soil C pool and affect C and N cycling in
Kalahari Sand soils. Cyanobacteria can also delay desiccation of the soil preventing
evapotranspiration losses, allowing longer periods of soil moisture availability for nutrient
92 D. M. Mager
cycling. The key to the role of cyanobacteria soil crusts on surface processes providing
resilience to Kalahari Sand soils is in the synthesis of EPS. EPS synthesis requires the
considerations of a series of mechanisms that in mixed communities can take place altogether.
While autotrophic cyanobacteria can grow through decomposition of C, some cyanobacteria
are capable of photosynthesis and respiration while diazotrophic cyanobacteria use C for N2-
fixation. Depending on C/N balance, the fact that all these metabolic pathways can occur in
the crust at the same time is an indication of the complex interactions when evaluating BSC
dynamics. Therefore, cyanobacterial soil crusts offer a competitive advantage to dryland soils,
especially in the nutrient poor Kalahari Sand soils.
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Chapter 5
SEMI-ARID VEGETATION IN BRAZIL: BIODIVERSITY,

IMPACTS AND MANAGEMENT
Marcela C. Pagano and Francisca S. Araújo

Biology Department, Federal University of Ceará,
Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil
ABSTRACT
The importance of ecosystems in supplying a range of services that underpin
productive human activities has been smothered, and so ecosystems are mismanaged and
degraded. This is also for seasonally dry tropical vegetation, which are under extreme
climatic and edaphic environmental conditions, generally presenting soils with low water
availability, and considered as one of the most threatened tropical ecosystems. The aim of
this review is to explore the current information on vegetation types, the associate soil
microflora diversity, and impacts in the semiarid of Brazil, and to speculate about the
management of semiarid sites. Studies revealed that arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi
are present in Tropical dry forests, where Leguminosae, Myrtaceae, Meliaceae and
Euphorbiaceae are commonly found. However, the different seasonal xerophilous
vegetation types of the Brazilian tropical semiarid zone have been poorly investigated,
and little is known about the soil biota. In the State of Ceará, core area of the Brazilian
tropical semiarid zone, different vegetational types, as the thorny deciduous savanna
(Caatinga), the non thorny dry forest (presenting trees higher than 7m height) and the
closed, non thorny tall-shrubby deciduous vegetation (namely Carrasco) are recently
begun to study. Some perennial evergreen and most deciduous species are dominant
members of tree communities throughout the Brazilian semiarid; however few studies
have focused on their root symbioses. To define functional types of trees or mycorrhizas
is still difficult due to the lack of long-term data on the dynamics of the vegetation types.
The native vegetation is used to produce fuel wood, and this resulted in a mosaic of
vegetation stages. Moreover, cattle and agriculture are the main activities in this region.
Due to increasing population pressure, crops are planted before soil fertility has
recovered through long bush fallows, resulting in declines in soil fertility. Mixing
cropping is commonly practiced; however, commercial fruit monocultures of banana,
cashew, and acerola, under different irrigation systems, are also frequent. Future studies
can indicate benefits like a better plant growth of these cultures throughout the symbiotic
100 Marcela C. Pagano and Francisca S. Araújo
plant association with the AM fungi. We end with the benefits and problems encountered,
in order to highlight the need for a continual and integrated study of the semiarid
ecosystems, the potential for regeneration in habitats subjected to disturbance, and,
consequently, the wise management of ecosystem goods and services, which can prevent
a deepening of poverty.
Keywords: Dry forest, Vegetation types, Caatinga, Soil microflora, Mycorrhizas
INTRODUCTION
Dry tropical forests are considered as one of the most threatened tropical ecosystems
(Quesada et al. 2009), 60% of them have been destroyed in Latin America (Miles et al. 2006).
Current deforestation rates are still high or unknown for many regions. Most of these forests
disappeared in the Americas mainly due to slash-and-burn practices and conversion to
agriculture (Murphy and Lugo 1986, Murphy 1995, Miles et al. 2006).
Few studies have been undertaken in the Caatinga, the most incompletely studied
Brazilian vegetation formation. The Caatinga is one of the less protected regions in Brazil,
with less than 2% included within any type of conservation area. Research programs in this
region are therefore necessary, due to the rapid alteration and the substitution of the native
vegetation (Castelletti et al. 2003).
A 48% of the Brazilian northeastern region (NR) has a semi-arid climate, showing
varying degrees of edapho-climatic aridity, generally associated with its distance to the
Atlantic coast, altitude, geomorphology, wind exposure, as well as soil depth and its physical
composition. Rainfall is often less than 750 mm/year and it is concentrated in three or four
consecutive Months (November until June). Temperatures vary little, with an annual average
of approximately 26 °C (Nimer 1989). The climatic conditions of the region are complex and
their variations reflect in several vegetational types: xerophilous (dry) forest, xerophilous
thorn savanna/woodland, xerophilous shrubland and mountain evergreen forest (Araujo et al.
2005). The Brazilian Caatinga, a seasonal xerophilous thorn savanna/woodland, prevails in
the semi-arid lowlands on an extensive regional crystalline basement complex (Sampaio
1995). Lands present highly eroded and stony soils, and several vegetation types; however,
few were discussed on benefit and costs of the conservation of this formation (Sampaio and
Sampaio 2007). This region still presents fragments of natural vegetal cover, being important
for conservation of the patterns of climate and biodiversity of the planet (Tabarelli and Silva
2003).
NATURAL VEGETATIONAL TYPES IN THE NR OF BRAZIL

Dry forest plants have multiple adaptations to dry conditions, including drought
avoidance and resistance through a variety of morphological and behavioral characteristics
(Lugo et al. 1978; Medina and Cuevas 1990). Tropical dry forests occur on substrates ranging
from nutrient-rich alluvial soils to nutrient-poor rock outcrops, which can aggravate the water
limitations of dry tropical forest climates. However, in locations where soils store water or
where water is channelized (as in valleys), vegetation may acquire great stature and biomass
(Murphy and Lugo 1995). Tropical dry forest vegetation is generally water rather than
Semi-Arid Vegetation in Brazil: Biodiversity, Impacts and Management 101
nutrient limited, however soils present low phosphorus availability to plants (Lugo and
Murphy 1986).
In the Brazilian semiarid zone, the main limiting factor is water availability; the annual
rainfall is concentrated in just three or four consecutive months (Sampaio 1995; Barbosa et al.
2006). The vegetation is a mosaic of physiognomic types occurring associated with varying
degrees of topoclimatic and edaphoclimatic aridity, thus differing with regard to rainfall
periodicity and soil moisture conditions (Araújo et al. 2005).
The vegetation that dominates the lowland areas of the crystalline basement complex in
this zone is the Caatinga, a deciduous thorny savanna/woodland, well adapted to seasonal
hydric shortage, occurring in shallow soils (see Cole 1960, Sampaio 1995, Leal et al. 2003).
In most of the dry areas of the semiarid region, which is dominated by the Caatinga, the dry
period varies from 8 to 9 months, with an annual average rainfall lower than 700 mm and an
average annual temperature of up to 26-28 oC (Sampaio 1995). A characterization of their
life-form flora was presented by Costa et al. (2007). Caatinga, which means white forest,
because only the stems of drought deciduous trees could be seen in the dry season, is a
vegetation formation inserted under high levels of solar radiation, annual average temperature
and evaporation.
Among the vegetational types of the brazilian semiarid dominium, the Caatinga prevails
in the semi-arid lowlands, showing variations in their physiognomy and floristic composition
(Andrade-Lima 1981, Fernandes and Bezerra 1990).
Although many authors have stressed the importance of herbaceous species within
caatinga physiognomies (Veloso et al. 1991, Sampaio 1995, Rizzini 1997), most floristic and
phytosociological studies have focused on the woody component, indicating that
Leguminosae (Caesalpinioideae, Mimosoideae, and Papilionoideae), Euphorbiaceae, and
Cactaceae are among the most species rich families in the Caatinga (Sampaio 1995, Costa et
al. 2007).
In addition to the Caatinga, in the Brazilian semiarid it is also found a dense, deciduous,
spineless shrubland vegetation called Carrasco, which occurs at higher altitudes, around 700–
900 m a.s.l., in arenosols chemically poor and deep, specifically in the Araripe highlands and
Ibiapaba plateau (Araújo et al. 1998; Araújo and Martins 1999; Araújo et al.1999, 2005,
Vasconcelos et al. 2010). It differs also physiognomically and floristically from the Caatinga.
In the Carrasco there is a higher density of woody individuals, and cacti and bromeliads are
almost absent. Araújo et al. (1998) studied their floristic composition in Ibiapaba plateau,
Ceará State. They showed that of 102 shrub and tree species in the area, 31 only occurred in
carrasco. At Ibiapaba plateau, families with the highest number of species were Leguminosae
> Euphorbiaceae > Myrtaceae and Bignoniaceae (Araújo et al. 1998).
The semiarid dominium (Caatinga formation), comprises a strip in North of Minas Gerais
State, following the São Francisco river until Southeastern State of Piauí. Although both the
Carrasco and the Caatinga are under a regional semiarid climate, the Carrasco benefits from
the topoclimate and soil moisture conditions thus making them functionally different. The
soils in the Carrasco are deep and, as mentioned by Araújo et al. (2005) and Vasconcelos et
al. (2010), this may provide a lower water stress in this ecosystem due to a decrease in
temperature and an increase in water availability in the soil.
Plain areas predominate in the semiarid dominium, which contrast with slopes reaching
1000 m. Beyond the Brazilian semiarid dominium also presents small patches of
Semidecidual or Evergreen Montane Forests and of Cerrado vegetation (semideciduous
tropical savanna), which are conditioned by topography and soils (reviewed by Araújo et al.
2007).
The Caatinga formation is represented by different physiognomic types, locally
denominated as shrubby, woody, shrubby/ woody and park. The park type is characterized by
large quantities of Poaceae and Cyperaceae, and trees being distributed in disjoint patches. In
all physiognomic types of Caatinga, the richness of herbaceous stratum is high, however there
are only a few studies concerning floristic, structure and population dynamics of herbs
(reviewed by Araújo et al. 2007), similarly to that occur in other tropical formations in
Panamá (Royo and Carson 2005).
Most plants from Caatinga enter a dormant phase during the major part of the year (dry
season), while leaves, flowers, and the herbaceous vegetation grow in the short and sporadic
rainy season (Rizzini 1997). Seasonal rainfall is in general considered the main factor
influencing flowering and fruiting phenologies in dry forests (McLaren and McDonald 2005);
however, other strategies were recorded, such as (1) flowering in the wet season and fruiting
in the dry one; (2) flowering and fruiting in the dry season (Sloan et al. 2007); (3) flowering
and fruiting twice a year (Machado 1996).
Studies including only three NR States showed that the richness of herbaceous flora is
approx. three times that of woody stratum (Araújo 2003). There are approx. 1.102 species of
trees and shrubs (Gamarra-Rojas and Sampaio 2002), being 318 of them endemic (Giulietti et
al. 2002). The most common families are Euphorbiaceae, Leguminosae, Cactaceae and
Anacardiaceae, and the species Poincianella pyramidalis, Anadenanthera colubrina,
Schinopsis brasiliensis and Myracrodruon urudeuva present wide distribution (reviewed by
Araújo et al. 2007), some of them are also included in the threatened or near threatened
category of the official Brazilian endangered species list.
MONOCULTURES, AGROFORESTRY AND WOOD USES IN NR

Despite considered one of the 37 „Wilderness Areas of the World‟, the Caatinga
dominium suffers the effect of the anthropogenic actions, such as space occupation by man
and exploration of natural resources. Caatinga dominium is now fragmented in areas of
several degrees of disturbance and only 16% is protected as conservation unities of total
protection. In intensively degraded areas, when plant cover is almost totally removed, the
soils are degraded, the farming productive capacity decrease and social conditions of local
populations are deteriorated (reviewed by Araújo et al. 2007). The plant and animal diversity,
ecology and conservation, related to caatinga ecosystem were reviewed by Leal et al. (2003).
Caatinga vegetation, although being very disturbed by historical occupation processes
and irrational uses, constitutes an important source of subsistence for diverse ethnic groups,
such as indigenous, which also collect products that are necessary to maintain and reproduce
their practices. The distinct ethnic groups explore differently the biological resources of
Caatinga, as a function of social, cultural, economic and/or ecological aspects (reviewed by
Araújo et al. 2007). Plants may play several roles for the local communities but the use of
wood is the most commonly recorded (Sampaio 2002). There are several studies concerning
the uses of native Caatinga species, but relatively few systematic investigations of
ethnobotany. The role of seasonality in the use of plant resources conditioned preferred
plants, whose availability is not affected by the local seasonal pattern, such as shrub and
arboreal plants, used for wood (for several uses) and/or in local medicine (stem bark) (see
Araújo et al. 2007 for a review).
In the semi-arid of Pernambuco State, 61 woody species were cataloged, mostly used for
construction purposes or fuel. Myracrodruon urundeuva (Engl.) Fr. All., Schinopsis
brasiliensis Engl., and Anadenanthera colubrina (Vell.) Brenan, were among the prominent
species due to their local importance and multiplicity of uses, in spite of the fact that the two
first trees are included in Brazilian lists of threatened species (Lucena et al. 2007).
Caatinga provides several environmental services and products, such as wood, charcoal,
fruits, fibers, latex, carnauba based waxes, ornamental plants, medicines. The environmental
services are provided through the maintenance of the vegetal and animal biodiversity, which
has their known ecological importance; however, most farmers, whose income is very low,
have not intention to preserve the native cover vegetation. Moreover, the importance of native
vegetation for water conservation as well as for carbon sequestration was few quantified
(Sampaio and Sampaio 2007).
The subsistence agriculture (maize and beans) is the most important economic activity in
this region and water availability is the main restriction for agriculture (Antonino et al. 2000).
In the NR grapes are produced (under irrigation) mainly for exportation (more than 90%)
as table grapes. In the last 15 years total area cultivated with grapes in Brazil increased by a
16.5% rate and by a 292% rate in NR, as a result of good profits. Grapevine is cultivated in
Brazil from 30ºS up to 5ºS. Petrolina/Juazeiro, in NR, is the main grape exporting region with
more than 6,000 ha (reviewed by Pommer and Barbosa 2009).
In NR there is a great diversity of native frutiferous species of higher economic value for
the region: Spondias tuberosa (umbuzeiro), Anacardium occidentale (cashew), Ziziphus
joazeiro (juazeiro) and Eugenia luschnathiana (pitombeira). Cashew was domesticated and is
nowadays cultivated in commercial scale, but Spondias tuberosa (umbuzeiro) is been
domesticated and could be a fruit of economic value in the future (Araújo et al. 2001).
Cashew is explored in an area of 700,000 ha in Brazil, 94% concentrated in the States of
Ceará, Rio Grande do Norte and Piauí (NR). More than 15,000 hectares were already
submitted to crown renovation and grafted with dwarf cashew plant scions. This procedure
allowed a sensible gain in nut production, besides the easiness in orchard treatments due to
earliness and lower plant height. Cashew dwarf clones most cultivated in Brazil were
obtained through selection made on natural populations of the Brazilian Northeast coastal
region. The expected yield, for the dwarf cashew under natural conditions is around 1.000
kg/ha of raw cashew and 10.000 kg/ha of cashew apple. Under irrigation it may reach 3.800
kg/ha of raw cashew nut and 30.000 kg/ha of cashew (reviewed by Pommer and Barbosa
2009). The cashew agribusiness is significantly important in NR of Brazil as well as in the
worldwide commerce.
In Ceará State, major agricultural crops are coffee and sugar cane (mountain), cotton
(lowland), and important frutiferous species are acerola, banana (mountain), coco, cashew
(including nut), and mango. Graviola, a small tree attaining 5m height native to Antilhas and
the West Indian cherry (acerola), which has higher levels of vitamin C, are also cultivated in
NR. Acerola was rapidly introduced in Brazil presenting great variability but their desired
technological characteristics for market were not yet selected (Brunini et al. 2004).
Due to increasing population pressure, crops are planted before soil fertility has
recovered through long bush fallows (Tiessen et al. 1992), resulting in further depletion of
soil organic nutrient pools. In NR monocultures are major plantations, and biodiversity is
reduced in conventional agricultural systems.
There is little available information on nutrient cycling and the controls of ecosystem
processes in land use systems of dry neotropical regions. Menezes et al. (2002) conducted
field and glasshouse experiments to investigate the influence of native (Ziziphus joazeiro) and
exotic (Prosopis juliflora) trees on microclimate and nutrient dynamics in pastures of
Cenchrus ciliaris (exotic species) in semiarid NR, showing that the preservation of native
trees or introduction of exotic tree species in C. ciliaris pastures significantly affects
microclimate and the dynamics of litter and soil nutrients, and may contribute to increases in
the cycling rate of nutrients in that systems.
Also for the semi-arid area in NR Brazil, agrosilvopastoral systems were designed for the
São Francisco Basin in Pernambuco to be used by small farmers in water protection areas as
they are based on drought-tolerant multipurpose species (tolerant of low soil fertility and not
susceptible to pests and diseases). The main species are exotic, tree-like legumes such as
Prosopis juliflora and Leucaena leucocephala and the cactaceous Opuntia ficus-indica;
however, native multipurpose trees that provide a secondary source of income, but serve first
of all for the production of wood, but also of fodder, food, non-wood raw materials, medicine,
and honey were included.
Maia et al. (2007) denoted the limited amount of information to evaluate agroforestry
systems (AS) in the semi-arid region, specifically in the region of Ceará. They evaluated four
agroforestry and one conventional system concluding that the soil under silvopasture
preserved soil organic carbon stocks, improving soil quality. The silvopasture system can,
therefore, be an alternative soil management strategy for food production and for the
maintenance of soil quality and agricultural sustainability in the semiarid region of Ceará
State.
In the Semiarid of Minas Gerais State AS are an alternative soil management strategy for
agricultural production, economic and social growth of the region. The wood provision for
local populations was established using AS of mixed native species and Eucalyptus in
disturbed sites (Pagano et al. 2008, 2009). The research approach was based on the ability of
woody legumes to take advantage of their ability to fix nitrogen (N), and to form
mycorrhizae, which help plants to cope with stress situations such as nutrient deficiencies,
drought and soil disturbance.
Fences are very common structures in rural tropical landscapes of rural NR due their
widespread use in controlling domestic animal movements, protecting cultivated areas, and
defining the borders of private properties (Nascimento et al. 2009). Many different materials
are used for constructing fences, and most of them are derived from natural products, such as
straw, wooden poles and leather, which minimize construction costs. However, using living
elements in mixed-fences are very interesting because they not only serve the farmer‟s needs,
but also aid conservation interests, which demands less harvesting of the native vegetation
(Nascimento et al. 2009). The use of species with high sprouting capacities contribute to the
conservation of other plants that do not have any re-sprouting capacity, such as A. colubrina,
locally preferred for fence posts, and also harvested for civil construction, fuelwood and
charcoal (Figueirôa et al. 2005).
In the NR, the most important uses of woody plants are related to harvesting for energy
and construction purposes (Lucena et al. 2007). Despite the diversity of species identified,
only a few of them have high use values: Anadenanthera colubrina, Myracrodruon
urundeuva, Schinopsis brasiliensis, and Poincianella pyramidalis, which are remarkably

versatile and present in several use categories (Lucena et al. 2007).
Since this chapter is primarily concerned to native and economic plants, we have
refrained from discussing medicinal plants which most studies have often focused on.
SOIL MICROFLORA IN THE NR OF BRAZIL

Despite AM fungi perform the most important symbiotic interactions (the acquisition of
carbon from the plant and the transfer of phosphate to the plant), there is a need to understand
basic information about key features of AM fungal biology (Fitter et al. 2004).
Most of the occurring species in NR have not any report as mycotrophic according to the
list of plant species compiled by Wang and Qiu (2006); however, studies of some plant
species from Minas Gerais (Pagano et al. in press) and Ceará States (Pagano, unpublished)
showed differences in root colonization among tree species, with some of them been highly
colonized by AM (Table 1). Since this chapter is primarily concerned with AMF occurrence
in Brazil (Figure 1), we have refrained from discussing most studies in dry forests from other
countries.
Table 1. Summary of evidence on arbuscular mycorrhizal

fungi in the semiarid region of Brazil.
Source Location/ forest type Spore AMF Species Mycorrhizal

number Richness colonization#
This study Native preserved 36.6* 19 >66%
caatinga and dry forest,
Serra das Almas, Ceará
State
Pagano et al. (2008, in Dry forest, Minas 227.40 18 50%
press) Gerais State
Mergulhão et al. (2009) Native preserved 344 19 73%
caatinga, Araripina,
Pernambuco State
Lima et al. (2007) Dry forest, Paraíba and 133 to 149; ND 26 to 50%
Pernambuco States (7 to 8.5
viable
spores)
Maia et al. (2006) Dry forest, Brazil ND 20 ND
Souza et al. (2003) Caatinga vegetation, 4.15 24 20%

Alagoas State
Santos et al (2000) Pernambuco and Bahia ND ND 77%
States
Silva et al. (2001, 2005) Preserved caatinga, 151 15 ND
Bahia State
#
Maximal AM colonization reported, *Spore number 100g-1 soil. ND = not determined in the study.
Figure 1. Location of some studied sites in NR of Brazil.
In Ceará State, as expected, AMF are a common and important component in semiarid
environments, which supplies relevant information for restoration programs. The soil
characteristics show differences in pH, phosphorus (P) content and soil humidity among the
vegetational types. Semiarid soils are usually P-deficient presenting very low values of P.
In Ceará State, AM fungal structures were observed in 17 (85%) of 20 plant species
(Table 2). However, the colonization pattern and rate varied among the plant species. As
generally found, vesicles and aseptate hyphae were the most frequent structures present in the
plants studied. Moreover, in agreement with Lima et al. (2007), we found higher numbers of
non-viable spores in caatinga soil. No AM fungal structures were observed in Aspidosperma
discolor, Piptadenia moniliformis or Buchenavia tetraphylla associated to remnant dry forest
(Table 2). AM fungi belonging to Glomus, Acaulospora and Scutellospora, and Gigaspora,
were found in some rhizospheric soils. Sporocarpic species of Glomus were common in
native caatinga. This agrees with other reports in the NR (Souza et al. 2003, Maia et al. 2006).
The presence of different families of Glomeromycota (Phylum of the AMF), which have
different life strategies (de Souza et al. 2005) indicate that AMF have different function in
these vegetational types.
Regarding frutiferous species, Weber et al. (2004) found a better plant growth of dwarf
cashew seedlings using the symbiotic plant association with the native AMF and exotic fungi
(commercial product of Glomus) instead of the phosphorus fertilization (87 mg/L soil), so that
indicating that native AMF promote different responses in plant growth. It is known that the
cashew performance depends on plant genetic variability (Barros et al. 2000), irrigation water
(Almeida et al. 2002, Oliveira et al. 2003) and soil management (Oliveira and Ramos 1995).
In NR, main cashew planted areas are localized in the strip close to the coast, which sandy
soils low in fertility prevail (Oliveira and Ramos 1995).
Table 2. Characteristics and mycorrhizal status of some native

species in northeast of Brazil.
Family Plant species Plant heigth Leaf type Reference ES†

Leguminosae Anadenanthera peregrina 2 a 15m Pinnate AM1 -
(Mimosoideae)
Enterolobium contortisiliquum 20-35m Pinnate AM2 -
Mimosa caesalpiniifolia 5-8m Pinnate AM4 -
Mimosa tenuiflora 6m Pinnate AM4 -
Piptadenia moniliformis 4-9m Pinnate NM4 -
Anadenanthera colubrina 5-35m Pinnate AM6 -
Leguminosae 8m Pinnate AM4 -
(Caesalpinioideae) Poincianella bracteosa
Bauhinia cf pulchella 3-5m Broad-leaf AM4 -
Bauhinia acuruana 3-6m Broad-leaf AM4 -
Leguminosae Copaifera langsdorfii 35m Pinnate AM4 -
Euphorbiaceae Croton blanchetianus 6-8m Broad-leaf AM4 -
Gymnanthes sp. 2-10m Broad-leaf AM4 -
Croton argyrophylloides 7m Broad-leaf NM4 -
Sapium sp. 10m Broad-leaf AM4 -
Apocynaceae Aspidosperma pyrifolium 7-8m Broad-leaf AM4 -
Aspidosperma discolor 15-25m Broad-leaf NM4 -
Boraginaceae Cordia oncocalyx 6-8m Broad-leaf AM4 +
Bignoniaceae Handroanthus heptaphyllus 10-12m Broad-leaf AM2 -
Malpighiaceae Byrsonima garderiana 5m Broad-leaf AM4 -
Myrtaceae Eugenia aff dysenterica 10m Broad-leaf AM4 -
Eugenia sp. 10m Broad-leaf AM4 -
Flacourtiaceae Xylosma ciliatifolium 12m Broad-leaf AM4 -
Leguminosae Plathymenia reticulata 6-12m Pinnate AM2,3 -
Rubiaceae Zanthoxylum stelligerum 6-12m Pinnate NM4 -
Arecaceae Copernicia prunifera 10-15m Pinnate ND -
Anacardiaceae Schinopsis brasiliensis 10-15m Pinnate AM2 +
Anacardium occidentale 4-10m Broad-leaf AM 1,5 -
Note: Indicated are the families. AM = Arbuscular mycorrhizal colonization report. 1Wang and Qiu
(2006); 2Pagano et al. (in press); 3Pagano et al. (2009); 4This study; 5Weber et al. (2004); 6Patreze
and Cordeiro (2004) and Zangaro et al. (2003); Data from: Lorenzi (2009); Maia (2004) and
Gonçalves et al. (2008); ND = Not determined; NM= Not mycorrhizal. †Endangered or near
threatened plant species.
The successful growth of native plants for AS demands an understanding of the

dependency of these plants to mycorrhizal fungi. At greenhouse, Pagano et al. (2007) showed
that phosphorus (P) fertilization increased to enhance the positive effects of AMF resulting in
more vigorous seedlings from dry forest in Minas Gerais State, and suggesting that in low
fertility soils native trees (A. peregrina, E. contortisiliquum and P. reticulata) seedlings
should be inoculated with AMF to enhance plant growth.
c d
Figure 2. Some physiognomic types of semiarid vegetation in the dry season. (A) carrasco; (B) dry
forest; (C) caatinga; (D) sample collection in caatinga.
Figure 3. Some functional aspects of the semiarid ecosystem. AM colonization in fine roots of Bauhinia
acuruana (a); Schinopsis brasiliensis (b); Cordia oncocalyx (c); Plathymenia reticulata (d); Sapium sp.
(e); (f) a ramet of Gymnanthes sp., resulted from vegetative propagation (f). A = Arbuscules; H = intra
radical hyphae bearing vesicles (V). Bars for figures a, b and c = 50 μm, and d and e = 100 μm.
IMPACTS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR CONSERVATION

By one hand, it was showed that mining activities such as copper, in Bahia State (Silva et
al. 2005) or gypsum mining in Pernambuco State (Mergulhão et al. 2009), can reduce the
vegetal and the native AM fungi diversity.
On the other hand, the strong local use pressure (most for wood uses) will need to be
evaluated for management and conservation purposes, even though all uses are directed
towards subsistence, with little contribution to commerce. Some plant species appear to be
subjected to sustainable levels of use, while others (e.g. Croton blanchetianus and Bauhinia
cheilantha) can be subject to highly aggressive collection practices (Lucena et al. 2007).
Figure 4. Spores of species of AMF found in Minas Gerais and Ceará States, Brazil: (a-b) Acaulospora
spinosa, (c) sporocarp of Glomus sp.; (d) Glomus sp.; (e) sporocarpic Glomus sp.; (f) Scutellospora
spore with germination shield; (g) Gigaspora sp.; (h, i) Acaulospora sp.
Lucena et al. (2007) highlighted that efforts directed at resource management and
conservation must be able to count on the cooperation of the local community and must take
into account the specific knowledge of both men and women as well as the biological
characteristics of the plant species. Moreover, special attention given to some species such as
Amburana cearensis (due to its medicinal value) show a consciously protection by the
community.
In relation to the vegetation types in Ceará State, preliminary results of the selection of
native species for evaluation show that most native species present in Caatinga are colonized
by AMF. In the other adjacent natural ecosystems (dry forest and Carrasco), most plant
species also presented symbioses with AMF. Moreover, the rhizosphere of plants presented
AMF spores of different families, which have different life strategies.
We recommend Cordia oncocalyx, Bauhinia acuruana and Croton blanchetianus as good

soil protectors because they have more standing biomass along most of the year, they are
broad-leaved and highly colonized by AMF. Aspidosperma discolor, Zanthoxylum
stelligerum, and Piptadenia moniliformis do not presented AMF colonization (in the dry
period) but might be important in formation of soil organic matter or N fixation (in legumes).
The cutting of plants for wood and charcoal production is a frequent practice in the
largest formation of the semi-arid region of Brazil. Annually, millions of hectares of native
vegetation in dry forests are cut for wood and charcoal production and extensive cattle raising
(Figueirôa et al. 2005). Figueirôa et al. (2006) studied the capacity of cut trees to regenerate
in the management of Caatinga (Pernambuco State) exposed to different types of cutting. In
the wet and dry seasons different types of cutting (coppiced, pollarded or crown-thinned) did
not affect strongly the survival of the trees, but did influence their capacity for sprouting.
They remark that coppicing in the rainy season was the least recommendable treatment for
managing Mimosa since it resulted in relatively high mortality, and that management plans
for the caatinga should consider these observations.
Most studies disregard soil biological properties such as soil microflora, mycorrhizal
ocurrence and interactions between plants, fungi, and the environment, in spite of the fact that
in sandy soils, with little clay, soil aggregation (and thus, soil fertility) is almost entirely
dependent on biological processes (Brady and Weil 2004). Differences in the symbiotic
interactions in plant species can indicate the importance of this factor for future revegetation
plans. The choice of tree species for restoration purposes would have great implication in the
conservation of AMF species, due to the fact that highly dependent tree hosts should be
selected over mycorrhizal- independent hosts.
We have attempted to highlight the importance of floristic surveys as well as the study of
nutrient conservation strategies in order to improve the conservation of this biome. Moreover,
a functional approach to establish functional groups dominating the different successional
stages which will allow the development of models based on functional groups instead of
species; and rate of change of the communities, which will allow to a better understanding of
their dynamics (Quesada et al. 2009) is required.
Our review also indicates the necessity of studies that consider the ecological processes
and the use of natural resources by people together, as well as the need to increase
agroforestry in NR.
In conclusion, there is an urgent need for a continual and integrated study of the semiarid
ecosystems, the potential for regeneration in habitats subjected to disturbance, and,
consequently, the wise management of ecosystem goods and services, which can prevent a
deepening of poverty.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Dr Marcela Pagano is grateful to Council for the Development of Higher Education at
Graduate Level, Brazil (CAPES), Process PRODOC 2125/2008, for Post-doctoral scholarship
granted. The authors thank CAPES for the financial support to projects and grants.
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Sampaio, EVSB. Overview of the Brazilian caatinga. In: SH; Bullock, HA; Mooney, E.
Medina, editors, Seasonally Tropical Dry Forests. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, 1995.
Sloan, SA; Zimmerman, JK; Sabat, AM. Phenology of Plumeria alba and its herbivores in a
tropical dry forest Biotropica, 2007, 39, 195-201.
Smith, SE; Read, DJ. Mycorrhizal Symbiosis. New York: Elsevier, 2008.
Tabarelli, M; Silva, JMC. Áreas e ações prioritárias para a conservação da biodiversidade da
Caatinga In: IR; Leal, M; Tabarelli, JMC. Silva, editors. Ecologia e Conservação da
Caatinga. Recife: Ed. Universitária da UFPE, 2003, 777-796 (in Portuguese).
Tiessen, H; Salcedo, IH; Sampaio, EVSB. Nutrient and soil organic matter dynamics under
shifting cultivation in semi-arid North-Eastern Brazil. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ, 1992,
39, 139-151..
Vasconcelos, SF; Araujo, FS; Lopes, AV. Phenology and dispersal modes of wood species in the
Carrasco, a tropical deciduous shrubland in the Brazilian semiarid. Biodivers Conserv,
2010, 19, 2263–2289.
Wang, B; Qiu, YL. Phylogenetic distribution and evolution of mycorrhizas in land plants.
Mycorrhiza, 2006, 16, 299-363.
Weber, OB; Souza, CCM; Gondin, DMF; Oliveira, FNS; Crisóstomo, LA; Caproni, AL;
Saggin Júnior, O. Inoculation of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and phosphate
fertilization on dwarf cashew seedlings. Pesq. Agropec. Bras., 2004, 39, 5, 477-483.
Zangaro, W; Nisizaki, SMA; Domingos, JCB; Nakano, EM. Mycorrhizal response and
sucessional status in 80 woody species from south Brazil. J. Trop. Ecol., 2003, 19, 315-
324.
Chapter 6
SMALL HILL DAMS’ PRACTICE IN

TUNISIA: DESIGN AND PLANNING
Slaheddine Khlifi*
Département Aménagement & Environnement, Ecole Supérieurs des Ingénieure de
l‟Equipement Rural (ESIER) Medjez el Bab, Medjez el Bab, Tunisia
ABSTRACT
This paper describes the guidelines used to design the small hill dams, one of the
most used soil and water conservation practices in Tunisia during the last three decades.
Recently, the implementation of these hydraulics structures, which are gaining more
importance as water harvesting technique, is increasing. It synthesise the knowledge on
small reservoirs and the methodologies adopted by the Tunisian technical service of the
Ministry of Agriculture and Hydraulic Resources for their design such watershed
parameters, runoff volume, peak discharge, sedimentation and silting up. The reservoirs
characteristics and dimensioning such as storage capacity, dead storage, spillway,
freeboard and seepage were also examined considering the designing of the previous
structures.
Keywords: small reservoir, design, guidelines, water harvesting, storage capacity
I. INTRODUCTION
Tunisia has started a large program to mobilize surface runoff volume to sustain the
economic development plan since the mid-eighties; the realization rate was emphasized
during the early nineties of the last century. To support this plan, the Ministry of Agriculture
and Hydraulic Resources (MAHR) has gotten down to development of water resources.
During the seventies and eighties, the policy was focussed to implement large dams for water
supply necessary for both irrigation in plain landscape and for drinking water. The rapid
*
Corresponding author: Email: slaheddinekhlifi@yahoo.fr or skhlifi@iresa.agrinet.tn
116 Slaheddine Khlifi
silting up of large dam reservoir guided the MARH to adopt soil and water conservation
practices to prevent this dam dilemma. Therefore, the national program of soil and water
conservation was adopted: management of steeply landscape, conservative cropping
practices, waterway management and agro-forestry (D/CES, 1993). The small hill dams are
considered as the productive and conservative component of this program (DG/ACTA, 2006).
In fact, various objectives are assigned to these hydraulic structures: irrigation of small plots
around the reservoir, artificial recharge of aquifer, cattle watering, domestic use of water, and
preventing the sedimentation of the large dams in the downstream side and flood control.
With more than eight hundred of small hill dams implemented throughout the country,
their design and component‟s characteristic are not standardized and some structures can be
considered not fitting in regard to watershed features. Some reservoirs had avoidable
dimension and consequently unnecessary investment in regard to the required storage or
limited characteristics and than hazardous security (McMahon et al., 2007a & b). Considering
the characteristics of the implemented small hill dams in Tunisia and the regional hydrology,
the purpose of this chapter is to provide technical criteria and guidance for the planning and
design of earthen small hill dams, largely used in Tunisia.
II. OPPORTUNITY OF SMALL HILL DAMS

IN MOUNTAINOUS LANDSCAPES
Dam reservoirs, representing large investments and providing multiple benefits such as
increasing water supplies for irrigation or municipal uses, hydropower production and flood
control, are considered the main tool by which water resources are managed (Brooks et al.,
2003). Large dams, for irrigation and intensification cropping, are accomplished in the plain
landscape. Their implementation can cause significant environmental impacts such as land-
use in both upstream and downstream areas, changes in flow and aquifers in the downstream
side, inhabitants often relocated and lost of productive land due to reservoir area (Schwab et
al., 1996). In the steeply landscape characterized by soil with reduced fertility, high erosion
rates, poor farmers and enclaved areas, these large structures are not suitable as water
management system; so therefore, water requirement for crops during seasonal draught
incited the agricultural services to develop appropriate small water storage, so-called “hill
lakes” which do not have significant environmental impacts. Since the International
Commission on Large Dams (ICOLD) defines a large dam as a dam with a height of 15 m or
more from the foundation or those having height between 5 m and 15 m and a storage
capacity of more than 3×106 m3 (Jeon et al., 2008), small hill dams are earthen ones which
can be defined as artificial reservoirs, in undulating or steeply landscapes, for collecting and
storing runoff (Sawunyama et al., 2006). This resource can be used for irrigation of small-
scale area of subsistence farming, supplemental irrigation, watering livestock, artificial
aquifer recharge, local protection against floods or storms, preserving downstream hydraulic
structures against silting up, erosion control and water local domestic use (Sur et al., 1999).
The components of these structures are earthen dike, reservoir for runoff short-term or
annual storage, uncontrolled spillway for controlling upstream water level and releasing
excess flood runoff flow, stilling basin or apron located at the end of the spillway channel to
dissipate energy and to reduce flow velocity and drop inlet and pipe across dike for water
Small Hill Dam Practice in Tunisia: Design and Planning 117
release (Figure 1 & Figure 2). These small hill dams can store water both behind the dam as
well as in the excavated portion of the reservoir where earth fill is obtained for its
construction, increasing its storage capacity. Small hill dams, compared to large dams, are
characterized by reduced storage capacity and height and their low peak discharges indicate
that small hill dams do not have significant negative impacts on human activities or property
values. In Tunisian environment, these water harvesting structures have a storage capacity of
100,000 m3 in average and total height less then 15 m and are designed for peak discharge
flow not exceeding 50 m3.s-1. The reservoir area, corresponding to top level, is ranging from
0.5 ha to 6 ha. Their storage capacity varies from 20,000 m3 to 2,200,000 m3.
Uperstream
Reservoir
Drop inlet
Catchment area boundaries
Compacted impervious fill
Spillway weir
Cres
t len
gth
Outlet pipe (across earthen dike)
Stilling basin Spillway channel
Downstream
1A
Surface runoff
Crest width
Surcharge (top level) Dam crest
Compacted imprevious fill

Full supply level
Remaining
storage Spillway channel
Stilling basin
Equivalent dead storage capacity
(sedimentation deposits)
Drop inlet Key trench Outlet pipe for water release
1B
Figure 1. Components of small hill dam; 1A: plan view and 1B: elevation view.
Spillway
Earthern imprevious fill
Drop inlet
Reservoir
Figure 2. Reservoir, earthen fill, spillway and drop inlet of Mdarim hill dam, during December 2007
(northern Tunisia).
III. GUIDELINES FOR DESIGN OF SMALL HILL DAMS AND PLANNING

During the feasibility studies, the preliminary site selection will be dependent on the
project purposes. The feasibility study might establish the most suitable and economical
location as well as the type of the structure. The basic requirements for water storage include
hydrologic characteristics such as watershed area, rainfall and runoff, peak discharge, silting
up rate and salinity, topographic, foundation and geology criteria and identification of the
objectives of the structure (socio-economic aspects). In fact, the structure could be located
where water is needed and at affordable investment.
III.1. Topographic Survey
Topographical features such as slope, width and height of dam, as well as reservoir
capacity will influence construction costs. The topographic survey leads to minimise the
earthen volume versus maximum storage capacity, optimizing thus the height of the dam. On
the basis of the topographic survey, various storage capacities might be estimated for different
dam height in order to achieve optimal reservoir capacity. The MARH suggests that ground
slope of the storage area might range between 3%, to avoid water loose by evaporation, and
8%, to have a reasonable structure height. It is essential that the dam and the reservoir must
have sufficient depth and volume to store water for drought and avoid the resource loose by
Storage capacity
evaporation. The ratio Earthen volume should exceed 5 and 3 for the structure assigned to
irrigation and aquifer artifial recharge respectively. Earthen dams are suggested for the large
valleys (Degoutte, 1997) and Roller Compacted Concrete (RCC) structures are suitable for
narrow canyon profile on sound bedrock close to the surface (US Army, 1995).
Table 1. Several empirical formulas used for estimating

runoff for watersheds of the small hill dams in Tunisia.
Designation Formula Parameters

3 R: annual runoff (m.yr-1), P: annual precipitation
Tixéront R P
3 E ² (m.yr-1) and E: evaporation (m.yr-1)
R
P  0.2  S 2
where
R: direct runoff from the rainfall P (mm); P:
total rainfall (mm); S: watershed storage factor,
SCS P  0.8  S determined by curve number (CN) depending on
1000 soil hydrologic group(1), antecedent moisture(2)
CN 
10  S and landuse (mm)
where
 2
Algerian R  P 110  K  P 

R: annual runoff (m.yr-1), P: annual precipitation
 
  (m.yr-1) and A: watershed area (km²)
K  0.18  0.01 log A
R: annual runoff (mm.yr-1), P: annual
Samie 
R  P 2  293  2.2  A  precipitation (m.yr-1) and A: watershed area
(km²)
Montmarin 
R  P  0.125  0.001  A  R: annual runoff (m.yr-1), P: annual precipitation
(m.yr-1) and A: watershed area (km²)
R: annual runoff (mm.yr-1), P: annual
Fersi R 16.39 P  I g precipitation (m.yr-1) and Ig: global slope index
(m.km-1)
R: annual runoff (mm.yr-1) and P: annual
Coutagne R  0.736  P  404
precipitation (mm.yr-1)
(1)
: soil hydrologic groups are as follows:
A: high infiltration rates, usually deep, well drained sands and gravels with little silt and clay;
B: moderate infiltration rates, fine to moderate texture (sandy loams to silty loams), well
structured;
C: below average infiltration rates, fine to moderate texture (clay loams), shallow soil;
D: very slow infiltration rates, clay soils with hardpan near the surface.
(2)
: the antecedent moisture conditions (AMC) are considered depending on the amount of rainfall
received 5 days before the rainfall of interest:
Dry: humidity less than 15 mm
Near field capacity: humidity ranging from 15 mm to 40 mm
Near saturation: humidity more than 40 mm
III.2. Hydrologic Estimations
The dam must have the potential to harvest a sufficient runoff (most years) and store
sufficient water between runoff events that fill the reservoir through extended periods of
summer drought. The water availability and the structure safety against high peak discharge
and sedimentation rate are determined by the hydrologic characteristics of the watershed. The
watershed is delineated on the basis of the available map and aerial photographs; area,
perimeter and Gravelius compactness coefficient of the watershed as well as its hypsometric
characteristics are determined. The commonly used method for stream network classification,
releasing runoff and sediments at the watershed downstream, is that of Horton (1945).
Precipitations should exceed 250 mm.yr-1 and the required watershed area must be less than
250 ha in Medjerda basin and Northern Tunisia, 400 ha in the northern side of Tunisian
Dorsal and 1,000 ha in the remainder of the country. These thresholds are established in order
to produce sufficient runoff which might be more than 50,000 m3.yr-1 when the objective of
the structure is irrigation, but not so large as to produce rapid sedimentation of the reservoir
or to create erosion and scour in the spillway.
The sites, where these hydraulic structures would be implemented, are corresponding to
small watersheds which were not previously monitored and often hydrologic data were not
available. In fact, small hill dams were generally implemented in mountainous areas where
rainfall gauges might be located in their vicinity but watersheds are ungauged for measuring
runoff: imprecise hydrologic approximations for runoff volumes, sediments delivery and peak
discharge flows. The need for hydrologic data for the ungauged watersheds has led to
development of models and empirical formulas to relate hydrologic characteristic to
measurable watershed features. The runoff volume, due to unavailable watershed monitoring,
is estimated using one or more of the empiric formulas (Table 1). These formulas used
rainfall and other physical data from the watershed to derive monthly and annual runoff
values (Linsley, 1967). They relate runoff to the precipitation, the evaporation, the watershed
area and some hypsometric characteristics.
The time concentration, defined as the time required for the entire watershed to contribute
to the runoff at the outlet or the time it takes for water to travel from the most distant
hydrological point to reach the outlet, can be estimated by empirical formulas (Table 2). It is
used for estimating peak discharge predicted when using rational method and for storm
volume and hydrograph (Table 3). These hydrologic characteristics are estimated for 50 yr
and 100 years return period storm for determining spillway height and freeboard, vertical
distance between the Full Supply Level (FSL) the so-called normal level, of the surface in the
reservoir and the top or crest of the structure, functioning as supplemental flood control
storage.
Table 2. Most used empirical formulas for estimating

concentration time tc of the watersheds.

tc: (hr); A: watershed area (km²); Lt: distance from the
4  A  1.5  L main stream outlet to the most distant ridgetop (km) and
Giondotti t  t
h: difference in elevation between main stream outlet
c 0.8  h and the most height altitude (m)
tc: (hr); L: distance from the main stream outlet to the
L1.155 most distant ridgetop (km) and D: difference in
Kirpich t  0.945 
c elevation between main stream outlet and the most
D 0.385 height altitude (m)
3
L A tc: (mn); A: watershed area (km²) and L: distance from
Passini t  64.8  the main stream outlet to the most distant ridgetop (km)
c L
tc: (hr); A: watershed area (km²); L: distance from the
3
L A
Turrazza t  0.1058  main stream outlet to the most distant ridgetop (km) and
c I I: watershed slope (m.m-1)
A tc: (mn); A: watershed area (km²) and I: watershed slope
Ventura t  76.3  (%)
c I
Table 3. Estimated peak stream flow Q (m3.s-1) at

the outlet of watershed using empirical formulas.
Designation Formula Parameters and application region

Htc(F): Total rainfall of a storm with
duration at least equal to the time of
concentration of the watershed (mm)
H tc ( F )  A and T return period; A: watershed
Rational Q  C
3.6  tc area (km²); C: runoff constant of the
storm ranging from 0.1 to 0.9 and tc:
time of concentration of the
watershed (hr)
h: difference in elevation between
 h  main stream outlet and the medium
 P  height (m); Kc: compactness
Qmax ( average)  A 0.8  1.075   0.232 
Lt
  coefficient; Lt distance from the main
Kc
  stream outlet to the most distant
  ridgetop (km); P: annual rainfall (m)
P and A: watershed area (km²); RT,Q:
K c  0.282  regional parameter; T: return period
A
Ghorbel QT  RQ ,T  Qmax ( average ) (yr); QT: Peak discharge at return
period T (m3.yr-1)
R 1.33logT  0.46 For North and Mejerdah catchment
T ,Q where T: return period (yr)
Tunisian Dorsal (northern and
R 1.07 T 0.41 0.71 southern sides) where T: return period
T ,Q
(yr)
R  1.47  T 0.4  1.35 Remainder of the country where T:
T,Q return period (yr)
For North and Medjerdah catchment
Q  5.5  A  T 0.41 where A: watershed area (km²) and T:
T
return period (yr)
Kallel For remainder of the country
(Tunisian Dorsal and Steppes) where
Q  2.6  A0.3  A  T 0.41
T A: watershed area (km²) and T: return
period (yr)
The quantity of sediments trapped in the hill dam reservoir affects its life and depends
upon local and upstream erosion, occurring as surface erosion, gully erosion or stream
channel erosion. Tixeront formula, Fersi formula, Frigui Formula, FAO method and Modified
Universal Soil Loss Equation (MUSLE) are the most used to estimate sediment yield and then
the silting up of the hill dam reservoir (Table 4).
III.3. Geologic Criteria
Site water-tightness, material strength and deformation are performed by geologic

investigation and geotechnical analyses of the future reservoir area as well as where the dam
will be implemented. The risks for landslides, avalanches and creeps in reservoir area or
vicinity are considered redhibitory conditions invalidating the site. The excavation needed to
achieve the adequate foundation its depth and location, where earth fill will be obtained for
the dam construction, are determined; the earth fill must be suitable for both compaction and
the prevention of seepage losses through the dam. The excavation depth must be determined
for the key trench. The possible location of the spillway, that will effectively handle runoff
and minimize erosion, must be checked across an adjacent ridge of the dam; steep slopes
along the spillway channel should be avoided to reduce erosion risk as well as crumbly
materials since the most convenient spillway should be excavated in highly resistant substrate
having an adequate resistance to erosion.
III.4. Socio-Economic Considerations
The site of the small hill dam must be as near to the point of water use as possible to
avoid pumping costs. If the structure objective is artificial recharge of the groundwater table,
which must be characterized, the site should be associated with soils that have high
infiltration capacities in the reservoir area or nearly in downstream side where recharge
occurs by water release in the wadi. When the objective of the small hill dam is irrigation, the
area, the applied crops and their water requirements must be estimated. If its objective is
protection such as large dam against silting-up, infrastructure, cropped field, inhabitants,… it
should be identified what the small hill dam is designed to protect.
Table 4. Expected sediment amounts in the

small hill dams estimated by empiric formulas.

: constant depending on soil permeability, 8.5
rapid, 75 moderate to rapid, 350 slow to
Tixéront E    R 0.15 moderate, 1400 slow and 3200 impermeable; R:
s
runoff (mm.yr-1) and Es: specific erosion
(t.km2.yr-1)
R: runoff (mm.yr-1) and Es: specific erosion
Fersi E  1.14  R 1.25
s (t.km2.yr-1)
Es: specific erosion (t.km-2.yr-1); A: watershed
Frigui E  848  R 0.89  A  0.26
s area (km²); R: runoff (m.yr-1)
E  C  S T  H Es: specific erosion (t.ha-1.yr-1); C: climatic
s 12
 Pi
2 factor; Pi: monthly rainfall (mm); S: soil
FAO C 1 erodibility factor depending upon texture and
12
parent material; T: topographic gradient factor
 Pi
1 and H: landuse factor
Es: specific erosion (t.ha-1.yr-1); α, β: constants;
Qmax: peak discharge of storm (m3.s-1); V:
volume of storm runoff (m3); K: soil erodibility
MUSLE E    Q V   K  L  S  C  P
s max factor; L: slope length factor; S: slope gradient
factor; C: cropping management factor and P:
erosion protection practice factor
IV. RESERVOIR DESIGN AND CHARACTERISTICS

IV.1. Dam Capacity
The designed storage capacity of dam depends upon stream flow and runoff, evaporation,
water uses, seasonal or annual distribution of water use and reservoir sedimentation (Wurbs
and Bergman, 1990). The reservoir must store enough water for seasonal water use and have
good storage characteristics to prevent excessive evaporation losses. The levels of storage
capacity is the capacity of the smallest reservoir that would just accommodate the water need
requirement as sequence of net inflows, without spilling or failing, to deliver the specified
outflow (Lloyed, 1993). The active reservoir or storage capacity is defined as the difference
between total storage capacity at FSL and dead storage as the volume of water held below the
lowest off-take (McMahon et al., 2007a). The existing methods used for assessing reservoir
capacity estimates include direct topographic surveys to assess volume and surface area of the
reservoir (Sawunyama et al., 2006). Topographic capacity optimization of the reservoir,
objective of the structure and water use requirements, its location, annual runoff and sediment
volumes as well as design life are used to determine the capacity at FSL, so-called normal
storage capacity, which corresponds to the level of the water surface when the water storage
is at maximum operating level and not affected by flood. The storage ratio (Mstorage) depends
up the coefficient of variation of the monthly or annual runoff volume (Srikanthan and
McMahon, 1985), reservoir management, historical inflow data and water requirement
Uuseful storage
(McMahon et al., 2007b). This ratio, used by the practitioners to
RV
determine the reservoir useful storage for the small hill dam in Tunisia, varies from 0.5 in the
North to 1.3 in southern side of Tunisian Dorsal due to hydrologic and precipitation
variability (Table 5). Tunisian landscape was arranged in five homogenous regions
considering annual precipitation, runoff ability and land use as shown in Figure 3 (Ghorbal,
1990).
The useful storage, known as active storage, depends on expected demands for water
considering the seasonal runoff volume or annual water supply [1]. Since reservoirs stop and
store a large portion of sediment (SCS, 1990), the dead storage for reservoir depends upon the
quantity of trapped sediment flowing into the site, as specific erosion in the watershed and
trap efficiency of the reservoir and the design life [2]. The storage capacity at FSL is
determined by the useful storage and dead storage [3].
Uuseful storage  M storage  RV [1]
Dead storage  Es  A  Designlife [2]
C FSL  Uuseful storage  Dead storage [3]
RV: annual runoff volume from the watershed (m3.yr-1) as R  R(m)  A(m²)
V
Mstorage: dimensionless storage ratio (Table 5)

Es: specific erosion to be trapped in the reservoir (m3.km-2.yr-1)
A: watershed area (km²)

Design life: The expected useful life for which a structure is designed (yr)
CFSL: capacity of the reservoir at Full Supply level (m3)
Table 5. Variation of the storage ratio of the small

hill dams in Tunisia upon hydrologic region.
Dorsal southern side, Dorsal Medjerda southern Medjerda

Region Far north
Steppes and Sahel northern side side and Cap Bon northern side
Ratio 1.3 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.5
Figure 3. Location of the nowadays implemented small hill dams in Tunisia.

IV.2. Earthen Compacted Fill
For stability and preventing erosion, the upstream slope of the earthen dam must be a
minimum of 2.5:1 (horizontal to vertical). The downstream slope requires a minimum 2:1
slope and might be seeded with native grasses to prevent surface erosion. The most used
slopes are 3:1, and not underneath 3.5:1, in both sides for the implemented small hill dams in
Tunisia. The crest width of the dam, around the third of the dam height, should be a minimum
of 3 m wide (preferably 4 m and not exceeding 5 m) to accommodate the movement of the
terracing engines during construction, to minimize the potential erosion and to provide safe
percolation gradient through the embankment at the level of a full reservoir (Mulholland,
1987).
The material used to build the dam, suitable for both compaction and prevention of
seepage losses through the dam, should be fine (20 < 2µm < 35) and homogenous
(85/15<2). It should be avoided to use porous material where 30% of grains have a diameter
more than 80 µm: 35 < 80 µm (Degoutte, 1997). The earthen fill must be an embankment of
inorganic, clay loam or silty-clay loam soil and located in the reservoir area to increase the
storage capacity of the structure. When good fill material is limited, it is placed in the core
section of dam and other materiel may be placed in the upstream and downstream sides. A
key trench (cut-off trench) is excavated below the base of the fill upstream of the centerline of
the fill (Figure 4). The key trench, or cut-off trench excavation, anchors the dam to the base
material locked to the subsoil foundation, prevents piping (seepage under the fill) and should
be at least 1m deep or attaining the specific geologic unit. It should extend the full length of
the dam and reach at least 4 m wide. The area corresponding to the base of the dam must be
stripped of organic soil as well as vegetation. The height of the dam is determined from
capacity at FSL plus an allowance for temporarily flood storage and a freeboard. Rip-rap,
combination of larger stones, and native grass are used respectively to prevent wave run-up in
the upstream side (Table 6) and surface erosion in the downstream side respectively (Figure
5). The dam crest might be protected by gravel layer to avoid negative effects due to
desiccation of the top earthen fill and engine transit on the dam.
Figure 4. Excavated key trench and compacted earthen fill of the small hill dam implementation
(Central Tunisia).
Table 6. Rip-rap width, average stone diameter and freeboard for protecting
respectively the embankment upstream side and overtopping upon dam height (H in m)
and storage capacity (V in ×106 m3).
H² V Wave height and Rip-rap width (m) Average stone

freeboard (m) diameter (m)
5 0.30 0.30 0.20
30 0.55 0.40 0.25
100 0.80 0.50 0.30
300 1.05 0.60 0.40
1,500 1.30 0.70 0.45
3,000 1.55 0.80 0.50
(From: Degoutte, 1997)
IV.3. Seepage Control
Seepage can occur through the embankment or in the foundation to hazard the structure
due to piping. In earthen fill dams, drainage of the infiltrated flows is of extreme importance
to prevent major damages in the established seepage flow net. The commonly used method to
reduce water pressure in the embankment is vertical granular sand filter, located in the
downstream side of the dam crest, and horizontal one, which is ended by drainage component
to collect and release the infiltrated flow, located in the downstream side of the trench key.
The recommended thickness of the filter ranges between 0.5 m and 1 m upon embankment
material (dam) and dam height. The filter material should be porous (F5 > 80µm and F15 >
100µm), uniform (2< F60/F10 <8) and different from the fill material (Degoutte, 1997).
IV.4. Flood Spillway Design
The flood spillway is one of the most main components of the dam to bypass safely
floods exceeding the temporary storage capacity in the reservoir; since an under-designed
spillway will result in the dam overtopping or serious erosion of the spillway channel during
peak runoff causing major water losses, potential flooding and damage downstream and
possible collapse of the dam (Brooks et al., 1996). In this context where expected peak
discharges are extremely approximate because being estimated only by using empiric
formulas, uncontrolled or free spillways are more suitable to release high amounts of water;
since inadequate spillway capacity are considered as the major cause of dam failure (Jeon et
al., 2008). A spillway is divided into the overtopping weir (with left wall and right wall)
located in an adjacent side of the compacted impervious fill, channel and stilling basin or
energy dissipation mechanism (Woodward, 1992) as shown in Figure 5. Steep slopes along
the spillway channel should be avoided to reduce the erosion risk. To prevent erosion and
dissipate energy in the spillway channel, there are several techniques to armor embankment
slopes, including paving, rip-rap gabions, pre-cast concrete slabs and roller compacted
concrete (André, 2004).
Earthern imprevious fill

Dam crest
Reservoir
Weir wall
(right side)
Spillway weir
Spillway
channel
Figure 5. Weir and channel of the spillway of Maiza small hill dam (Northern Tunisia).
The design capacity of the flood spillway should be on the peak discharge rate for 50-
year return period storm and by taking into account the temporary storage of the reservoir. A
return period of 100-year should be compared to the freeboard, especially where potential
damages in the downstream are high. The walls of the weir spillway, as well as weir crest, are
commonly gabion filled with rocks or rock-fill if the material is not highly resistant to
erosion; in some cases, they can be armored by concrete as thin layer. The spillway weir must
be designed on the assumption that the reservoir is to be at FSL at the start of the flood event,
or sequence of flood events. The reservoir level rises during flood events, depending upon
watershed hydrograph, and contributes to the determination of the overflow head (hd),
corresponding to the top level. The length of the weir spillway must be as large as possible to
avoid high depth of the flow, ranging from 15 m to 40 m and if possible as large as same the
original stream width. The depth of the flow is the difference between the top level in the
reservoir and the FSL, using the formulae for non-submerged broad-crest weir [4].
Q  C  Ld 2  g  hd 2
3
[4]
Q: peak discharge of the design flow (m3.s-1)

C: coefficient of the spillway weir depending upon convergence
Ld: effective length of the weir spillway (m)
hd: depth of the flow above the weir spillway depending upon in the storage of the
reservoir (m)
The spillway channel should be designed with a wide base and a gentle longitudinal
gradient as possible, to avoid erosion, using Manning formula [5] to be solved by trial-and-
error procedure. If the cut-off is not resistant enough to erosion, the walls of the spillway
channel are made with gabion filled with rocks. With trapezoidal shape, side slopes of the
channel spillway should be no high than 2:1 and 4:1 slopes are preferred. The critical flow
height (hc) should be estimated, for the peak discharge, and the depth in the channel spillway
might be higher than hc to avoid starting erosion since the shear velocity increase [6].
1 2
Q   S w  Rh 3 s
n [5]
Q2
hc  3
g  L2c [6]
Q: channel discharge (m3.s-1)

hc: critical depth in the spillway channel (m)
Sw: wet cross-sectional area of the channel (m²)
n: roughness coefficient, ranging from 0.025 to 0.050 depending upon material of the
spillway channel
Rh: hydraulic radius of the channel (m)
Lc: width of the spillway channel (m)
s: gradient of the channel (m.m-1)
Wide forms of energy dissipation mechanisms are used in practice such as simple aprons,
stilling basins, straight drops, impact basins and plunge pools to avoid scour risk due to high
velocities at the end of the spillway channel (Tabbara et al., 2005) and residual energy at the
toe of the chute (André, 2004). The basin length depends upon the remaining hydraulic head,
especially when gabion unit is implemented in the spillway channel.
IV.5. Freeboard
The freeboard is the depth from the bottom of the spillway to the top of the dam. It
should be provided above the maximum flood levels for wind set-up and wave run-up and is
considered as a significant component to prevent overtopping of the dam. The freeboard, at
least 0.30 m, depends upon the magnitude and direction of winds and the effective fetch for
generated wind waves, the depth of the storage capacity of the dam and the duration of
headwater of the high flood levels with strong winds near the crest of the dam (Table 6).
IV.6. Drop Inlet and Outlet Pipe
The drop inlet and outlet pipe are located respectively in the reservoir and through the
dam and are used to release water for various uses. It will carry a small flow and prevents
long-term saturation conditions for the flood spillway (Figure 6). It can be used also to
evacuate sediments around the drop inlet, and avoids thus the reduction of the storage
capacity of the reservoir. The most used material in small hill dams are concrete pipes with a
diameter ranging from 250 mm to 500 mm.
Figure 6. Preventing long-term saturation conditions for the flood spillway by water release from outlet
pipe (Northern Tunisia).
5. CONCLUSION
The estimation of hydrologic parameters used in the planning and design of small hill
dams is performed by using a variety of empirical formulas due to monitoring deficiency of
the watershed where these structures should be expected to be implemented. The design of
these small hill dams might take into account this hydrologic uncertainty. The methodology
recommended by the MAHR was described and analyzed in regard to this particular
hydrologic environement. The instructions and the steps necessary to design and plan the
small hill dams were explained to meet the required storage capacity, the characteristics of the
compacted impervious fill as well as the spillway design.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author would like to thank Mr. H. Farahat from DG/ACTA (MAHR) for the data
basis of small hill dams monitoring throughout the country. I‟m also grateful to Mr. M.N.
Ben Haha (DG/ACTA, MAHR) for his helpful suggestions and comments of the
manuscript and for the dam photographs as well as Mr. M. Menjli from CNEA
(MAHR).
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Boufaroua M., Lamachère J. M., Débabria A. & Ksibi F. (2006). Prédétermination de
l‟envasement des lacs collinaires de la Dorsale tunisienne. 14th International Soil
Conservation Organization Conference. Water Management and Soil Conservation in
Semi Arid Environments. Marrakech, Morocco 4.
Brooks, K. N., Ffolliott, P. F., Gregersen, H. M. & DeBano, L. F. (2003). Hydrology and the
management of watersheds. Blackwell Publishing 3rd edition, Iowa 573.
Degoutte, G. (1997). Petits barrages, recommandations pour la conception, la réalisation et le
suivi. Première édition. Cemagref et Engref. Paris. 173.
DG/ACTA (Direction Générale de l‟Aménagement et de la Conservation des Terres

Agricoles). 2008. Suivi de la réalisation et de l’exploitation des lacs collinaires. Note
du MARHP 6.
D/CES (Direction de la Conservation des Eaux et du Sol), 1993. Stratégie nationale de la
Conservation des Eaux et du Sol (1990-2000). Copie revue et modifiée. Note de la
Direction de la CES-Ministère de l’Agriculture, 53.
Ghorbel, A. (1990). Guide pratique des calculs hydrologiques. Note de la DG/RE - Ministère
de l’Agriculture, 60.
Horton, R. E. (1945). Erosional development of streams and their drainage basins:
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Jeon, J., Lee, J., Shin, D. & Park, H. (2008). Development of dam safety management system.
Advances in Engineering Software, 40, 554-563.
Linsley, R. K. (1967). The relation between rainfall and runoff: a review paper. Journal of
Hydrology, 5, 297-311.
Lloyed, E. H. (1993). The stochastic reservoir: exact and approximate evaluations of the
storage distribution. Journal of Hydrology, 151, 65-107.
McMahon, T. A., Pegram, G. G. S., Vogel, R. M. & Peel, M. C. (2007a). Revisiting reservoir
storage–yield relationships using a global streamflow database. Advances in Water
Resources, 30, 1858-1872.
McMahon, T. A., Pegram, G. G. S., Vogel, R. M. & Peel, M. C. (2007b). Review of Gould–
Dincer reservoir storage–yield–reliability estimates. Advances in Water Resources, 30,
1873-1882.
Mulholland, W. M. (1987). General guidelines for the design of small homogeneous earthfill
dams. Waikato Valley Authority Technical report, 1987/24, 17.
Sawunyama, T., Senzanje, A., A. & Mhizha, A. (2006). Estimation of small reservoir storage
capacities in Limpopo River Basin using geographical information systems (GIS) and
remotely sensed surface areas: Case of Mzingwane catchment. Physics and Chemistry
of the Earth, 31, 935-943.
Schwab, G. O., Fangmeir, D. D. & Elliot, W. J. (1996). Soil and water management systems.
4th edition John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York, USA 371.
SCS (US department of Agriculture). (1990). Earth dams and reservoirs. Technical release
N° 60 210-VI. 66.
Srikanthan, R. & McMahon, T. A. (1985). Gould‟s probability matrix method: 1. The starting
month problem. Journal of Hydrology, 77, 125-133.
Sur, H. S., Bhardwaj, A. & Jindal, P. K. (1999). Some hydrological parameters for the design
and operation of small earthen dams in lower Shiwaliks of northern India. Agricultural
Water Management, 42, 111-121.
Tabbara, M., Chatila, J. & Awwed, R. (2005). Computational simulation of flow over stepped
spillways. Computers and Structures, 83, 2215-2224.
US Army Corps of Engineers. (1995). Gravity dam design: Engineering and design. Report
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Woodward, R. C. (1992). The geology of dam spillway. Engineering Geology, 32, 243-254.
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estimates. Journal of Hydrology, 112, 219-235.
Chapter 7
INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON DAMAGES TO

FRUIT TREES PRODUCED BY FROST TEMPERATURES
AT SPANISH SEMI-ARID REGION OF MURCIA
A. Saa Requejo1, R. García Moreno2, M.C. Díaz Álvarez1,

F. Burgaz Moreno3 and A.M. Tarquis1
1
CEIGRAM (Centre for Studies and Research on Agricultural and Environmental
Risk Management). School of Agricultural Engineering, Polytechnic
University of Madrid. Ciudad Universitaria s.n. MADRID 28040, SPAIN
2
Departamento de Ciencias da Navegación e da Terra. Facultad de Ciencias.
Universidade da Coruña, 15001 Zapateira, A CORUÑA, SPAIN
3
ENESA (National Agricultural Insurance Entity), Ministry of the Natural,
Rural and Marine Environments. C/Miguel Ángel, 23 - 5ª planta,
28010 Madrid, SPAIN
ABSTRACT
Climate, often the most critical element in the sustainability of agricultural systems,
is a compendium of many factors. One of such factors is the freezing temperature. These
decreases of temperatures in spring, in semiarid regions, shorten the growing season and
may lower the yield and quality of fruit crops.
Furthermore, in Spanish semiarid regions, the values of the minimum temperatures
have increased in the past few years, mainly at the Mediterranean region. In this context
authors have studied the recorded minimum temperatures for the region of Murcia in the
context of the impact of the number of frost days in March 2004 on fruit production.
Analyzing series of temperatures since 1935, authors found that the range of the
absolute minimum temperatures (Tmin), -0.5 ºC to -4.0ºC, where frost events were the
most intensive in the target year, was statistically similar to the range recorded in 1993.
While mean minimum temperatures (tmin) have risen during the last studied years. In
fact, the mean minimum temperature through 1985 ranged from 4.0 to -2.0 ºC, depending
132 A. Saa Requejo, R. García Moreno, M.C. Díaz Álvarez et al.
on the sub-regional area, while in more recent years the range shifted upward, to 7.0 to
0.5 ºC, for an increase of around 3 ºC.
Such increases in temperature, which could induce a more sensitive phenological
stage in fruit trees, might explain fruit producers‟ perception of exceptional frost damage
in 2004, when the minimum temperatures were not exceptionally low.
1. INTRODUCTION
Climate, often the most critical factor for the sustainability of agricultural systems,
constitutes a complex set of variables that behave coherently and essentially in keeping with
the physics and dynamics of the earth‟s atmosphere (Sombroek and Gommes, 1996).
Linkosalo et al., 2006, established that one of the main parameters to study variations in
climate is temperature measurements because of their large spatial and temporal coverage
compared to other climatic observations. The basis of the reliability of such parameter is that
temperatures series have been recorded for more than two hundred years in some localities
and today there exist hundreds of long-term observation series available that have been
collected at single locations.
Schleip et al. (2008) analyzing rates of change and the relationship between temperature
changes and bud burst of Norway spruce, considering the 51-year period 1953–2003, found
coherence factors suggesting a relationship between temperature and phenological time series
in all studied cases.
Furthermore, low temperature is one of the chief limiting factors in plant distribution
(Fitter and Hay 1981; Sakai and Larcher 1987). As a rule, plants from temperate climates are
not susceptible to chilling injury at temperatures above 0 °C and tend to show signs of
damage only when ice crystals are formed in their tissues (Levitt 1980; Fitter and Hay 1981).
Flower buds are one of the organs with the lowest freezing resistance (Larcher, 1995). In
laboratory experiments freezing injury in buds has been found to depend on the growth stage
and the intensity and duration of low temperatures (Strang et al. 1980; Bigras and Hebert
1996). In the field, however, the intensity and duration of low temperatures depend on height.
Moreover, differences found among individuals, even from same populations, may cause
damages in different growth stages. Consequently, in the field, frost survival or the ability of
a plant to withstand adverse weather conditions is a complex issue (Sakai and Larcher 1987).
According to Potter et al. (2001), since prolonged extreme weather conditions can
determine whether a particular tree species flourishes or perishes, the effects of such extremes
are of fundamental importance to forestry.
Frost damage is not frequent in Spain. The most severe problems are found in the citrus-
growing south-eastern part of the country, where although winters are very mild, sporadic
frost events may damage crops and trees even at relatively high freezing temperatures (-5 to -
8 ºC) due to the low resistance of the species involved. Table 1 gives the frost resistance for
several species. Frost damage is caused by freezing events in the months of March, April and
May, when the lowest temperature in this region is -5 ºC. While such temperatures would not
cause damage in the winter, buds may be injured if they dip that low during the burst period
(Table 1). Flower buds, and in particular the female reproductive organs, are the most
sensitive to frost. When they are subjected to internal temperatures of -1 to -2 ºC for thirty
minutes, the damage is irreversible (Gil-Albert Velarde, 1998).
Influence of Climate Change on Damages to Fruit Trees Produced … 133
Table 1. Temperatures at which fruit tree organs suffer frost damage

(in degrees Celsius) (from Fernández Escobar, 1996).
Tree species Affected organs

Fruit Leaf Bud Bark and branch Tree
Apricot - - -11 to -15 -26 <-26
Almond - - <-11 -29 <-29
Cherry - - -10 -29 to -34 <-34
Plum - - Variable -29 <-29
Lemon -2 -2 - -2 <-6
Mandarin -2 -2 - <-8 <-12
Apple -4 - - -34 <-34
Peach - - -1 to -17 -26 <-26
Orange -2 to -4 -2 - -6 to -8 <-11
Olive <0 -5 -5 -5 <-8
Pear -4 - -10 to -15 -20 to -29 <-29
Grape - - -7 -7 -15
While fruit resistance to freezing temperatures increases with size, temperatures of

between -2 and -4 ºC while the fruit is setting kill almost all species grown in temperate
climates (Gil-Albert Velarde, 1998).
Recent studies (Karl et al., 1984, 1991, 1993) have highlighted the increase in minimum
relative to maximum temperatures over much of the world's land surface. Most of the rise in
the global mean temperature over the last 40 years may possibly be attributed to that increase
(Karl et al., 1993).
Horton (1995) showed the mean minimum seasonal temperature anomaly for the years
1981-1990 (compared to 1951-1980). Generally speaking, minima increased consistently over
most of the areas covered by data, in every season of the year. Upward trends since 1951
were observed for all seasons. The geographic variations in minimum and maximum
temperatures followed the same patterns in the Northern Hemisphere from December to
August, although the minima tended to exhibit larger rises and smaller declines. In some
countries, maximum and minimum temperature anomalies may have begun as early as 1930.
For many countries, the rise in low with relative to high temperatures began in the 1970s. The
fact that such widespread change took place in so little time supports the claim that the
change is substantial. Nonetheless, the period of time studied is relatively short.
On the basis of this prior research, the present study aimed to clarify whether the frost
damage recorded in the Spanish region of Murcia in March 2004 was due to sporadic events
or reiterative adverse temperatures. This damage impacted fruit production very heavily, with
losses of up to 95%, mostly in citric species (La Tierra, 2005). The weather in Murcia is
largely Mediterranean. The summers are very hot with winters being short and mild. The
wettest seasons are spring and autumn. Murcia‟s main economic source is agriculture: Murcia
is an important producer of flowers, fruits and vegetables and for internal and European
consumption.
The study was financed by the National Agricultural Insurance Entity, which belongs to
the Spanish Ministry of the Natural, Rural and Marine Environments. This national body tried
to clarify whether the fruit damages were covered by the national system, in case of sporadic
event, or the damages were covered only in case of the insured crops, reiterative events.
The study was developed by the Centre for Studies and Research on Agricultural and
Environmental Risk Management. To that end, a number of analyses were conducted based
on monthly absolute and mean minimum temperatures recorded between 1935 and 2004 in
eighteen weather stations at different locations and altitudes within the production area
studied.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS

2.1. Location
Murcia is located on the Mediterranean coast in south-eastern Spain (Figure 1), which has
a sub-tropical climate. Its climatology is a result of latitude, between 37º40‟ and 38º N, and
altitude. Due to the region‟s location and topography, the Atlantic maritime influence is
remote and the Mediterranean climate clearly prevails, particularly in terms of temperature
and rainfall (Gil Ocina, 1995; Font Tullot, 1988).
Figure 1. Location of Murcia on the Iberian Peninsula (http://sig.mapa.es/geoportal/;

http://www.aemet.es/es/eltiempo/prediccion/provincias.) (scale: 1:8.000.000).
The region has two clearly defined seasons (summer and winter), separated by two
transition seasons (spring and fall). While frost damage temperatures are rare, they are more
intense and frequent from south to north. The warm period, from June to October, is
characterized by heat waves prompted by tropical Saharan air laden with fine dust. This is
also one of the regions in Spain where droughts are most severe and frequent (Gil Ocina,
1995; Font Tullot, 1988).
The daily mean temperature is not under 8 ºC, while the thermal amplitude is not greater
than 18 ºC. The yearly mean temperature is not warmer than 16 ºC, while effective insolation
comes to approximately three thousand hours per year (Gil Ocina, 1995; Font Tullot, 1988).
Murcia devotes 53% of its total land area of 1,137,783 hectares, or 605,956 hectares, to
farming. The region‟s wide variety of micro-climates, from coastal to mountain
Mediterranean, accommodate the cultivation of very different crops: cereals, pulses, industrial
cultivars, flowers, citric and non-citric fruit trees, grapes, olives and other crops. The freezing
temperatures for the different organs of these species are given in Table 1. Fruit farming and
more specifically citric fruit farming prevails. Moreover, Murcia is Spain‟s leading supplier
of certain insured crops: apricot (86,791 tons), peach (212,916 tons), plum (23,107 tons),
winter tomato (88,600 tons) and lettuce (87,400 tons) (ENESA, 2002).
2.2. Events Studied and Analysis of Existing Historical Temperature Series
The records on freezing temperatures were compared to the temperatures able to cause
damage and lower yields in the main fruit crops, as summarized in Table 1.
The minimum daily temperatures in Murcia‟s fruit producing area in the month of March
2004 were compared to the minimum temperatures in the historical series from 1935 to that
same year.
In the first stage of the study, the authors evaluated the different weather stations allowed
to study from the Spanish National Meteorological Institute‟s (Instituto Nacional de
Meteorología, INM) database.
Six of these stations were chosen on the grounds of location within the region,
differences in altitude and proximity to the main fruit producing areas. Altitude and regional
coverage were very important factors in obtaining a representative sample to evaluate
temperature (Table 2).
Four additional stations were chosen to cover the entire area and period studied. A total
of ten weather stations were selected for the study because of the continuity of the data in the
series and the location. All the weather stations are summarized with specific altitude in talbe
2. The location of selected weather stations in the geography of Murcia is represented in
Figure 2.
The first two meteorological stations were selected (see Table 2) because they are
positioned close to the most productive area, while all the others were chosen for their long,
uninterrupted and reliable temperature series.
The methodology deployed entailed analyzing the daily temperatures recorded in March
2004, in particular the minimum temperatures associated with frost events. The analysis
consisted in fitting the maximum yearly temperatures to the model most commonly used in
climatology, the Gumbel distribution (Beguería Portugués, 2002), primarily to compare inter-
annual series data.
Table 2. Weather stations and altitude above sea level.
Identification Code1 Name of the Station1 Altitude2(M)

7182 Murcia Alfonso X 57 M
7182b Murcia C H Segura 58
7178i Murcia 62
7228 Murcia/Alcantarilla 85
7152 Abaran – Cieza 180
7168 Embalse De La Cierva – Mula 395
7131 Cieza Los Almadenes 200
7145 Cieza C H Segura 188
7164 Molina De Segura 100
7164o Molina De Segura `La Hornera` 160
1
Spanish National Meteorological Institute designation
2
Above sea level
Figure 2. Location of weather stations in the region of Murcia included in the study (base map:
http://siam.imida.es:8080/apex/f?p=101:1:2605766286687742).
The Gumbel or extreme value distribution 1 (EV1) (Gumbel, 1958) is the model most
commonly used when maximum yearly values are available. In the present study the
maximum values were the minimum monthly temperatures recorded each year. The Gumbel
distribution with location parameter  and scale parameter  is a double exponential

distribution whose probability of occurrence function is as shown below:
 x 

e

  
 x 
 
f ( x)   e   
1 (1)

Where x may adopt any value in the range -∞ ≤ x ≤ ∞. The distribution function or
accumulated probability is:
 x 
 
  
F (x  X )  e e
(2)
The data recorded in March 2004 were analyzed for irregularity by comparison to the
mean and absolute minimum temperatures in the area between 1935 and 2004, inclusive.
When the data series were incomplete no value is given in the respective cell (-). The results
are discussed below.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

3.1. March 2004. Registered Freezing Temperatures
The daily minimum temperatures recorded in March 2004 at the weather stations selected
for the study were examined to determine the minimum temperatures during frost episodes.
Temperatures were compared to 0 ºC, because frost episodes were regarded to occur at
temperatures lower than freezing, and -5 ºC, the absolute minimum temperature recorded by
the Spanish National Meteorological Institute (INM) in this period.
Table 3. gives a summary of the minimum daily temperatures (Tn), days with minimum
daily temperatures of lower than -5 ºC (D-Tn-5), days with minimum daily temperatures
lower than 0 ºC (D-Tn0), and the first and last day when freezing temperatures were
recorded.
The weather stations with missing data, i.e., in which the temperature series were not
continuous through 2004, were not included in the table. These data were used to complete
data for the nearest weather stations. The lowest temperature was recorded on 3 March.
The minimum temperatures observed in the stations ranged from 1 to -4 ºC, as shown in
Table 3. This frost episode was recorded at all the stations except Murcia Alfonso X,
probably because its location is near the area of influence of the city of Murcia and protected.
Another weather station within Murcia city limits recorded a low temperature of -1.5 ºC. The
station nearest to Murcia Alfonso X, however, Alcantarilla, reported a minimum temperature
of -3 ºC (on 3 March only).
Table 3. Below zero temperatures and number of days recorded at weather stations
in the region of Murcia in March 2004 (Minimum daily temperature (Tn), days
with minimum daily temperatures lower than -5 ºC (D-Tn-5), days with
minimum daily temperatures lower than 0 ºC (D-Tn0), and the first (HelDini)
and last (HelDfin) day when freezing temperatures were recorded).
Code Weather Station Tn D-Tn-5 D-Tn0 Heldini Heldfin

7182 MURCIA ALFONSO X 1.0 0 0
7182B MURCIA C H SEGURA - - - - -
7178I MURCIA -1.5 0 2 2 3
7228 MURCIA/ALCANTARILLA -3.0 0 1 3
7168 EMBALSE DE LA CIERVA – Mula -0.5 0 2 2 3
7152 ABARAN – Cieza -0.5 0 1 3
7131 CIEZA LOS ALMADENES -4.0 0 1 2 4
7145 CIEZA C H SEGURA - - - - -
7164 MOLINA DE SEGURA - - - - -
7164O MOLINA DE SEGURA - LA HORNERA -1.0 0 2 2 3
In the north and north-eastern part of the region, in the Segura and Pliego River valleys,
temperatures were higher: -1 ºC at Molina de Segura, and -0.5 ºC at Mula and Abarán. While
the altitude at the Mula weather station, located at La Cierva Dam, was higher than any of the
other stations studied, the temperature recorded there was not the lowest.
North-east of La Cieza, however, temperatures dipped to -4 ºC at the Los Almadenes
Dam station.
Since the Cieza weather station‟s records prior to 2004 are not continuous, the results
could not be compared. Inasmuch as Mula station is much higher (395 m), the differences in
temperature observed must have been due to greater exposure at Cieza.
In all the cases studied, temperatures were higher than the -5.0 ºC recorded by the
Spanish National Meteorological Institute (INM).
Weather station records for the years between 1935 and 2004 were examined to place the
results on frost events in the period studied into context. The findings are summarized in the
following section.
Comparing freezing temperature records to possible declines in fruit production, further
to Table 1, at -5 ºC in most fruit trees (lemon, mandarin, orange, olive), the organs most
vulnerable to frost are fruit and leaves. In particular, lemon and olive buds, bark and the trees
would be adversely affected by temperatures of from -2 to -5 ºC.
3.2. Freezing Temperatures in the Month of March in the Region of Murcia

between 1935 and 2004
The frost days recorded in the region of Murcia in the month of march for years prior to
2004 are summarized in table 4. Data were only included when the historic series were
continuous. The frequencies of zero degree temperatures and of the minimum temperature
recorded in 2004 are shown, along with the duration of the frost event in days.
Table 4. Below zero temperatures and duration recorded (in days) at weather stations in
the region of Murcia in March, 1935-2004 (Years: duration of the series, in years prior
to 2004; Tn abs.: minimum value of temperature in the series; frequencies: observed
frequencies in % for 0 (f-Tn0) and for the minimum temperature (in parentheses) in
2004 (f-TnTn*) (“?” means the value was taken from the closest weather station);
days: maximum duration of the frost event, in days).
Duration
Code Weather Station Years Tn-Abs F-Tn0 F-TnTn*
(Days)
7182 Murcia Alfonso X 36 -0.3 3 10 (1) 1
7182b Murcia C H Segura 44 -0.1 2 17 (1) 1
7178i Murcia 20 -2.4 20 10 (-1.5) 3
7228 Murcia/Alcantarilla 63 -4.2 35 3 (-3) 10
7168 Embalse De La Cierva – Mula 71 -5.0 32 24 (-0.5) 11
7152 Abaran – Cieza 36 -2.0 22 14 (-0.5) 2
7131 Cieza Los Almadenes 37 -4.0 57 11 (-4) 14
7145 Cieza C H Segura 53 -6.0 62 2 (-4?) 12
7164 Molina De Segura - - - - -
7164o Molina De Segura La Hornera` 18 -2.0 22 17 (-1) 7
Table 4 reflects data for a really long historic series of temperatures. Note in this regard
that the Molina de Segura series, consisting of two stations, 7164 and 7164O, covered only 18
years.
The average minimum temperatures recorded in previous years were much lower than in
March 2004, except within the municipal district of the capital city itself, where the absolute
minimum temperatures were the highest. This apparent anomaly is due to the intensive urban
development taking place in the area in recent years.
The conclusion drawn from the temperature series is that the frequency of freezing
temperatures (at or below zero degrees) increased in March in the region, by from 20% on the
outskirts of the city of Murcia (and 2 or 3% in the inner city due to the existence of an urban
heat island) to 60% at Cieza.
The frequency of occurrence in prior years of temperatures lower than or equal to the
March 2004 frost episodes ranged from 10 to 24%, with the exception of Murcia Alcantarilla,
where the frequency was only 3%. According to these data, frost events in March were very
frequent (10%) in all the years for which records are available. Consequently, the analysis
was supplemented by fitting the frequencies to a Gumbel distribution used, as mentioned
above, to model extreme values. The results are given in Table 4.
3.3. Probability of Frost Events in March in Murcia
Table 5 gives the probability of occurrence of a given monthly minimum temperature

based on extreme value distribution modelling of minimum values.
Further to the figures in Table 5, frost episodes with minimum temperatures of -0.5 ºC
were found frequently in several weather stations. While in the coldest areas the likelihood of
temperatures of -3.0 ºC would be 10%, the frequency of temperatures of -4.0 ºC in these same
areas would drop to 7%.
Table 5. Probability of occurrence (adjusted frequencies) of monthly minimum

temperature (under 0, -0.5, -3, -4 ºC) recorded at weather stations in the region of
Murcia, 1935-2004 (Years: years prior to 2004 for which there are records; frequencies
with which the monthly minimum temperature dipped to below 0 ºC (f-Tn0), -0.5 ºC
(f-Tn-0.5), -3 ºC (f-Tn-3) and -4 ºC (f-Tn-4)).
Frequency (%)
Code Weather Station Years
F-Tn-0 F-Tn-.5 F-Tn-3 F-Tn-4
7182 Murcia Alfonso X 36 3.3 2.3 0.3 0.1
7182B Murcia C H Segura 44 3.2 1.7 0.0 0.0
7178I Murcia 20 9.8 8.2 3.8 2.9
7228 Murcia/Alcantarilla 63 30.1 23.2 4.8 2.3
7168 Embalse De La Cierva – Mula 71 23.4 19.2 6.1 3.5
7152 Abaran – Cieza 36 11.0 8.6 2.3 1.3
7131 Cieza Los Almadenes 37 44.9 37.7 12.4 7.1
7145 Cieza C H Segura 53 49.2 39.8 6.9 2.3
7164 Molina De Segura - - - - -
7164O Molina De Segura `La Hornera` 18 9.2 7.8 3.9 3.1
100
80
60 Tn7182B
Tn7182
Tn (ºC x 10)
40 Tn7178I
20 Tn7228
Tn7168
0 Tn7164 /O
Tn7152
-20
Tn7145
-40 Tn7131
-60
-80
34
39
44
49
54
59
64
69
74
79
84
89
94
99
04
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
Años
Figure 3. Average yearly minimum temperature series in march, 1935-2004, registered at the studued
weather stations. (Temperature in degrees centigrade x 10).
The monthly minimum temperatures in March recorded at the various weather stations in
each year are shown in Figure 3, by way of illustration.
The mean minimum temperatures tended to decline from 1935 to 1950 and essentially
flattened through 1984, after which they began to rise through the end of the period. In this
regard, before 1984 the mean minima ranged from 4.0 to -2.0 ºC, rising from 6.0 to 0.0 ºC
this year. After this year, and until more recent years, these limits shifted to 7.0 - 0.5 ºC. Even
at Tn 7182 the mean minimum temperatures reached 9 ºC.
These changes would appear to be responsible for producers‟ perception of the frost
episodes in March 2004 as the worst in many years for frost damage, despite the statistical
evidence that similar freezing temperatures had been reached on similar dates in other years.
2900
2700
2500
Degree Days
2300 DD 7168
DD 7228
2100 DD 7131
1900
1700
1500
1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Year
Figure 4. Thermal integral for weather stations 7168, 7228 and 7131.
An analysis of sharp declines in minimum temperatures shows that the temperature

consistently dipped to -4.0 ºC under these circumstances. Temperatures were lower than
-4.0 ºC in the 1955 frost episode, reaching -6.0 ºC in one of the weather stations, Tn 7152.
However, the weather station where this temperature was recorded was out of commission for
many years.
According to these results, lemon, mandarin and olive production would often be
adversely affected in most of the areas studied, in most cases with damage to the tree and
even more probably to the bark, branches, buds, fruit and leaves, pursuant to the data on fruit
tree susceptibility in Table 1. The study showed the need to cover the risk of frost event-
induced losses in these crops.
The temperature records for 2004, by contrast, show that the most sensitive organs would
have been buds and fruit, inasmuch as the mean minimum temperatures were warmer than in
earlier years, as Figure 3 shows.
A thermal integral was plotted in Figure 4 with data from weather stations having
continuous data for over 50 years (7168, 7228, and 7131) to illustrate this upward trend. To
this end, the degree days with values of over 6 ºC, the mean minimum temperature, were
analysed from January to July at each weather station, using monthly temperatures. The
figure shows a clearly rising trend from 1970 onward, except for the outliers in 1980, 2000
and 2002. According to the literature, such temperatures shorten most species‟ dormancy
period, lowering tree production and raising the risk of frost damage due to temperature
backlashes, among other adverse effects.
4. CONCLUSIONS
An analysis of the mean and minimum temperature series from 1935 to 2004 showed that
the lowest absolute temperatures (Tmin) recorded on frost days in March 2004, i.e., -0.5 to -
4.0 ºC, were statistically similar to the temperatures recorded in 1993. The historical series
also showed the mean minimum temperatures (tmin) to have increased, however. Through
1985, tmin ranged from 4.0 to -2.0 ºC, depending on the area, while these limits shifted in
more recent years to 7.0 - 0.5 ºC.
In all the weather stations, temperatures lower than the March 2004 minima were
recorded in around 10% of the years studied. The Gumbel distribution yielded values lower
than the real data. The rises observed in minimum temperatures in the region could be a
potential climate change and how it may affect extreme events. Such rising temperatures,
which induce a more sensitive phenological stage in fruit trees, might explain producers‟
perception of exceptional frost damage caused by low temperatures and the greater risk of
damage to fruit, despite the objective finding that the frequency and intensity of freezing
temperatures have remained essentially constant for many years, while mean minimum
temperatures have actually increased in recent years, shortening the dormancy period of the
most representative fruit trees.
The following conclusions have been drawn from this study of temperature series and the
literature on the effects of freezing temperatures on crops:
 The absolute minimum temperatures during frost periods were statistically similar in
each 10-year interval. Mean minimum temperatures, in turn, rose in the last 20 years;
while up to 1985 the tmin ranged from 4.0 to -2.0 ºC, depending on the area, these
limits shifted in more recent years to 7.0 - 0.5 ºC. The increase between the two
periods was, then, around 3 ºC.
 According to the literature reviewed, the rise in mean minimum temperatures would
have caused fruit trees to develop more quickly. This, in turn, would explain
producers‟ perception that the consequences of freezing temperatures in 2004 were
the worst in recent years, even though the frost episodes were statistically similar to
observations for previous years. In other words, as a result of the higher
temperatures, fruit trees reached a more sensitive phenological stage, increasing the
risk of frost damage to fruit.
Further research is therefore required to determine, first, how climate change may affect
crop loss when normal conditions become exceptional, and second, the effect of rising
temperatures on crop yield and development.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research was funded by the Spanish Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food
(MAPA) and the State Agricultural Insurance Body (ENESA), both of which are thanked for
their cooperation.
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Chapter 8
FRAGMENTS OF CAATINGA IN THE SUB-BASIN

OF RIO BODOCONGÓ: A CONSERVATION STUDY
IN THE BRAZILIAN SEMI-ARID TROPICS
Dilma Maria de Brito Melo Trovão1, ,

Rômulo Romeu Nóbrega Alves*, José Dantas Neto,
Pedro Dantas Fernandes and Leonaldo Alves de Andrade
1
Universidade Estadual da Paraíba, 58.429-500, Campina Grande, PB, Brasil
2
Universidade Federal de Campina Grande, 58429-900, Campina Grande, PB, Brasil
3
Instituto Nacional do Semi-Árido/INSA, 58.400-165, Campina Grande, PB, Brasil
4
Universidade Federal de Paraíba, Laboratório de
Ecologia Vegetal, 58397-000 Areia, PB, Brasil
ABSTRACT
The characterization of the vegetation in Caatinga remnants in the Bodocongó River
Sub-basin -PB was carried out through a floristic and phytosociological survey of the tree
stratum aiming to determine and record plant potentials and to identify any possible
threat of extinction. Forty plots of 4 x 50 m were used, distributed into four vegetation
remnants where information gathered included total height and stalk diameter at the
ground level (DNS) of the individuals in the plots where heights were ≥1m and DNS ≥ 3
cm. The families that had the highest specific representation were Mimosaceae (5),
Euphorbiaceae (5), Caesalpiniaceae (4), Cactaceae (4) and Anacardiaceae (3). The
similarity between the remnants of the Sub-basin reveals the homogeneity of the
vegetation which is characterized as a single Caatinga physiognomy. The most important
species in the four remnants have been reported as the most important in other surveys.
Among the ten most important species, four were coincident in the four remnants, namely
Croton sonderianus. Muell. Arg., Caesalpinia. pyramidalis Tul, Myracrodrum urundeuva
Allem, Piptadenia stipulaceae (Benth.) Ducke, and another four species were coincident
in three fragments, namely Aspidosperma pyrifolium. Mart., Jatropha pohliana Muell.
*
Corresponding author: E-mail: romulo_nobrega@yahoo.com.br
146 Dilma Maria de Brito Melo Trovão, Rômulo Romeu Nóbrega Alves et al.
Arg., Bauhinia cheilantha (Bong.) Steud and Manihot glaziovii Muell. Arg.,
demonstrating the importance of these species in the total area. The majority of species
are concentrated in the smaller diameter strip of land. The anthropic influence on the area
is unquestionable, evidenced mainly by the presence of characteristic species of
intermediate successional stages, which means perturbation and recovery of the
environment.
Keywords: Semi-arid, Basin, Bodocongó River, Caatinga, Biological Conservation.
INTRODUCTION
The hydrographic sub-basin of the Bodocongó River is part of the second largest basin of
the state of Paraiba, which is that of the Paraiba river, where it is considered one the most
important of the semi-arid northeast (AESA, 2007). The Bodocongó River and its tributaries
are the center of economic and social sustainability for a considerable part of the Paraiba
Cariri people. This sub-basin is within the microregions of Campina Grande and Cariri
Oriental in the state of Paraiba, and is under alert conditions from the point of view of
pressures exerted on the landscape.
The processes of change in the form of native vegetation cover, which is the Caatinga,
result mainly from the spread of pasture areas and farming. Deforesting resulted in the
formation of fragments, intercalated in the landscape and with different levels of anthropic
perturbation. In fact, for a long time, the development of farming and ranching in the semi-
arid region of Paraiba has occurred mainly along the riverbanks because they were more
fertile, due to greater level of moisture, and because the flat areas facilitated management.
Thus, the effect of this fragmentation resulted in pressures that contributed to the current
configuration of the landscape, creating vegetation remnants in the Paraiba semi-arid lands.
The fragmentation of forests and resultant formation of remnants appears to be a natural
consequence of the process of population growth and expansion of the world economy and
should be treated as a challenge to sustainability, where Fernandez (2004) considers the
understanding of its ecological implications a priority for conservation biology. The high rate
of deforesting is the principal cause of the problem, and as this practice occurs in
unprecedented proportions in geological and ecologial history of vegetation formations, there
are profound effects on ecosystems (BIERREGAARD et al., 1992; PRIMACK, 1985 and
NASCIMENTO et al., 1999).
Although the consequence of environmental degradation results in the formation of
"islands" of original cover, these fragments act as banks that store an important part of the
original diversity and from which the environment can recover, because they contain species
that are adapted to the existing conditions, albeit with modifications due to
compartmentalization.
Hydrographic basins are considered cells of information that can help in formulating
conservation strategies based on key areas for the survival of the population. Knowledge of
the floristic composition, structure and dynamics, the state of conservation of biodiversity
contained in the vegetation remnants or residual fragments, in hydrographic basin is a
valuable tool to understand the potential of losses and conservation of their natural resources.
The regional importance of this sub-basin associated with the fact that this area is
considered a priority for conservation (Velloso, Sampaio and Pareyn, 2002) and that it is very
Fragments of Caatinga in the Sub-Basin of Rio Bodocongó … 147
fragmented, prompted this work in order to contribute to our knowledge of the state of
conservation of these biological communities in the Caatinga, characterizing the status of the
vegetation and principally forming a databank of information that can be used in elaborating
strategies for its conservation.
Based on the above, the aim of this work was to identify the vegetation remnants existing
in the sub-basin of the Bodocongó River and determine their potential, by determining
phytosociological parameters and floristic composition and structure, in order to contribute to
the formation of a databank for the establishing strategies for the conservation and sustainable
use of the plant resources of this hydrographic sub-basin.
METHODS
The fragments analyzed in this study were located in the southern part of the
hydrographic sub-basin of the Bodocongó River (Figure 1) with geographic coordinates
7º17'54.0"S, 35º58'35.8"W (P1), 7º22'27.8"S, 35º59'52.2"W (P2), 7º22'25.9"S, 35º59'32"W
(P3) and 7º30'9.2"S and 35º57'39.9"W (P4). The fragments analyzed were chosen based on a
previous study following the course of the Bodocongó River seeking vestiges of
representative vegetation, taking into consideration an area that would allow the examination
of 10 plots of 50 x 4 m.
OLIVEDOS
POCINHOS
MONTADAS
PUXI NANA
Rio
S. JOSE DA MATA
Bodocongó
LAGOA DE DENTRO
CAMPINA GRANDE
BOA VISTA
CATOLÉ
P1
P2 ZE VELHO
P3
CABACEIRAS BOQUEIRÃO
Rio Paraiba
0 5 10
Quiilômetros
P4
Figure 1. Sub-basin of the Bodocongó River (in gray), noting the remanants studied. Adapted from:
SEMARH/LMRS/SOARES (2002).
In the study area, the topography varies from flat smooth to ondulating. In the region, the
land is characterized as being shallow and rocky and almost always barren. Much of the
native vegetation has already been devastated and at some points erosive processes are
evident. The occupation of the area is disorganized and exists today in only remnant
fragments of vegetation. In this work, four fragments were studied, where data were collected
that demonstrated the state of conservation of the vegetation using phytosociological tools
and floristic studies. P1 is a vegetation remnant located in reserve in Fazenda Caicara,
municipality of Campina Grande. P2 is located in Fazenda Bodopita, in the municipality of
Queimadas. The third fragment, P3, is located in the mountains, Serra de Bodocongó, situated
in the municipality of Queimadas. The last place, P4, is in Fazenda Pocinho in Barra de
Santana- PB.
The study area is included in PROBIO/2000 on the list of high priority areas for
conservation and additional studies under the number 21 at the highest level of degradation,
consisting of only sparse small islands of native vegetation, where aspects of xerophytism can
be seen. The typical taxonomic groups of the ecoregion are the families Mimosaceae,
Cactaceae, Bromeliaceae and Caesalpiniaceae (Veloso, Sampaio and Pareyn, 2002).
The Bodocongó River has an intermittent flow, with water in abundance in the rainy
period and in dry in the long dry periods. Along the riverbed, escavations and also small wells
can be seen in the time of scarce water.
For the analysis of the phytosociological structure, the plot method recommended by
Braun-Blanquet (Martins, 1989) was used, where 10 plots per area (fragment) were studied,
where these plots were 50 x 4 m and chosed systematically, in order to include the whole
fragment while excluding the borders and separating them by about 30 m. During the period
of August to December of 2003, weekly excursions were made to the study sites/fragments
for the phytosociological works. Inclusion criteria used were stem diameter at the ground
level ≥ 3 cm and height ≥ 1 m. At each site/area, the plots were marked using a line of 50 m
with 2 m on each side, giving plots of 50 m x 4 m. For each individual thus sampled, its
diameter at the ground level (DNS) was measure, and the maximum height was estimated.
The botanical material collected was separated by family and later into morphospecies.
Taxonomic identification was performed using the available literature and comparison with
the material deposited in the Herbario Lauro Pires Xavier of Universidade Federal da Paraíba.
The phytosociological parameters were calculated using the combination of FITOPAC
programs for phytosociological analyses (Shepherd, 1995).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

In the phytosociological survey of 4 vegetation remnants in the southern part of the
hydrographic sub-basin of the Bodocongó River, P1, P2,P3 and P4, 2331 individuals were
sampled and found to belong to 22 families and 45 species (Table 1).
The families Mimosaceae (5) and Euphorbiaceae (5) followed by Caesalpiniaceae (4),
Cactaceae (4) and Anacardiaceae (3) showed the greatest number of species, a similar finding
when compared to other phytosociological studies carried out in areas of the Caatinga
(Alcofored Filho, 1993; Emperaire, 1991; Ferraz, 1994; Pereira, 2002), showing evidence of
this phytophysiosionomy.
Table 1. List of plant species inventoried in the hydrographic

sub-basin of the Bodocongó River-PB.
Família Espécie Número de Indivíduos

P1 P2 P3 P4 RB
Anacardiaceae
Myracrodruon urundeuva Allem. 11 13 39 30 93
Schinopsis brasiliensis Engl. 4 26 0 5 35
Spondias tuberosa Arruda, 5 2 5 5 17
Apocynaceae
Aspidosperma pyrifolium Mart. 71 100 16 65 252
Allamanda puberula A. DC. 0 0 1 0 1
Bignoniaceae
Tabebuia impetiginosa Mart. ex 0 4 9 0 13
DC,
Bombacaceae
Ceiba glaziovii K. Schum. 1 0 7 0 8
Pseudobombax sp. 3 10 6 3 22
Borraginaceae
Cordia allidiora Cham. 0 0 2 0 2
C. salzmanni DC. 0 1 2 3 6
Burseraceae
Commiphora leptophloeoes
10 11 11 9 41
(Mart.)
Cactaceae
Cereus jamacaru DC. 5 0 1 1 7
Opuntia palmadors Britton & 0 34 10 38 82
Rose,
Pilosocereus glauscences 15 3 12 11 41
(Labour.)
P. gounellei (A. Weber ex K. 0 0 0 4 4
Schum.)
Caesalpiniaceae
Bauhinia cheilantha D. Dietr. 6 96 68 40 210
Caesalpinia ferrea Mart. 0 1 5 5 11
C. pyramidalis Tul. 39 118 10 73 240
Senna spectabilis (DC.) 0 0 2 0 2
Capparaceae
Capparis cynophallophora L. 4 8 7 2 21
C. jacobinae Moric. Ex Eichl. 0 0 11 0 11
Celastraceae
Maytenus rigida Mart. 0 7 0 0 7
Euphorbiaceae
Croton nepetaefolius Baill. 4 0 0 0 4
C. sonderianus Muell. Arg. 195 60 76 58 388
Jatropha pohliana Muel.l Arg. 78 36 6 40 160
Manihot glaziovii Muell. Arg. 9 24 72 32 137
Sapium sp. 7 5 18 7 37
Table 1. (Continued)
Família Espécie Número de Indivíduos
P1 P2 P3 P4 RB
Erythroxylaceae
Erythroxylum pauferrense T. 0 7 1 0 8
Plowman
Fabaceae
Amburana cearensis (Fr. Allem.)
1 4 9 0 14
A. C. S
Erythrina velutina Jacq. 3 0 1 0 4
Mimosaceae Mimosa tenuiflora Benth. 4 0 0 0 4
Mimosa sp. 5 11 61 54 131
Piptadenia stipulaceae Ducke. P. 32 19 47 32 130
viridiflora Benth. Anadenanthera 0 2 0 0 2
columbrina Brenan. 2 0 4 10 16
Nyctaginaceae Pisonia sp. 6 2 11 20 39
Palmae
Syagrus oleraceae Becc. 0 0 2 0 2
Polygonaceae Coccoloba sp. 0 0 6 0 6
Rhamnaceae Ziziphus joazeiro Mart. 0 3 1 1 5
Sapindaceae Allophylus sp. 9 12 51 15 87
Talisia esculenta Radlk. 0 0 4 0 4
Cardiospermum grandiflorum Sw. 1 1 5 0 7
Sapotaceae Bumelia obtusifolia Roem. & 0 7 3 0 10
Schult.
Desconhecida 1 Desconhecida 1 1 8 0 0 9
Desconhecida 2 Desconhecida 2 0 1 0 0 1
P1, P2,P3 and P4 (fragments analyzed) - RB (total sub-basin).
In relation to the number of individuals per family, Euphorbiaceae (31.14%),

Caesalpiniaceae (19.86%), and Mimosaceae (12.14%) stood out. The species of the family
Cactaceae (5.74%) showed much fewer individuals compared to Apocynaceae (10.85%).
Nonetheless, these numbers are very representative of the vegetation physionomy of the semi-
arid Caatinga. However, it is necessary to note that at sites P2 and P3 there is an equitable
predominance in relation to the number of individuals among the families present, revealing a
greater equity among these and also the presence of a greater number of families of the
Bodocongó sub-basin.
For the patterns of the Caatinga, subjected to the climatic conditions of the Brazilian
semi-arid region, very particularly edaphic and subjected to anthropization, it is seen that it
was well represented in number of species per families in the four fragments that comprised
the sampling of the southern part of the hydrographic sub-basin of the Bodocongó River.
According to Gentry (1988) and Clinebell et al. (1995), there is a direct relation of plant
diversity with the main gradients, i.e., latitudinal, precipitation, altitudinal and
intercontinental.
Another considerable factor is brought to mind by Schluter and Ricklefs (1993), stating
that the patterns of species richness can be a consequence of various historical and ecological
processes that act at different scales of space and time. Considering this aspect, the Caatinga
suffered greatly with extractive ranching, where large areas covered with natural vegetation
were devastated by deforesting and burning yielding space for ranching and monoculture
farming and leading to a reduction in biodiversity.
FLORISTIC DIVERSITY
The values for the diversity parameters Shannon and Wiener index (H'), Simpson index
(D) and equability (J), along with the species richness (SR) and family richness (FR) indices,
described by Whittaker (1975), are given Table 2.
The remnants P3 and P4 showed a greater diversity based on the Shannon and Wiener
index and confirmed by the Simpson index, and in the other two fragments, there was a
greater structural dominance. The fragment P4 showed lower species and family richness,
which denotes a greater proportionality in the distribution of the number of individuals per
taxon, which increased the diversity indices. That is, there was a more even distribution of the
individuals, as indicated by equability (J).
The values obtained for the total study area do not differ from findings of other studies on
vegetation of the Caatinga (Rodal, 1992; Pereira, 2002), but are considered low when
compared to other vegetations, as a result of climatic and pedological conditions of the
regions where this vegetation is common, normally related to water stress. However, there
was little difference when compared to the results obtained by Araújo, Martins and Sheperd
(1999) for the Carrasco which is a formation also particularly semi-arid, where the authors
reported a Shannon and Wiener index between 2.987 and 3.188.
Of the 45 species found, 15 of them were common to the 4 fragments studied (P1, P2, P3
and P4): Myracrodruom urundeuva, Spondias tuberosa, Aspidosperma pyrifolium,
Pseudobombax sp., Commiphora leptophloeos, Pilosocereus glauscences, Bauhinia
cheilantha, Croton sonderianus, Jatropha pohliana, Manihot glaziovii, Mimosa sp., Piptadenia
stipulaceae, Pisonia sp., and Allophylus sp. Araújo et al. (1998) examined the occurrence of
102 shrub and arboreal taxa in 23 works of the Caatinga and five studies of the Cerrado and
found an abundance of most of these species.
Thirty of the species found in the sub-basin studied were not present in the four
vegetation remnants, which indicate that the fragmentation of the area resulted in the absence
of some taxa in some of the fragments analyzed. Some of these such as Allamanda puberula,
Tabebuia impetiginosa, Ceiba glaziovii, Erythrina velutina, Piptadenia viridiflora, Syagrus
oleraceae, Coccoloba sp., and Talisia esculenta appeared in very reduced numbers when
present. Because these species probably compose the physionomy of this Caatinga, this could
indicate if not a threat of extinction in the remnants, the rarity of occurrence in the fragments
studied.
The absence of species that compose the Caatinga can be due to various reasons, such as
dispersion, introduction of exotic species and the density of the species itself. However, in a
continuum of areas with similar characteristics such as of this study, the presence and absence
are linked to degrading factors of the environment such as anthropic activity. Thus, rarity
characterizes some of the species of the sub-basin of the Bodocongó.
Table 2. Values for the H' (Shannon and Wiener) index, D (Simpson)
and 1 – D indices, J (Equability), SR (species richness) and FR (family
richness) in the total study area (Bodocongó River) and fragments evaluated.
Parameters Bodocongó River P1 P2 P3 P4

H 2.904 2.238 2.656 2.922 2.757
D 0.078 0.185 0.102 0.074 0.076
1–D 0.922 0.815 0.898 0.926 0.924
J 0.763 0.679 0.774 0.809 0.856
RE 5.80 4.30 4.80 5.78 3.95
RF 2.84 2.07 3.10 2.97 2.05
The total density in the areas studied was 2655 individuals. ha-1 in P1, 3180 individual.
ha-1 in P2, 3010 individuals. ha-1 in P3 and 2815 individuals. ha-1 in P4. These density
values are in the range expected, since there is a very wide variation for the Caatinga which
according to Sampaio (1996) is probably due to water availability, which in turn involves
variables such as the distribution of rain over the year and the retention capacity of the soil.
The results of the phytosociological parameters of the horizontal structure of P1 revealed
that the species Croton sonderianus, Aspidosperma pyrifolium, Jatropha pohliana, Caesalpinia
pyramidalis and Pilosocereus glauscencens accounted for 76.14% of the total importance
values (IV) of this fragment, where these species are characteristic of Caatinga vegetation in
the initial successive stages, indicating that there was anthropization but also indicating that it
was at the time of the study recovering, which is encouraging. A considerable factor also is
that the species that are late and of greater economic value showed low IV (S. tuberosa, S.
brasiliensis, C. glaziovii and A. macrocarpa), which indicates their scarcity, but Martins
(1979) and Flores (1993) pointed out that in tropical forests the IV of species are normally
low. It should also be considered that due to their large size, these species are present at a
lower density where in their natural spacing among the vegetation shows more distance
between individuals.
In P2, the highest IV (higher than 10) corresponded to 10 species, which was equivalent
to 32.25% of the total, where the most outstanding species with IV characteristic of
regenerating forests, except for S. brasiliensis, M. urundeuva and C. Leptophloeos, indicative
of more advanced developmental stages in relation to succession. It should me pointed out
that the species of greatest importance, C. pyramidalis Tul., is the one most frequently
appearing at the top of the lists of studies of the Caatinga, according to Sampaio (1996).
In P3, the most important species were Mimosa sp, Manihot glaziovii, Allophylus sp,
Croton sonderianus, Bauhinia cheillantha, Piptadenia stipulaceae, Myracrodruon urundeuva
and Sapium sp, which did not differ greatly from the other fragments already mentioned,
where there was a dominance of the Caesalpiniaceae, Euphorbiaceae and Apocynaceae. The
following species were exclusively found in this area: Capparys jacobinae, Coccoloba sp,
Senna spectabilis, Talisia esculenta, Syagrus oleraceae, Bumelia obtusifolia, Cordia alliodora
and Allamanda puberula.
In P4 , the most important species are those of recomposition, except for M. urundeuva,
which indicates a greater anthropization. However, it shows in its composition the species
characteristically appearing in late stages of succession, A. macrocarpa, S. brasiliensis, S.
tuberosa, Pseudobombax sp and C. ferrea, which demonstrates that the vegetation of the area
truly suffered outside interferences.
It can also see be seen that among the ten most important species, four were coincident,
but with different positions in IV ranking among the fragments sampled (P1, P2, P3 and P4),
namely C. sonderianus (1st/5th/4th/4th), C. pyramidalis (4th/1st/10th/2nd), M. urundeuva
(6th/6th/7th/3rd), P. stipulaceae (7th/10th/6th/10th). Four other species were coincident in
three areas: A. pyrifolium (P1: 2nd, P2: 2nd and P4: 1st), J. pohliana (P1: 3rd, P2: 7th and P4:
7th), B. cheilantha (P2: 3rd, P3: 5th and P4: 8th) and M. glaziovii (P2: 8th, P3: 2nd and P4:
6th), attesting to the importance of these species in the total study area.
There were no considerable discrepancies between the positions of the species in relation
of importance value, but many of them did not occur in all the areas, some occurring only in a
single area, which is probably due to the differences in seral stages of the four areas or in
level of anthropization.
In the four study areas, the majority of the species showed VI levels less than 20, which
indicates a small relative participation of the majority of species in the communities. If
ecological dominance is also defined as the degree of concentration of relative abundances in
few species, as shown by Pedralli et al. (2000), it can then be considered that in the areas
studied, dominance did exist despite differences in dominant species observed among the
areas. These differences, according to Pedralli et al. (2000) can still be derived from
differences in topography, in soils or in the successional phase of each area.
The order of the species sampled by the importance values followed mainly relative
density, demonstrating that the number of individuals was the preponderant factor for the
composition of the IV(s). This also occurred in the works of Lemos and Rodal (2002) and
Alcoforado – Filho et al. (2003).
In relation to the basal area, it was found that as with importance value, this was also
influenced more by the significant number of individual of the species noted, which implies a
high density, than by their diameter, which indicates again that the vegetation of the sub-basin
of the Bodocongó River appears to be trying to recover from the stress imposed by outside
interference.
In general, the most important factor for determining the importance of the species was
density and not its size or diameter. The large number of individuals of little wood production
influence their importance, but it is necessary to understand that these species are
characteristic of forests undergoing recomposition. When forests do not estivate during
continuous harsh times and reduction of their areas, this characterizes a propensity for
recovery.
The results obtained from the distribution of frequency in the stem diameter classes of all
individual were those expected for secondary forests, showing a marked decrease in the
number of individuals, with fewer of larger diameter classes. Lopes et al. (2002) believes that
the conclusion that can be drawn from this characteristic is that the fragments studied are
developing in the direction of more advanced stages, since there is a contingency of young
individuals that will succeed those that become weaker or senile. This fact is also considered
when species are seen that characterize the Caatinga in more advanced stages, such as M.
urundeuva,C. leptophloeos, C. ferrea, Pseudobombax sp., S. brasiliensis, A. cearensis, and T.
impetiginosa, but with the number of individuals per class much lower when compared with
species characteristic of primary successive stages.
In all fragments, based on the data obtained on the diameter, almost all of the individuals
were in the size range up to 30 cm (98.11 %). In the first area (P1), 294 (55.37%) of the total
531 individuals were found in the first diameter class range (3 to 6 cm); the species C.
sonderianus, A. pyrifolium, J. pohliana accounted for 73.13%, where C. sonderianus alone
made up 41.84%. The largest diameter class shown was 66 cm, represented by one individual
of the species C. glaziovii. The predominance of the species C. sonderianus in size abundance
reflects the stage of succession in this fragment.
In P2, the diameter range of 3 – 6 cm included 326 individuals (51.26%) of a total of 636,
where the main representatives in this category were B. cheilantha (21.47%), A. pyrifolium
(15.64%), C. pyramidalis (15.03%) and J. pohliana (10.12%). The species characteristic of
the Caatinga in more advanced developing stages were found in much fewer numbers in
relation to the total (636 individuals ) such as S. brasiliensis (3.93%), M. urundeuva (2.04%),
C. leptophloeos (2.04%), A. cearensis (0.31%), Pseudobombax sp (1.57%), T. impetiginosa
(0.63%), M. rigida (1.10%), Z. joazeiro (0.47%) and C. ferrea (0.16%).
In P3, the least anthropized area, with a total of 602 individuals in the plots analyzed, 266
(44.18%) were in the class of 3 – 6 cm and 2.16% showed a diameter greater than 30 cm. In
P4, the last fragment analyzed, with 563 individuals in total, 302 (53.64%) were also in the
first diameter class and only 1.78% had a diameter greater than 30 cm.
Except for P3, the areas showed more than half of the individuals in the first diameter
category, which revealed a great potential for the development of these areas with renewal of
the species. According to Bertoni (1984), the large percentage of individuals in the first
diameter class is normal and probable, even according to the author in vegetation areas in the
process of regeneration. The studies conducted with Caatinga physiognomies such as those by
Rodal (1992), Pereira (2002), Gadelha Neto (2000) and Alcoforado Filho (2003) also found
this predominance, which was also noted in other vegetations such as those studied by Lopes
et al. (2002) and Meira Neto et al. (2003).
The finding that more individuals exist in the smaller diameter classes can also reveal the
degree of anthropization, this characteristic and the recovery of the areas appear evident in the
case in particular.
Another aspect observed is that in P2 and P3 the physiognomy of the woody stratum can
be classified as arboreal due to the larger number of individuals in the greater diameter
classes when compared to the two other study areas.
The analysis of the phytosociological parameters allows us to conclude that the
successional stages of the fragments studied are close, even though there are differences in
the species present. Actually, this results more from the degree of anthropization than from
the seral stage of each fragment, because the shrub/tree physiognomy found is characteristic
of the more advanced successional stages of this vegetation.
Pioneer species were found, but in the Caatinga, this can occur at every beginning of the
rainy season. Most secondary and late species in this period do not have leaves, which allows
more entrance of sunlight, and since there is natural bank of seeds in the ground, new growing
cycles occur naturally.
The basal area of the fragments, besides the presence of species characteristic of more
advanced stages and also the relatively high DNS, the presence of noticeable strata of litter
and of woody vines, classify the fragments studied as well as all the vegetation of the
hydrographic sub-basin as being in an intermediate stage of succession.
From a general analysis of the phytosociological parameters, it can be inferred that

fragment P3 had the least degree of anthropization, showing greater diversity, taxon richness,
structural profile characteristic of environments with less harm and larger basal area. It should
be noted that this fragment is located on a mountain, which naturally serves as a barrier to
constant attack.
Following Serra de Bodocongó (P3), there is Fazenda Bodopitá (P2) which showed lower
diversity indices compared to Fazenda Pocinho (P4),\ but expressed a greater species and
family richness, besides having a larger basal area and lower percentage of individuals in the
first diameter classes. This demonstrates if not a more intense recovery, that the region
suffered damage earlier when compared to P4.
No doubt, the remnant P1 (Fazenda Caiçara) is the most anthropized, although having
shown a higher species richness compared to P4, which was confirmed by other parameters:
Shannon and Wiener index, Simpson index, low density, smaller basal area and greater
percentage of individuals in the first diameter ranges.
Considering the total area, the sub-basin of the Bodocongó River, although anthropized,
has the potential to recover because the parameters evaluated do not differ substantially from
those of a reserve area studied by Pereira (2002).
CONCLUSION
The effects of anthropic activities in the sub-basin of the Bodocongó River are reflected
in the floristic richness and diversity expressed by the number of families (22) and species
(45) present in direct relation to the degree of interference of the fragments studied. Despite
evidence of damage, for the patterns of the Caatinga, the species and family richness and the
Shannon – Wiener index reveal possibilities of recovery of the vegetation cover in the study
area. The species Spondias tuberosa, Tabebuia impetiginosa, Allamanda puberula,
Caesalpinia ferrea, Senna spectabilis, Maytenus rígida, Erythrina velutina and Talisia
esculenta are characterized as rare components of the study area. The little floristic
heterogeneity between the fragments studied confirms that the vegetation of the sub-basin of
the Bodocongó River comprises a single physionomy of the Caatinga, which makes it easier
to determine strategies for the recovery of the area.
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(1998). Composição Florística Da Vegetação De Carrasco, Novo Oriente, Ce. Revista
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Sucessão E Estrutura De Uma Floresta De Galeria Periodicamente Alagada Em Viçosa-
Mg. Revista Árvore, 27, 4, 561-574.
Pedralli, G., Teixeira, M. C. B., Freitas, V. L., De O. Meyer, S. T. & Nunes, Y. R. F. (2000).
Florística E Fitossociologia Da Estação Ecológica Do Tripuí, Ouro Preto, Mg. Ciência
Agrotecnica, 24 (Edição Especial), 103-136.
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De Um Remanescente Florestal No Agreste Paraibano. Acta Botanica Brasilica, 16(3),
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Rodal, M. J. N. (1992). Fitossociologia Da Vegetação Arbustiva-Arbórea Em Quatro Áreas
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Bactérias Patogênicas No Rio Bodocongó (Campina Grande – Paraíba, Brasil.
Dissertação De Mestrado. Prodema (Uepb/Ufpb).
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Bioma Caatinga. Recife: Associação Plantas Do Nordeste; Instituto De Conservação
Ambiental The Nature Conservancy Do Brasil, 76 Folhas.
Chapter 9
EFFECTS OF SMALL HILL DAMS ON FARMING

SYSTEMS: BIZERTE REGION – TUNISIA
Mehrez Ameur 1, Nadhem Mtimet 2

and Slaheddine Khlifi 1*
1
Département Aménagement & Environnement – Ecole Supérieure des
Ingénieurs de l‟Equipement Rural (ESIER) Medjez el Bab,
route du Kef Km 5-Medjez el Bab, Tunisie 9070
2
Département d‟Economie Rurale et de Gestion, Ecole Supérieure d‟
Agriculture de Mograne (ESAM), 1121 Mograne, Zaghouan Tunisia
ABSTRACT
This study focuses on the assessment of the impact of the small hill dams on farming
systems in north eastern Tunisia, Bizerte governorate. These hydraulic structures are
characterized throughout the study area and a farmers „sample was selected to carry out a
socio-economic questionnaire. Farmers, using water from seven representative small hill
dams, were surveyed. The beneficiaries of the small hill dam are highly aged and have a
low education level. The farms, with average area around 15.0 ha, are composed of
multiple plots not making easy intensification. Small hill dam implementation increased
irrigation practices, irrigated areas, fruit trees area, the cattle size and farmer income.
Keywords: small hydraulic structures, steeply landscape, assessment, irrigation practice,

impact.
1. INTRODUCTION
Tunisia as a semi arid country had adopted a large program of surface runoff mobilization
from several decades agro. Small hill dams, defined as reservoirs with height not exceeding
*
Corresponding author: Emai: slaheddinekhlifi@yahoo.fr or skhlifi@iresa.agrinet.tn
160 Mehrez Ameur, Nadhem Mtimet and Slaheddine Khlifi
15 m and storage capacity less than 3,000×103 m3 (Jeon et al., 2008), are the most widespread
water harvesting management used in the semi arid and sub humid hilly and mountainous
landscape of Tunisia (DG/ACTA, 2008). Nowadays, several hundred of reservoirs are
implemented and widespread in semi-arid and sub-humid regions in central and northern parts
of the country (DG/ACTA, 2008). They are designed for agricultural intensification by using
water for irrigation, artificial recharge of the groundwater table and protection of large
reservoir against silting-up or flood prevention (Boufaroua et al., 2006). Bizerte governorate,
located in the north eastern Tunisia, is characterized by a substantial number of small hill
dams where the farmers are generally familiarized with irrigation practice. Thus, it is
interesting to assess the impact of these structures on farming system, irrigation practice and
herd size as essential components of the farming system.
2. SMALL HILL DAMS AS WATER MOBILIZATION

PROGRAM COMPONENT IN TUNISIA
Small hill dams were introduced in Tunisia at the beginning of the twentieth century.
These small hydraulic structures are laying from Sfax-Gafsa in the South, with precipitation
exceeding 200 mm.yr-1, to the far North with more than 1,000 mm.yr-1 as rainfall. From the
mid twentieth century to the late eighties, around 100 small hill dams were constructed
mobilizing near 6.0×106 m3 of water runoff (Boufaroua et al., 2006). In the early nineties, a
large program of water runoff mobilization involving the construction of dams, hill-dams and
check-dams had been implemented by the Ministry of Agriculture and Hydraulic Resources
(MAHR).
The objective of that plan is to mobilize the 50×106 m3 yearly lost runoff by
implementation of one thousand earthen small hill dams in sub-humid and semi-arid central
and northern Tunisia and 4,500 check dams for artificial aquifer recharge and runoff
spreading during the last two decades (D/CES, 1993). Currently, the country counts with
3,350 check dams implemented to improve crops production in the gently sloping alluvial
plains by water spreading systems and to artificial recharge sustained withdrawal
groundwater. Moreover there are 817 small hill dams (Table 1), having 83.0×106 m3 as total
storage capacity and mobilizing around 74.0×106 m3 of runoff yearly (DG/ACTA, 2008).
Their storage capacity ranges from 99,000m3 in the far north region to 110,000 m3 in the
Dorsal southern side, Steppes and Sahel region, collecting water from watershed with area of
120 ha and 400 ha, respectively. The proportion of small hill dams equipped with material for
irrigation is around 60% indicating an under use of the mobilized water resource. The
irrigation equipment consists of portable pump-motors installed on the upstream side of the
reservoirs. The average number of beneficiaries is around 8 for each equipped hill dam, with
a total of more than 4,000 farmers.
Effects of Small Hill Dams on Farming Systems: Bizerte Region – Tunisia 161
Table 1. Variation of small hill dams number, storage capacity

and watershed and the number of beneficiaries among hydrologic
regions in Tunisia (From DG/ACTA, 2008).
Number of hill Number of Storage Capacity

Watershed area (ha)
dams beneficiairies (×103m3)
Region Equipped
Total for Total Average Total Average Total Average
irrigation
Far north 70 45 213 4.7 6,930 99.0 8,365 120
Medjerda northern side 90 55 450 8.2 8,936 99.3 16,432 183
Medjerda southern side
and Cap Bon 272 165 1596 9.7 25,327 93.1 55,360 204
Dorsal northern side 184 112 906 8.1 19,515 106.1 54,920 298
Dorsal southern side,
Steppes and Sahel 201 118 890 7.5 22,247 110.7 79,699 397
Total 817 495 4055 8.2 82,956 101.5 214,776 263
Table 2. Variation of irrigated area (ha) around small

hill dams among hydrologic region in Tunisia (From DG/ACTA, 2008).
Cereals and
Total area Fruit tree Vegetable crops
Region fodder
Total Average Total Average Total Average Total Average
Far north 502.0 11.2 370.0 8.2 81.0 1.8 51.0 1.1
Medjerda northern side 784.0 14.3 721.7 13.2 27.0 0.5 35.3 0.6
Medjerda southern side
and Cap Bon 2463.0 14.9 2315.0 14.0 89.0 0.5 59.0 0.4
Dorsal northern side 1482.0 13.2 1357.0 12.1 78.0 0.7 47.0 0.4
Dorsal southern side,
Steppes and Sahel 1916.0 16.2 1671.0 14.1 110.0 0.9 135.0 1.1
Total 7147.0 14.4 6435.0 13.0 385.0 0.8 327.0 0.7
The total irrigated area is more than 7,000 ha, corresponding to 14.4 ha by small hill dam
(Table 2). Its maximum is observed in Medjerda southern side and Cap Bon region, with near
1,500 ha, where the highest number of hill dams is implemented and equipped with irrigated
material. The maximum average irrigated area is seen in the Dorsal southern side, Steppes
and Sahel region, characterized by high average storage capacity of the small hill dams and
low and irregular precipitation. The area in fruit trees increased from 370 ha in the far north
region to 2,315 ha in the Medjerda northern side and Cap Bon region, with ratio reported to
the total irrigated area ranging from 74% to 94% respectively. The average of fruit tree area is
13.0 ha by structure. The area for vegetable crops fluctuates between 27 ha, in the Medjerda
northern side region, to 110 ha, in the Dorsal southern side, Steppes and Sahel region. The
area of cereals and fodder, supplementally irrigated, is 327 ha corresponding to only 4.0% of
the total irrigated area.
3. STUDY AREA AND METHODS

Bizerte governorate is located in north eastern Tunisia, around 60Km north to Tunis City.
The UTM (Carthage datum, 32N) coordinates of the governorate range from 506,350m to
614,750m East and 4,063,400m to 4,133,250m North with altitude not exceeding to 700m
above sea level in the southwestern side. The landscape of the Bizerte governorate is steeped
and mountainous in the western, and flat in the south and in the vicinity of Ichkeul marshland
national park. Rain-fed crops, especially cereals and fodder, are generally cropped in the
southern alluvial plains and western hills, while forested areas and pasture lands are located in
the mountains landscape in the north and the western of the governorate respectively. The
irrigated areas, from Medjerda River, large dams and aquifers, are located in southern and
eastern costal plains. The study area belongs to the Mediterranean semiarid and sub-humid
bioclimate characterized by irregular and often torrential rainfall with annual average
precipitations of 450mm in the south eastern and 850mm in the north western extending from
September to May, as measured at Utique and Sejnan rain gauges.
3.1. Characteristics of Small Hill Dams in Bizerte Region
From 1985 to 2007, 76 small hill dams were implemented in Bizerte region
corresponding to hilly and mountainous areas (Figure 1). Their storage capacity ranges from
7,000 m3 to 390,000 m3 and the annual runoff volume varies from 10,000 m3 to 193,000 m3
(Table 3). In average, storage capacity and annual runoff volume are respectively 90,500 m3
and 60,000 m3; The small hill dams designed for irrigation practice are characterized by more
large storage capacity (120,000 m3) and runoff (80,000 m3) compared to those designed for
herd watering and erosion protection as well as for artificial recharge of aquifers. Only 28
structures are equipped with material for irrigation practice indicating a low equipment rate,
around 55%.
Figure 1. Location of the sampled hill dams and rain gages in Bizerte governorate, northeastern Tunisia.
Table 3. Characteristics of the small hill dams in Bizerte governorate.
Number of hill Storage Capcity Runoff (×103 Watershed area

objective of the dams (×103 m3) m3.yr-1) (ha)
structure
Total Equipped Total Average Total Average Total Average
Irrigation 50 28 6,014 120.3 4,008 80.2 7,720 154
Herd watering and
large dam
protection 24 - 760 31.7 453 18.9 776 32
Artificial aquifer
recharge 2 - 110 55.0 105 52.5 196 98
Total 76 - 6,884 90.6 4,567 60.1 8,692 114
Table 4. Changes in land use of the irrigated area (ha) around

small hill dams in Bizerte governorate (From A/CES, 2008).
Season 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2003 2005 2008

Fruit tree 9.0 13.0 81.5 101.5 112.0 118.0 124.0 370.0
Cereal and fodder 64.5 15.0 14.0 0.0 17.0 15.0 17.0 35.0
Vegetable crops 107.0 87.0 92.0 141.5 94.0 80.0 83.0 80.0
Total 180.5 115.0 187.5 243.0 223.0 213.0 224.0 485.0
Reservoirs irrigated area increased from 180.5 ha in 1997 to 485.5 ha in 2008 (Table 4).
Fruit trees area increased from 9 ha in 1997 to 370 ha in 2008, while vegetable crops area
decreased from 141.5 ha in 2000 to 80.0 ha in 2008. This decrease in vegetable crops area
observed during the last years might be due to the increase of the fruit tree area related to
regional agricultural services incentive. The supplemented irrigation of cereals was only
practiced in 1997 for 25.8 ha due to precipitation shortage. The average fodder irrigated area,
to supply dairy bovine cattle, is around 20 ha.
3.2. Sampled Small Hill Dams
From 28 equipped hill dams with irrigation material, 7 reservoirs were selected on the
basis of the following criteria: annual average precipitations, runoff and water availability
during the irrigation period, reservoir capacities, size of the irrigated areas, and land-use
system around the sites (Khlifi et al., 2010). Most of the selected hill dams are older than 8
years prior to the survey (Table 5). Their storage capacity ranges from 85,000 m3 for the Kef
Dhiba dam to 200,000 m3 for the Ben Oudhil dam, controlling a watershed area ranging from
92 ha for the Moghra dam, to 260 ha for the Gourguiba dam. The water volumes at the
beginning of the irrigation period are high, more than 70,000 m3 and significant amounts
remain after irrigation ending. The rainfall near these hydraulic structures ranges from 520
mm.yr-1 for Gourguiba dam in the south eastern of the study area to 750 mm.yr-1 for Kef
Dhiba in the northern of Bizerte governorate. The annual runoff volumes vary between
56,000 m3 to 157,000 m3 for El Maou (Figure 2) and Beni Oudhil dams. The total irrigated
area, during the season where the survey was realized, is 91.0 ha owned by 65 farmers,
ranging from 9.0 ha for El Maou dam to 18.5 ha for Gourguiba dam.
Table 5. Characteristics of the studied hill dams, irrigated area, beneficiaries and the surveyed farmers.
Available water Number of

Completion (×103 m3)* Watershed area Rainfall Runoff Reservoi-r capacity Dike Area irrigated from Beneficiaries
Designation
date (ha) (mm.yr-1) (×103 m3.yr-1) (×103 m3) height (m) the reservoir (ha)
April September Total Sampled
El Oumène I 1992 70.0 40.0 135 549 74.0 120.0 13.4 12.0 5 3
El Maou 1992 55.0 37.5 125 550 56.3 110.0 11.0 9.0 10 2
O. Zitoun 1992 113.3 45.0 160 680 80.0 120.0 13.5 9.5 4 1
Moghra 1996 90.0 45.0 92 720 105.1 90.0 12.0 13.5 13 8
Ben Oudhil 1996 100.0 50.0 218 700 157.0 200.0 15 18.5 12 4
Kef Dhiba 1998 82.0 48.0 195 750 135.0 85.0 13.0 14.5 10 9
Gourguiba 1999 90.0 60.0 260 520 122.0 110.0 12.0 14.0 11 10
*
: Mean of the five seasons from 1997/98 to 2001/02, except Gouguiba reservoir where only 3 observations were available.
Spillway
Compacted impervious fill

Reservoir
Fruit tree
Vegetable crops
plantation
Figure 2. Aerial photograph of El Maou reservoir, several year after its filling, showing fruit tree
plantation in the upstream side and vegetable crops in the bottom side.
3.3. Sampled Farmers and Survey
To assess and quantify the impact of small hill dams‟ implementation, a socio-economic
survey was carried out with a sample of farmers who could potentially use water resources in
the sampled reservoirs. The survey, concucted between November 2004 and April 2005,
consisted of seven sections: farmer self-identification, farm characteristics, land use and
cropping systems, irrigation practices, livestock, investments, and total sales.
Table 6. Several characteristics of the surveyed farmers

near sampled hill dams (%).
Age (year)
30-40 41-50 51-60 >60
16.2 18.9 37.8 27.0
Number of family by farm
1 2 3 >3
62.2 18.8 10.3 8.1
Household size (number of persons)
<4 5-6 7-8 >8
21.6 29.3 32.5 16.2
Educational level
Illiterate Primary Secondary High
40.5 45.9 8.1 5.4
From a total of 65 beneficiaries, 37 farmers were surveyed. They were randomly selected
from those who own land near the sampled hill dam reservoirs. The farms were mainly owned
by local farmers (90%), as land renting was not common in this hilly region. Farmers‟ age
varied between 30 and 84 years; and 27% were more than 60 years old (Table 6). A high
proportion of the surveyed farmers were illiterate (40.5%) or with low educational level
(45.9%). These farmers were characterised by large household sizes with parents and their
children‟s families generally living together. The majority of interviewed farmers consider
agriculture as their principal activity (84%).
4. SMALL HILL DAM IMPACTS

4.1. Farm Size
The data showed that more than half of the farmers have farm area less than 10 ha (Table
7). The majority of the surveyed farms (57%) belong to strata of less than 5 ha or 5-10 ha.
Only the quart of farmers has farm area exceeding 20 ha. The average farm area ranges from
3.0 ha for the very small farm strata to 37.8 ha for large farm strata. The number of plots,
around 150, indicates that farms are parcelled (4 plots by farm). The high number of plots is
observed in the medium farm with 6.7 plots in average and the maximum corresponds to 24
plots, for one farmer. The plot area ranges from 1.4 ha for very small farms to 6.6 ha for large
farms indicating a relatively small size.
4.2. Irrigation Practice and Water Resources
The total area owned by surveyed farmers is 533.0 ha which 24.8% (132.0 ha) are
considered by the beneficiaries near hill dams and less than 60.0 ha are irrigated (Table 8).
The main reasons for non-adoption of the irrigation practice mentioned by farmers are water
scarcity in the reservoir (31.6%) and lacking of irrigation equipments and financial resources
(47.4%). Other reasons were also pointed out such as farmers‟ organization and irrigation
expertise. These responses were given by the half of the surveyed farmers. The other 18
farmers did not answer to the corresponding question or irrigate regularly.
Table 7. Stratification of sampled farms near small hill dams in Bizerte Governorate.
Very small farm Small farm Medium farm Large farm

Strata
(<5 ha) (5-10 ha) (10-20 ha) (>20 ha)
% 24.3 32.4 18.9 24.3
Farmer
Number 9 12 7 9
Average farm area (ha) 3.0 6.4 12.7 37.8
Plot number by farm 2.1 2.8 6.7 5.7
Average plot area (ha) 1.4 2.3 1.9 6.6
Table 8. Farm proximity to reservoir and reason

for non-adoption of irrigation practice.
Area
Location
ha %
Near hill dam 132.3 24.8
Irrigated from hill dams 58.8 11.0
Total area 533.0 100.0
Farmer
Reason for non adoption of irrigation
Number %
Water scarcity 6 31.6
Lacking equipments and financial resources 9 47.4
Other 4 21.1
Total 19 100.0
Before hill dam implementation, only 43.0% of surveyed farmers practice irrigation from
well and special surface management to harvest runoff, from the wadi (Table 9) indicating
that farming system is mainly rain-fed. After hill dam water-filling, near 80% of the surveyed
farmers practice irrigation, indicating the introduction of the irrigation practice in the farming
system. In fact, only 8 farmers continue to be exclusively rain-fed farming system. Water
used for irrigation is supplied essentially from the hill dam and other remaining sources (well
surface management) are of low interest.
Table 9. Water supply for irrigation before and

after small hill dam implementation.
Before After
Water source
% Number % Number
Wadi 13.5 5 0.0 0
Well 13.5 5 5.4 2
Hill dam 0.0 0 70.3 26
Other water Surface 16.2 6 2.7 1
Did not irrigate 56.8 21 21.6 8
Total 100.0 37 100.0 37
Table 10. Irrigation system used by farmers

before and after hill dam creation.
Before After
Irrigation system
% Number % Number
Submersion 5.4 2 29.7 11
Sprinkler 5.4 2 18.9 7
Micro irrigation 0.0 0 13.5 5
Missing data 32.4 12 16.3 6
Total 43.2 16 78.4 29
The irrigation was performed by submersion or sprinkler before hill dam implementation;
however several answers of farmer are missing or more than one irrigation system is used
(Table 10). Near 30% of the surveyed farmers continue to use submersion irrigation in spite
of administration incentive to adopt sprinkler irrigation and micro irrigation, used respectively
by 18.9% and 13.5%. In fact these irrigation systems are suitable for steeply landscape similar
to the study area in one hand and more saving for water resource in the semi arid context in
the other hand (Troeh et al., 1999).
4.3. Cropping System
Survey‟s results indicate that the annual crops, represented by wheat, barley, oat and
fodder-broad bean, correspond to 91.7% and 83.7% respectively before and after hill dam
creation indicating a decrease around 4% in average (Table 11). This decrease is observed for
broad bean used to feed dairy bovine herd. The winter vegetable crops were cropped in 0.37
ha before hill dam creation and are used in 0.30 ha afterwards. Moreover, the surveyed
farmers had transformed a part of their area in chickpea to pea, indicated respectively by a
negative evolution rate (-33%) and high positive one (500%). The main summer vegetable
crops are tomato, pimento, watermelon and melon. They were cropped in 0.23 ha and in 0.63
ha respectively before and after hill dam creation, showing a three-times increase of the area
of these crops. The area of these crops increased except that for melon which decreased, due
to marketing problem related to late yield of the region compared to Central Tunisia. In
summary, it can be said that farmers seize the availability of water to diversify their cropping
system by including more attractive crops as reported in previous studies (Selmi and Zekri,
1995; Khlifi et al., 2010).
Table 11. Evolution of the farming system before and after hill dam creation.
Before After
Land use Evolution rate (%)
ha % Ha %
Annual crops 13.30 91.7 12.80 83.7 -3.8
Wheat 6.90 47.6 6.70 43.8 -2.9
Barley 2.20 15.2 1.80 11.8 -18.2
Oat 2.80 19.3 2.70 17.7 -3.6
Broad bean 1.40 9.7 1.60 10.5 14.3
Vegetable crops 0.60 4.1 0.93 6.1 55.0
Chickpea 0.36 2.5 0.24 1.6 -33.3
Pea 0.01 0.1 0.06 0.4 500.0
Pimento 0.02 0.1 0.33 2.2 1550.0
Tomato 0.03 0.2 0.13 0.9 333.3
Watermelon 0.04 0.3 0.06 0.4 50.0
Melon 0.14 1.0 0.11 0.7 -21.4
Fruit trees 0.60 4.1 1.56 10.2 160.0
Olive 0.54 3.7 1.49 9.7 175.9
Peach 0.05 0.3 0.05 0.3 0.0
Apple 0.00 0.0 0.01 0.1 nd
Figure 0.01 0.1 0.01 0.1 0.0
Total 14.50 100.0 15.29 100.0 -
The proportion of total farm area devoted to fruit trees was about 4.1% before hill dam
creation and increased to reach 10.2% after its construction. This positive trend corresponds
to the augmentation of average olive tree area which was extended from 0.54 ha to 1.49 after
hill dam creation; meanwhile, the areas of other fruit trees remain unchanged. Olive tree is
considered as a crop needing a low amount of water that can be redirected to irrigate other
crops (Khlifi et al., 2010). Furthermore, the planting of olive tree plantation in contour helps
to control erosion and consequently prevent rapid silting-up of the reservoirs. Therefore, the
regional agricultural services provide financial and technical support to farmers choosing
olive-tree plantation (Selmi et al., 2001; Hamdi, 2003). The average farm area was 14.5 ha
before hill dam creation and reaches 15.3 ha afterwards. This augmentation can be explained
by the increase of the intensification rate since vegetable crops are grown under fruit trees.
4.4. Herd Characteristics and Evolution
For the surveyed farmers, livestock is composed of bovine, ovine and caprine species
(Table 12). The bovine herd was 85 UF before small hill dam creation and reaches 212 UF
afterwards indicating a high increase rate, near 150%. The average size of bovine cattle is
estimated to 2.3 UF and 5.7 UF respectively before and after hill dam creation. The
proportion of the non-breeder bovine farmers increased from 35.1% before hill dam creation
to 64.9% after that indicating their specialization. Bovine breeders with more than 10 UF
emerged since water became available. Therefore bovine cattle have increased and became
owned by a low number of farmers. Several farmers changed their local bovine race to the
pure Swiss or Holstein breed as dairy cattle for milk production.
The ovine cattle were 212 UF before hill dam creation and reached 402 UF afterwards
representing an increase rate of 89%. The proportion of the non-breeder ovine farmers
decreased from 64.9% before hill dam creation to 48.7%. All ovine breeder classes show an
increase after hill dam creation, ranging from 14.3% to 123.6%. The ovine livestock belong
entirely to the Barbarine race. The size of the caprine cattle was 123 UF before hill dam
implementation and reached 376 UF afterwards showing a high increase rate (205%). This
high increase might be explained by the emergence of caprine breeder farmers with more than
20 UF.
4.5. Income Evolution
Few responses have been obtained concerning farmers‟ income before and after small hill
dam construction, which makes difficult to get precise estimations. Nevertheless, these
observations indicate an increase of farmers‟ income. Before reservoirs‟ creation, the income
of the farmers ranged between 800 and 40,000 TND/year. These incomes ranged between
1,300 and 50,000 TND/year after small hill dam construction corresponding to an average
increase of 50% for all farmers.
Table 12. Livestock characteristics before and after small hill dam creation.
Before After
Evolution
Species Classe (UF) UF UF
% % rate (%)
Total Average Total Average
0 0 0.0 35.10 0 0.0 64.90 nd
<5 57 3.0 51.40 14 3.5 10.80 -75.4
Bovine 5 – 10 28 9.5 8.00 28 9.3 8.10 0.0
>10 0 0.0 0.00 170 28.4 16.20 nd
Total 85 2.3 94.50 212 5.7 100.00 149.4
0 0 0.0 64.90 0 0.0 48.70 nd
<10 42 6.0 18.90 48 6.9 18.90 14.3
Ovine 10 – 20 60 20.0 8.10 108 18.0 16.20 80.0
>20 110 36.7 8.10 246 41.0 16.20 123.6
Total 212 5.7 100.00 402 10.9 100.00 89.6
0 0 0.0 27.00 0 0.0 54.10 nd
<10 85 3.4 67.60 52 8.7 16.20 -38.8
Caprine 10 – 20 38 19.0 5.40 88 17.6 13.50 131.6
>20 0 0.0 0.00 236 39.4 16.20 nd
Total 123 3.3 100.00 376 10.2 100.00 205.7
5. CONCLUSION
The study highlighted the impact of small hydraulic structures, collecting small amounts
of water for the agricultural intensification in steeply areas. The available water is used to
perform irrigation mainly for fruit tree plantations, seasonal vegetable crops and fodder
practiced in small areas. Therefore, the areas in fruit trees and in vegetable crops had
increased after hill dam creation. The cattle size, for all spices surveyed, shows a significant
increase after hill dam creation, explained by water availability for herd watering and fodder
production. The farmer income had substantially increased as consequence of the hill dam
implementation.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was supported within the research convention entitled "Transformations of the
production systems around small hill dams", between the ESIER Medjez el Bab and the
DG/ACTA (MAHR), and was financed by the European Union as a donation (Grant 01/01-
DRI/GRN project).
REFERENCES
A/CES (Arrondissement de Conservation des Eaux et du Sol, CRDA de Bizerte). (2008).
Suivi annuel de l’état de remplissage et de la superficie irriguée autour des lacs
collinaires. 8.
Boufaroua, M., Lamachère, J. M., Débabria, A. & Ksibi, F. (2006). Prédétermination de
l‟envasement des lacs collinaires de la Dorsale tunisienne. 14th International Soil
Conservation Organization Conference. Water Management and Soil Conservation in
Semi Arid Environments. Marrakech, Morocco 4.
DG/ACTA (Direction Générale de l‟Aménagement et de la Conservation des Terres
Agricoles). (2008). Suivi de la réalisation et de l’exploitation des lacs collinaires. Note
du MARHP, 6.
D/CES (Direction de Conservation des Eaux et du Sol). (1993). Stratégie nationale de la
Conservation des Eaux et du Sol (1990-2000). Copie revue et modifiée. Note de la
Direction de la CES-Ministère de l‟Agriculture. 53.
Hamdi, S. (2003). Modélisation stochastique de l‟usage agricole de l‟eau et développement
durable autour des lacs collinaire : application à la retenue de Djbel Hallouf dans le
gouvernorat de Kairouan en Tunisie semi-aride. In Z. Bergaoui, eds Gestion du risque
eau en pays semi-aride. Tunis 203-209.
Jeon, J., Lee, J., Shin, D. & Park, H. (2008). Development of dam safety management system.
Advances in Engineering Software, 40, 554-563.
Khlifi, S., Ameur M., Mtimet, N., Ghazouani, N. & Belhadj, N. (2010). Impact of small hill
dams on agricultural development of steep land at Jendouba region (North Western
Tunisia). Agricultural water management, 97, (50-56).
Selmi, S., Sai, M. S. & Hammami, M. (2001). La valorisation des ressources en eau aléatoires
et non pérennes par le développement de l'olivier autour des lacs collinaires en Tunisie.
Sécheresse, 12, 45-50.
Selmi, S. & Zekri, S. (1995). Evaluation économique et environnementale des lacs collinaires
en Tunisie : le cas d‟El Gouazine (Ouesslatia - Kairouan). In: R., Pontanier, A., M‟Hiri,
N., Akrimi, J. & Aronson, et E. Le Floc‟h: eds L‟homme peut-il refaire ce qu‟il a
défait? John Libbey Eurotext, Paris.
Troeh, F. R., Hobbs, J. A. & Donahue, R. L. (1999). Soil and water conservation:
productivity and environmental protection. Third Edition Prentice Hall Inc., New Jersey
610.
Chapter 10
SEMI-ARID ZONE AFFORESTATION

IN NORTHERN ISRAEL: A REVIEW
Paul Ginsberg*1 and Nir Atzmon2

Land Development Authority – Forest Department
1
Keren Kayemeth Leisrael (KKL); PO Box 45; Kiryat Haim 26103 ISRAEL
2
Department of Agronomy and Natrual Resources; Institute of Field and Garden Crops;
Agricultural Research Organization; Volcani Center; Bet Dagan ISRAEL
ABSTRACT
Afforestation activities in Israel take place over an extreme geobotanical and climatic
gradient of between 250-900mm of rainfall a year. A relatively moist, Mediterranean
climate, natural woodlands of evergreen, sclerophyllous oaks and planted forests of
Mediterranean pines and cypresses characterize the vast majority of forestlands in
northern Israel. In contrast, an eastern semi-arid pocket associated with the Syrian-
African Rift Valley presents challenging environmental conditions for afforestation
efforts as practiced by the British Mandatory Forest Department, the Israeli
Governmental Forest Department, the Keren Kayemeth Leisrael (KKL) and private
entrepreneurs over the past 80 years. The accumulated experiences of planting new
forests in this semi-arid zone, combined with results from introduction plots and
afforestation areas throughout Israel, led to the development of a unique set of
silvicultural tools and tree species employed to guarantee successful afforestation plans.
All of these new afforestations function as multipurpose forestry systems offering
landscape, watershed, soil conservation, pasture, recreational and NWFP goods and
services and can provide a relevant model of sustainable forest management for semi-arid
and arid zones worldwide.
*
Corresponding author: Email: Paulg@kkl.org.il
174 Paul Ginsberg and Nir Atzmon
INTRODUCTION
Dryland, or arid zone, forestry can be broadly defined as the "management of trees and
shrubs for conservation and sustainable development…to improve the livelihood and quality
of life for rural people in dryland environments" (Ffolliott et al 1995). Compared to
traditional commodity-oriented forestry, arid and semi-arid zone forest management centers
on the provision of non-timber economic goods and socio-ecological services in both rural
and urban settings (FAO 1989; Kuchelmeister 1997). When anchored within a conceptual
framework of sustainable forest management (SFM), an integrated scheme of arid zone forest
management can begin to answer societies' ecological, social and economic needs in a more
balanced and comprehensive fashion (MEA 2005). Arid lands, generally resource poor, tend
to be over-exploited, are limited in water, nutrients, soil and vegetative cover, and have a
propensity to suffer from leakages of these resources due to the systems' inherent inability to
retain them by physical or biological means (Whisenant 1995). Therefore, reversing
degradation involves the simultaneous cessation or diminution of human-induced causes
combined with active regeneration through protection, site manipulation and tree planting
activities (Malagnoux et al 2007). Hence, afforestation and forest management play essential
roles, viewed as indispensable tools and received widespread attention and study over the last
50 years as evidenced by the many international publications, seminars, conferences and
courses hosted by the UN and other international organizations (Atzmon 2008; FAO 1955;
FAO 1989b).
Israel covers an area of 21,670 km2 of which the semi-arid and arid zones cover 5,000
km2 and 12,000 km2, respectively, totaling 81% of its land area; the remaining areas centered
in the northern third of the country are Mediterranean sub-humid or humid in nature (Kaplan
et al 1970; Portnov et al 2004). Northern Israel is therefore not usually associated as an arid
environment. Its relatively moist, Mediterranean climate supports natural dense woodlands of
sclerophyllous, evergreen oaks and their assorted broadleaf species alongside planted forests
dominated by mixed Mediterranean conifers. In contrast, a semi-arid pocket (similar
climatically to that of the northern Negev Desert in southern Israel) associated with the
Syrian-African Rift depression, or Great Rift Valley (GVR), surrounds the Sea of Galilee and
lands immediately south of it into the northern Jordan River valley. Over the past 80 years,
the area's environmental conditions posed a challenge to afforestation and soil conservation
efforts as implemented by the British Mandatory Government in Palestine's Forest
Department, the Israeli Government's Forest Department, the non-governmental Keren
Kayemeth Leisrael (KKL) and collective agricultural settlement (kibbutz) enterprises. The
accumulated experiences of planting new forests in Israel‟s most northern arid zone led to the
development of a distinctive set of silvicultural tools and tree species employed to guarantee
successful afforestation plans. This article reviews the environmental conditions of the area,
describes various afforestation projects in a chronological fashion and develops a model for
the integrated and multiple-use management of semi-arid zone afforestation based on site
performance and similar projects from Israel.
Semi-Arid Zone Afforestation in Northern Israel: A Review 175
BIOPHYSICAL PARAMETERS OF NORTHERN ISRAEL

Israel is located at an important geo-climatic junction of three continents where climatic
and geobotanical zones coincide – the southern extension of moist, cool Europe; the western
extension of dry, warm Asia; and the northern extension of hot, dry Africa. In the northern
Mediterranean geobotanical zone – an area covering roughly half of the country (10,500 km2)
- native evergreen and deciduous oak forests with their associated broadleaf tree species, as
well as planted conifer and mixed conifer/broadleaf forests, dominate the undeveloped
landscape. The climate of Israel‟s northern half is typically Mediterranean in nature with cool,
wet winters and hot, dry summers. Koppen classified it as Csa (Mediterranean climate,
warmest month over 22oC, and dry summers) and Thornthwaite‟s Moisture Index as C1 (dry
subhumid, large water surplus in winter) (Survey of Israel 1970). UNESCO (1963) terms it a
“xerothermomediterranean climate”. Mean annual temperature ranges between 19-21oC. On
average, January is the coldest month (8-10oC) and August the hottest (26-28oC) (Survey of
Israel 1985). Relative humidity averages 55-60% with the lowest levels in May-June and the
highest levels in Dec.-Feb. (Orni et al 1980). The main rainy season extends from October to
May, with 75% of the rain falling from December to February (Gottfried 1982). Average
annual precipitation levels range from 400-900 mm. Typical soils of the region derived from
limestone, marl and chalk include terra rossa and light and dark rendzinas, with a pH ranging
from 7.0-8.0 and with varying degrees of free calcium.
Table 1. Distribution of average monthly precipitation and mean air temperature

and yearly solar radiation (Kcal/cm2/year) for Tiberias. (Lomas 1980).
Month Average Air Temperature Average Precipitation

(C°) (Mm)
Jan 14 101
Feb 14 89
Mar 17 38
Apr 20 6
May 24 -
June 28 -
July 30 -
Aug 30 -
Sept 28 -
OCT 25 8
NOV 20 42
DEC 16 76
Average 22
Total 383
Solar radiation 189
Map 1. Location map of Israel and its planted forests, the Sea of Galilee study area and an elevational
cross-section of the Tiberias slopes (Vladimir Bezverkhi, GIS Specialist, Lower Galilee District, KKL).
The semi-arid pocket under discussion is located within the north-south running GVR,
beginning with the eastern slopes of the Galilean mountains to the north, surrounding the Sea
of Galilee and continuing south of it into the Jordan River Valley's northern most extension
(see MAP 1). The Sea of Galilee, Israel's largest fresh water body and main drinking water
reservoir, plays a major role in influencing local climate. Elevation levels range from -210
meters at the lake's shoreline to +230 meters above sea level. Average annual precipitation
ranges from 350-450 mm/year over an average of 50 days per year (Orni et al 1980).
Temperatures are high during most of the year, mitigated in the winter by the Sea of Galilee.
August, the hottest month, averages 31ºC and January, the coolest, has a mean that does not
sink below 14ºC (see table 1). Relative year-round humidity averages 65%.
Soils surrounding the Sea of Galilee are diverse in nature having originated from a
variety of bedrock limestones, chalks, lissan marls and volcanic basalts (Orni et al 1980). A
mixture of terra rossa, light and dark rendzinas, basaltic protogrummosols, conglomerates and
unstable alluvial soils high in free calcium dominate the area. In addition, each type varies in
its ability to store soil moisture exhibiting different rates of drying and loss with the rendzinas
group having the highest storage capacity (Dan 1980).
Zohary (1962) classified the vegetation within this limited area according to
phytogeographical zones with their associated, dominant vegetation classes. Those found
include the “Mediterranean semi-steppe” and “Irano-Turanian shrub steppe” vegetation
complexes limited to the Mediterranean/Irano-Turanian borderlands, and include the
following formations: Mediterranean deciduous steppe-maquis and steppe forests dominated
by Pistacia atlantica, Crataegus azarolus and Amygdalus communis; Irano-Turanian
deciduous thermophilous scrub dominated by Zizyphus lotus; and, savannah forest dominated
by Zizyphus spina-christi.
AFFORESTATION
This section discusses a historical survey of afforestation activities and natural disaster
events in order to give a temporal perspective on the development of forestry trends and a
traceable series of events leading to the present standard of forestry practices. The area under
discussion is one of a handful in the northern region where forestry activities happened on a
continuum through various agencies.
1910's-1930's: Initial Plantings
Lipschitz et al (2004) accredits the Ottoman Regime in Palestine's tree-planting scheme

to establish a park in the Negev town of Beersheva in 1915 as the start of semi-arid and arid
zone forestry in Israel. Gindel (1946) attributes the start of actual afforestation work to the
1920's, coinciding with British control of Palestine after World War I. Their work centered on
acacia-based sand dune stabilization along the southern coastal strip (Weitz 1974). In 1917,
the KKL undertook plantings near Kibbutz Kinneret and Kibbutz Degania, near the Sea of
Galilee's southern tip, employing eucalyptus, Italian stone pine and casuarinas trees, whereas,
the Palestine Jewish Colonization Association (PJCA) planted pines, cypresses, acacias,
carobs and eucalypts in Kinneret, Tiberias and Menachamiya from 1922-1937 [see Map 2]
(Lipschitz et al 2004).
1920's-1980's: The Tiberias Forest Case Study
Situated on the Sea of Galilee's western shore at an elevation of -210 meters ASL is the
town of Tiberias. Steep hillsides rising above the town range over a 400-meter elevation
difference; possess an average slope of 30% (reaching up to 80% in some areas); topography
of plateaus and steep inclines, and an average slope length of 1300 meters. Various soils -
rendzinas, basaltic protogrummosols and mixed alluvium - are found. The climate is warm
Mediterranean.
Map 2. Location map of the Menachamiya, Poriyya, Ramot and Tiberias forests (Vladimir Bezverkhi,
GIS Specialist, Lower Galilee District, KKL).
Late spring and autumn thunderstorms can occur as cooler, oceanic air from the west
encounters warm, moist air rising from the Sea of Galilee at the western slope's upper edge.
In the years 1921, 1923, 1925, 1929, 1933, 1935, 1936, and 1940 documented severe storm
events resulted in flooding and mudslides, destruction of property and livestock, and loss of
life (36 people died in 1933) in the town below (Goor 1948). Tear (1931) noted in the soil
erosion section of his report on the need for afforestation in Palestine that "the hills south of
Tiberias afford an example of soil erosion, accentuated if not caused by the destruction of
vegetative growth in order to open up the hillsides for cultivation".
In early recognition of the site's need for immediate and effective soil conservation
treatment, the British Mandatory Government of Palestine‟s Forest Department began
scientific and professional soil conservation activities in 1927 (el-Eini 1999). The project
consisted of the manual construction of contour trench terraces (gradoni), afforestation, and
the cessation of uncontrolled livestock grazing on a designated area covering 750 hectares.
Contour terracing disrupted continuous surface runoff thus allowing rainwater to infiltrate
into the soil and created a sink for site resources (nutrients, organic matter and seeds),
otherwise washed away, to accumulate in micro-patches (Azagra et al 2004; Shachak et al
1998). Remnants of these works are still evident today (see figure 1). Preliminary tree species
planted were the exotic Acacia saligna [cyanophylla] - imported and successfully used by the
British to stabilize sand dunes along the coastal plain from Akko to Gaza - and the native
Zizyphus spina-christi. Further plantings from 1928-1936 included additional exotic species
such as: Acacia decurrens, A. nilotica, A. pycnantha, Ailanthus altissima, Cupressus
arizonica, C. sempreverins, Melia azadirachta, Parkinsonia aculeate, Pinus canariensis, P.
maritime, P. radiata, Robinia pseudoacacia and the native species Ceratonia siliqua, Pinus
halepensis and Zizyphus spina-christi (Dawe 1936; Dept. of Agriculture and Forests 1935;
Liphschitz et al 2004). Terracing, tree planting and closure to grazing allowed the site to
rehabilitate itself as evidenced by the development of a herbaceaous shrub layer between the
terraces and the trees planted on them (Goor 1948). In 1941, the British Mandatory
Government of Palestine‟s Conservator of Forests declared the site as "The Tiberias Special
Area" - the first "Special Area" under the Flooding and Soil Erosion (Prevention) Ordinance
1941 (Goor 1948) (see figure 2). Plantings and terrace construction continued through 1945
achieving an overall total of 100 kilometers of terraces and 170 hectares of planted forest.
Between the years 1948-1959, the Israeli Government's Forest Department took over site
management. They continued the British maintenance regime, while adding new exotic tree
species to the planted mix (Eucalyptus camaldulensis, E. gomphocephela, Pinus brutia),
trying direct sowing of native, deciduous Tabor oak (Quercus ithaburensis) acorns,
maintaining fire lines, roads and paths, tending to young stands and implementing early
thinnings (Goor 1951). Unfortunately, many of these plantings and the specific species did
not survive due to difficult site conditions and fires. Today, only a few lone remnant oaks
survive above the city of Tiberias (Nadav Stern, Tiberias area forester, KKL, personal
communication).
Figure 1. Remnant "gradoni" terraces from the British Mandate Period, Tiberias Forest, 2007 (Paul
Ginsberg).
Figure 2. Proposed Tiberias Special Area (El-Eini 2006, Appendix 41, page 525).
From 1960 onwards, the KKL took over full responsibility for the site's management.
Road construction, forest stand maintenance and the development of early recreational
facilities characterized work during the 1960's and 1970's, but no new plantings were
undertaken. Beginning in 1982, the KKL advanced an all-encompassing restoration plan for
the Tiberias Forest based upon integrated watershed management principles (Sapir et al
1988). The plan's coherent vision of multiple-use watershed management and development
integrates soil conservation measures, drainage structures, road construction, afforestation,
grazing management, fire prevention, archeological preservation and recreational site
development activities. Prior to project implementation, the KKL convened a planning team
of in-house expertise and external advisors from private planning and government agencies,
particularly the Ministry of Agriculture's Soil Erosion Research Station and the Lake Kinneret
(Sea of Galilee) Drainage Authority. Their assistance focused on planning a combined

roadway/drainage complex based on compartmentalization of the slope into its eight natural
watershed drainage basins. A network of five parallel forest roads planned as diversionary
channels and fitted with drainage structures breaks up the slope's vertical continuity, directing
and diverting surface runoff into the site's natural drainage channels, thus controlling the
erosive effects of unmitigated overland flow. In addition, they established a dense rainfall-
monitoring grid with 35 temporary gauges and three permanent ones, three hydrometric
stream flow gauges and a maintenance program for the numerous drainage structures
constructed on the roads and in the drainage basins i.e. broad-based dips, culverts, ditches,
sediment traps and riprap (Garti et al 1990). The main forest road is 5.1 kilometers in length
and connects Upper Tiberias to Poriyya. Asphalted and developed as a tourist route, it is
dotted with numerous picnic areas and scenic overlooks. [In 1985, Swiss supporters of the
KKL adopted the Tiberias Forest as an official project and since then it is known as the
"Swiss Forest" (Sapir et al 1988).]
Afforestation measures utilized a wide variety of previously proven tree and shrub
species, both native and exotic, to stabilize further the slope's soils and especially to diversify
its local plant ecology. Utilizing micro-catchments for enhanced water capture and retention,
small clusters of tree planted over the entire slope created a new patchwork mosaic structure.
Major tree and shrub species include: Acacia pendula, A. sclerosperma, Cassia sturtii,
Ceratonia siliqua, Cercis siliquastrum, Cupressus arizonica, Eucalyptus sargentii, E.
stricklandii, E. torquata, E. woodwardii, Pistacia atlantica, P. lentiscus, Quercus
ithaburensis, Rosmarinus officinalis, Sparteum junceum and Tetraclinis articulate. [see figure
3]. Concurrently, Weinstein (1993) established an acclimatization plot in 1984 to evaluate the
suitability of various Casaurina species and provenances for future use in arid zone
afforestation. He concluded that water, rather than soil, is the main limiting factor for
casuarinas growth.
Figure 3. View looking north over the Tiberias Forest. Foreground: a Tetraclinus grove, background:
Tiberias and Sea of Galilee, 2007. (Paul Ginsberg).
In 1989, two watershed management specialists from the USDA Forest Service visited
the site to evaluate the project's progress and develop a set of recommendations for
continuing work (Solomon et al 1989). In relation to soil conservation and in recognition of
the site's fragile nature, they emphasized the need for "creating the greatest amount of cover
(ground and canopy) with the least amount of ground disturbance (exposure of mineral soil)".
For tree planting they recommend the use of: 1) micro-catchments on existing terraces; 2)
new micro-catchments constructed on natural slopes; 3) reconstruction of existing terraces;
and, 4) construction of new terraces. They underscore the point that "grass and shrubs may be
as effective for soil and water conservation as trees" [an observation and basis for the original
project similar to that of the British approach].
Map 3. Plantings in the Tiberias Forest according to decades planted (Vladimir Bezverkhi, GIS
Specialist, Lower Galilee District, KKL).
Table 2. Tiberias Forest Plantings by decades according to

2001 GIS map (KKL GIS Dept.).
Unknown
Decade
1930's
1940's
1950's
1960's
1970's
1980's
1990's
Total
Area Planted (Ha) 5.8 88.5 30.1 9.7 20.8 78.2 77.3 12.0 322.4
% Of Total 1.8% 27.4% 9.3% 3.0% 6.5% 24.3% 24.0% 3.7% 100%
Forest management from the 1990's onwards concentrated on protecting the existing
inventory from damage by fire and uncontrolled grazing, and replacement plantings of
damaged and/or decadent mature stands. New plantings have further diversified the forest by
replacing veteran monocultures with mixed stands of evergreen and deciduous broadleaf
species with conifers. [see Map 3 and table 2].
Parallel to this series of public sector activities is a private forestry initiative of Kibbutz
Kinneret, which began in the 1980's and continued through 2003 (Nadav Stern, Tiberias area
forester, KKL, personal communication). They made available to the KKL their under-
utilized agricultural lands adjacent to the Tiberias and Poriyya Forests. In return, KKL
planted groves of melliferous eucalyptus trees intermixed with other broadleaf trees and
shrubs for exclusive use by the kibbutz as bee pasture. Species selection was similar to those
used in public forestry projects but was centered on the trees' abilities to produce nectar and
pollen year-round for commercial honey production. The species employed are as follows:
Acacia pendula, A. victoria, Cassia sturtii, Cercis siliquastrum Eucalyptus leucoxylon, E.
sargentii, E. stricklandii, E. torquata, E. torwood, Pistacia atlantica, P. lentiscus, Rosmarinus
officinalis and Tetraclinis articulata. This form of cooperative "apicultural forestry" benefits
both parties by enlarging the nation's forest inventory on an otherwise under utilized land
resource and creating a supporting mechanism important to the development of a central
agricultural branch in the region.
1970's: Zeev Naveh's Introduction Plots
Between the years 1970 and 1975, Naveh (1975) studied exotic and native shrubs for use
in "environmental afforestation of mountainous Mediterranean landscapes". Twenty-seven
high, medium and low shrubs species were introduced into acclimatization plots in the KKL's
Achihud Forest and were evaluated for their multi-purpose values as drought- and lime-
tolerant species with high landscape, cover, fodder and ornamental qualities. Located in the
western Galilee, the south facing site is characterized by shallow, light rendzina soils with a
high lime content and an average precipitation of 570 mm/year. This combination of site
conditions acts as a semi-arid niche within the Mediterranean zone. The site was prepared and
planted using standard KKL afforestation techniques (brush clearance, manual planting hole
preparation and pre-emergent herbicide treatment) with no supplementary irrigation
throughout the observation period. After five years of observation, measurement and analysis,
the following species exhibited a high "multiple-use quotient" and were recommended for
further use in KKL plantings: Cassia sturtii, Rosmarinus officinalis var. prostrata, Sparteum
junceum and Pistacia lentiscus.
1980’s: New Plantings
New areas planted in the Ramot, Poriyya, and Menahamiya forests in the 1980's show a
higher degree of species diversity, making use of results obtained from the Tiberias Forest
and Ze'ev Naveh's introduction plots. The basis for most of these plantings is a core group of
six tree and shrub species, proven to this day as a durable and reliable selection for
afforestation [see table 3]. The species are: Acacia sclerosperma, Ceratonia siliqua, Cercis
siliquastrum, Eucalyptus torquata, Pistacia atlantica, Tetraclinis articulata, and Zizyphus
spina-christi. Secondary but important species found in small numbers throughout these
forests include: Acacia pendula, A. raddiana, A. tortilis, A. victoria, Cassia sturtii, Casaurina
spp., Cupressus sempervirons, C. arizonica, Eucalyptus cineria, E. creusiana, E.
salmonophloia, Pinus canariensis, P. pinea, Pistacia lentiscus, several Prosopis spp. Retama
raetam and Sparteum junceum
1990’s-Present: New Concepts and Challenges
From the early 1990‟s, new concepts concerning the roles and objectives of forest were
discussed in Israel, reflecting a general trend worldwide. Various issues such as intensive
fuelwood plantations, agroforestry, bees pasture and new concepts of landscaping, recreation
and social goods and services (Ginsberg 2000) received more attention resulting in new
afforestation projects.
A. Acclimatization plots
The introduction and screening of new tree species and ecotypes for arid zone forestry
continues to this day through projects funded by the Israeli Tree Improvement Fund (ITIF)
[Named after David Nahmias] – a research fund jointly managed by the USDA Forest
Service and KKL. In 2001, Kagen (2002) established an acclimatization plot in the
Menachamiya Forest testing 13 species of Acacia, Ceridium, Eucalyptus, Pithecellobium and
Prosopis genii to evaluate their survivability and growth rates under arid conditions. In
general, all six eucalypts scored highest with an average vitality grade of five, on a scale of 1-
5, based on their survival rates and height growth. They include: Eucalyptus angulosa, E.
brockwayi, E. campaspe, E. salmonoploia and E. sargentii (Kagan et al 2004a). In 2003, five
species of Casaurina were added (Kagen et al 2004b). Results of the introduction have yet to
be summarized.
B. Apicultural forestry
Another project of relevance is the examination of various eucalypt species for
apicultural forestry applications (Eisikowitch et al 2004). Known for their profuse flowering
abilities and production of nectar and pollen, eucalypts are an important food source for
foraging honeybees, especially in the dearth season (late summer – late winter). This project
examines the adaptability of existing trees to site conditions in the Mediterranean and semi-
arid zones of Israel, their blooming period, nectar and pollen flow and their attractivity to
honey bees. Preliminary results recommend 25 species and ecotypes of melliferous trees, four
of which are commonly found in KKL forests in the Sea of Galilee basin: Eucalyptus
camaldulensis, E. torquata, E. torwood (E. torquata x E. woodwardii), and E. woodwardii.
These species provide an important economic service to Israeli beekeepers, adding further
value to landscape/recreational forests.
C. Silvopastoral agroforestry systems

The planting of select forest trees individually or in small groves on annual herbaceous
pasture is assumed to have a positive influence on livestock productivity (Duncan and
Clawson 1980; Sibbald 1996). Silanicove and Gutman (1992) studied the effect of shading on
beef cattle performance at the Agricultural Research Organization's (ARO) natural pasture
research station at Kare Deshe; a 1,500-hectare site located north of Tiberias on the basaltic
eastern slopes of the Galilee Mountains. The herd was divided into two groups: one grazing in
open fields, and the other grazing in fields with scattered Prosopis trees planted several years
earlier [see figure 4]. Their observations clearly showed the benefits of shaded sites within the
natural pasture. Following these recommendations, an experimental silvopastoral system was
designed and planted. Its focus was on species selection trials and overcoming establishment
difficulties of trees under the site's harsh environmental conditions and combined with
grazing (Henkin et al 2003). The tree species tested were Ceratonia siliqua, Pistacia
atlantica, Quercus ithaburensis and Ziziphus spina-christi, planted at a density of 100-120
trees/hectare, in rows, to maintain good pasture growth. The results suggests that Quercus
ithaburensis and Ziziphus spina-christi are the most promising species to be planted in
pasture land for shading resource, as they were least affected by grazing and exhibited the
fastest growth rates. Only three years of protected growth, in which grazing is excluded from
the planting sites, are required for their successful establishment. The other species required a
longer establishment period, which might interfere with the cattle grower's needs. Species like
Prosopis, which may serve as a good resource for fresh vegetation during the dry season, may
be of greater added importance to shading effects.
Table 3. Area, elevation and establishment data on the four

main planted forests under discussion (KKL GIS Dept.).
Forest Net Area Elevational Range Planting Dates

Planted (Ha) (M Asl)
Tiberias 322.4 -200 - +200 1930's – Present
Menahamiya 166.4 -150 - +150 1970's – Present
Ramot 132.6 -200 - +100 1970's – Present
Poriyya 76.7 -100 - +150 1948, 1980's – Present
Total 698.1
Figure 4. Cattle gathering during midday under the Prosopis trees planted in Kare Deshe Research
Station.
Another issue raised from this study was the planting design. Low-density, scattered
plantings require individual care of each tree with concomitant high establishment costs.
Therefore, the creation of high-density "shade groves" which affects a small percentage of the
total pasture area seems a more desirable and economical method for establishing a
silvopastoral system.
D. Drought effects on species selection

In 1998-1999, two consecutive years of below average rainfall affected Israel causing a
selection process characterized by the desiccation of core forestry species previously thought
drought resistant, and selected other species above them (KKL 2000). Mature specimens, in
particular of Cupressus sempervirons, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Pinus halepensis and P.
pinea, exhibited high levels of mortality in the Menachameya forest and other inland forests
(Givat HaMore and Gilboa) in the Lower Galilee region, whereas Ceratonia siliqua,
Eucalyptus torquata, Pinus canariensis, Pistacia atlantic, Tetraclinis articulata and Zizyphus
spina-christi excelled for their resilience and high level of survivability. These six native and
exotic species proved themselves once again as a highly adapted core group to local
conditions and serve as a dependable basis for all future plantings in this zone.
TREE SPECIES COMPARISON

Table 4 summarizes major tree species characteristics described in this review for choice
of: fuelwood, livestock fodder, bee pasture, regenerative capability after fire, aesthetics and
their invasiveness potential.
Table 4. Comparison of selected tree species utilized in afforestations of the Tiberias

Basin forests (Goor and Barney 1976; FAO 1989a;NAS 1980; Purdue Univesity 2007).
Tree Species Fuel Animal Bee Regenerates Landscape Invasive

Wood Fodder Pasture After Fire And Potential
(V-Vegetative; Aesthetics
S – Seed)
Acacia Pendula VS * *
A.Raddiana (*) * * VS *
A.Saligna * * * VS * *
A.Sclerosperma VS *
A. Tortilis (*) * * VS *
A.Victoria VS * *
Ceratonia Siliqua (*) * * * V *
Cupressus * *
Arizonica
C. Sempervirons * *
Eucalyptus * * V *
Camaldulensis
E. Occidentalis * * V *
E. Sargentii * * V *
E. Stricklandii * * V *
E. Torquata * * V *
E. Torwood * * V *
E. Woodwardii * * V *
Parkinsonia Aculeata * VS * *
Pinus Halepensis (*) * S *
Pistacia Atlantica (*) * * V *
P. Palaestina * * V *
Prosopis Alba * * V *
Tetraclinis Articulata * V *
Zizyphus Spina-Christi * * * V *
(*)
(*) – native species.
CULTURAL TREATMENTS
The application of special techniques to pre-planting and post-planting site treatments
and individual tree seedlings serves the chief purpose of guaranteeing high survival and early
development rates of the planted trees by enhancing the delivery and storage of rainfall,
preventing the loss of on-site soil resources and protecting the seedlings from injury
(Ginsberg 2002). A variety of techniques was employed over the decades as listed below:
Supplementary Irrigation (1910's - Present)
Utilized to extend the normal winter rainy season, it is typically applied in the spring
(March-May depending on rainfall distribution and intensity over the course of the season) 1-
3 times to maintain deep soil moisture storage throughout the active growing season and
encourage deep root growth of the seedlings. Currently, an option of early plantings is being
investigated where seedling are planted 1-2 months before the start of the rainy season with
supplementary irrigation as a way to increase survival rates in the first year (David Brand,
Head of Silviculture, Forest Dept., personal comm.).
Terracing and Micro-Catchments (1920's - Present)
Used in initial plantings of the Tiberias Forest by the British Mandatory Forest
Department and by the KKL in subsequent plantings, both methods create accessible areas for
tree plantings while increasing the amount of rainwater reaching each seedling by breaking up
surface continuity and concentrating surface flow from the catchment's area towards them.
Chemical Vegetation Management (1950's - Present)
Typically applied after the first rains as a pre-planting treatment, selective herbicide
application to the seedling's immediate surroundings reduces herbaceous weed competition
for stored soil water and growing space surrounding individual trees, and reduces fine fuel
loading and continuity on the planting site. Trends in herbicide use over the years have moved
from the widespread use of pre-emergent materials applied to the soil in the 1950's-1980's (i.e.
triazine class) to the use of post-emergent systemic ones applied directly to the competing
vegetation with a shorter half-life and lower soil residues (i.e. glyphosate).
Mulching (1980's - Present)
Mulching is an effective and environmentally friendly tool. Applied to individual tree

seedlings, it helps preserve stored soil moisture, cool surface soil temperature and reduce
fluctuations, suppress competitive weed growth, and slowly release its stored nutrients via
biological decomposition if using an organic material. KKL employs two types of mulching
material in its operations: 1) wood chips produced from forestry slash treatment after thinning
operations; and, 2) plastic sheet mulching (Atzmon et al 2003). Both materials were found to
be environmentally cost-effective alternatives to herbicide sprays when compared to standard
techniques of irrigation + chemical vegetation management.
Tree Shelters (1990's - Present)
A recent addition to the forestry toolbox, plastic tree shelters are primarily used on native
and introduced broadleaf species to accelerate their initial height growth. They operate as
mini-greenhouses with an improved microclimate, improve stem form by protecting the
seedling from winds and guiding its vertical growth, protect the seedlings from grazing by
wildlife and domestic livestock, and protect them against herbicide injury during post-
planting weed control treatments (Bonneh et al 2002). Standard treeshelters utilized are made
of translucent, corrugated plastic tubes of varying heights depending on the seedling type: 90
cm. for one-year old seedlings, 45 cm. for sown oak acorns, and 120 cm for 2-3 year-old
seedlings.
DISCUSSION
Afforestation in northern Israel's semi-arid zone is a reflection of historical trends, trial
and error at the operational field level, scientific research and a developing continuum of
sophistication in techniques and understanding of the role forests play in these regions. The
Tiberias Forest case study best illustrates this evolutionary process. From the original and
simply stated objective of erosion and torrent control as envisioned and implemented by the
British Mandatory Forest department, the Tiberias forest evolved over six decades into a
complex and dynamic asset for the town of Tiberias and its surrounding region. Current KKL
management envisioned, planned and implemented an all-encompassing watershed-based
development plan expanding upon the original goal of soil conservation to include a complex
drainage-oriented forest road network, recreational infrastructure, bee and livestock pasturing,
acclimatization and research plots, and a multifaceted landscape element of significance to
warrant the financial support of foreign donors. Recognized for its uniqueness and beauty, the
forest continues to protect Tiberias from mudslides, attracts numerous visitors year-round and
supplies important forage resources to neighboring farmers and ranchers.
The Ramot, Poriyya and Menachamiya forests benefited from early afforestation trials in
the Tiberias Forest and experimental tree and shrub introduction trials in the Galilee, and they
continue to benefit from current research projects as evidenced by the large variety of tree and
shrub species planted. Afforestation based on conifer/broadleaf species mixtures, patchiness
of the planting scheme reflecting micro-site conditions, and the associated understory layer of
herbaceous vegetation created biologically and structurally diverse forests highly suitable to
semi-arid conditions. Like the Tiberias Forest, they have high landscape value and provide
the same additional services to tourists and agriculturists alike. In addition, recent cooperative
forestry ventures between KKL and the private sector have enhanced the socioeconomic
standing of forestry and strengthened the perception of it as a supplementary tool for local
economic development. Concurrently, the planting of scattered trees and shade groves on
semi-arid herbaceous rangelands has demonstrated their positive influence by improving
primary and secondary productivity of the range and herd, respectively.
In summary, the main concept characterizing of all these forests is multi-functionality at
the site and landscape levels. When evaluating these afforestation systems in terms of semi-
arid and arid zone forestry systems, it is possible to portray them in terms of several relevant
but diverse management models: multiple-use afforestation model, integrated watershed
management model, arid-zone agroforestry model, and the sustainable forest management
model, wherein each one emphasizes different aspects of the forestry system for primary
management. The common attribute, though, to all these models is that they reflect an
integrated utilization of the forest's resources for the provision of ecological and
socioeconomic goods and services. The world's semi-arid and arid zones with their limited
natural resource base need responsive tools for land management that can effectively utilize
the available resources while providing a wide range of goods and services to the local
population. Hopefully, the examples presented in this review can contribute to the worldwide
effort at sustainable arid zone development.
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INDEX
architecture, 111
A Argentina, v, viii, 56, 63, 64, 65, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79,
80
absorption, 22, 52, 86, 89
arid, xi, 173, 174, 177, 181, 184, 189, 190, 191, 192
accelerator, 91
Ariel, 191
acclimatization, 181, 183, 184, 189
Asia, viii, 41, 42, 44, 56, 58, 59, 61, 175
acetylcholinesterase, 36
assessment, xi, 36, 37, 57, 159
acid, 13, 66
Atlas, 192
acute stress, 60
ATP, 87
adaptability, 51, 185
avoidance, 100
adaptation, 44, 46, 47, 54, 62, 143
adaptations, 100
adsorption, 18, 32, 35, 38 B
advantages, 43, 49, 51, 53
Africa, viii, 13, 36, 41, 42, 44, 56, 58, 59, 61, 84, 91, bacteria, viii, 52, 63, 66, 79, 80, 81, 85, 86, 88
93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 175 banks, 146
agencies, 177, 180 BEE, 187
aggregation, 94, 110 beef, 185, 192
agricultural, 174, 183 benefits, 183, 185
agriculture, vii, ix, 1, 49, 64, 99, 100, 103, 133, 144, bioassay, 37
166, 192 biodiversity, 100, 103, 104, 146, 151
agroforestry, 184, 189 biological activity, 33
air, 175, 178 biological markers, 2, 3
algae, 85, 96 biological processes, 88, 110
alimentation, 5 biomass, viii, 3, 36, 56, 63, 64, 66, 67, 68, 73, 75, 78,
alkaloids, 51 80, 81, 86, 87, 88, 89, 94, 100, 110
allopatric speciation, 39 biomonitoring, 2, 36
alluvial, 176 biosphere, 91
alternatives, 188 body weight, 55
ammonium, viii, 7, 63, 66, 88, 89, 94 Botswana, 84, 86, 93, 95, 96
amplitude, 85, 135 brain, 45, 55
Amsterdam, 192 Brazil, v, vii, ix, 56, 99, 100, 103, 104, 105, 106,
anatomy, 45, 55 107, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114
ANOVA, 66 breeding, 43, 44, 45, 48, 55, 58, 113
application, 187, 188, 191 bromine, 33
aptitude, 44 bulk density, 77, 89
aquatic systems, 3, 64 burn, 100
aqueous solutions, 38 by-products, viii, 42, 50, 54, 56
aquifers, 5, 14, 79, 116, 162
194 Index
conservation, x, xi, 54, 81, 100, 102, 103, 104, 109,

C 110, 113, 115, 116, 146, 147, 148, 171, 173, 174,
178, 180, 182, 189, 191
cadmium, 18, 36, 39
construction, 178, 180, 182
calcium, 23, 24, 31, 175, 176
consumption, 42, 56, 75, 76, 133
calcium carbonate, 23, 24, 31
contamination, ix, 3, 20, 36, 37, 63, 64
candidates, 32
contingency, 153
carbohydrate, 56, 86, 95, 96
continuity, 181, 188
carbohydrates, ix, 56, 83, 86, 87, 89
continuous data, 141
carbon, vii, ix, 81, 83, 93, 95, 96, 97, 103, 104, 105,
contour, 169, 178
112
contradiction, 57
Caribbean, 84, 96
control, 177, 189
carotene, 57
convention, 170
case study, 189
copper, 36, 50, 109
cash crops, 53
correlation, 18, 19, 31, 77
catabolism, 87
correlations, 18
catchments, 2, 181, 182
cortisol, 47
cattle, ix, xi, 50, 62, 99, 110, 116, 159, 163, 169,
cost, 49, 51, 56, 57, 188
170, 185
cost-effective, 188
CEC, 89
costs, 186
cement, 5, 50
cotton, 103
centigrade, 140
covering, 2, 84, 85, 175, 178
changing environment, 45
cows, 192
channels, 181
crops, ix, x, 44, 53, 65, 66, 67, 71, 73, 74, 75, 77, 78,
chemical properties, ix, 83
79, 81, 95, 99, 103, 116, 122, 131, 132, 134, 135,
chlorophyll, 86, 93
141, 142, 160, 161, 162, 163, 165, 168, 169, 170
chondrites, 28, 29
crown, 103, 110
circadian rhythm, 47
crystalline, 31, 100, 101
circadian rhythms, 47
crystals, 132
class, 153, 154, 188
cues, viii, 41, 42, 43, 47, 48, 60, 62
classes, 177
cultivation, 111, 114, 135, 178
clay minerals, viii, 2, 19, 21, 22, 23, 24, 31, 32, 33
Cyanophyta, 96
cleavage, 36
cycles, ix, 14, 35, 38, 48, 49, 80, 83, 88, 90, 91, 92,
climate, vii, xi, 4, 35, 60, 65, 84, 85, 90, 93, 96, 97,
154
100, 101, 132, 134, 142, 144, 173, 174, 175, 176,
cycling, ix, 55, 83, 85, 86, 87, 88, 91, 92, 93, 94, 104
177
climate change, 60, 84, 90, 93, 142, 144
closure, 179 D
clustering, 18, 19, 25, 26
clusters, 181 damages, 126, 127, 132, 134
Co, 190, 191, 192 data analysis, 22, 38
CO2, 86, 87, 90, 91 data set, 3, 19
coatings, 18 database, 130, 135
coefficient of variation, 123 deciduous, 175, 177, 179, 183
colonization, 105, 106, 107, 108, 110 decomposition, 64, 65, 66, 73, 74, 75, 76, 79, 80, 81,
commodity, 174 86, 91, 92, 188
communication, 179, 183 deficiencies, 104
community, 73, 74, 109, 114 deficiency, 50, 129
competition, 188 degradation, 52, 83, 84, 93, 95, 146, 148, 174
competitive advantage, 92 degraded area, 102
complex interactions, 92 delivery, 187
composition, 3, 7, 16, 20, 21, 31, 32, 33, 38, 51, 52, denitrification, 88
73, 91, 94, 100, 101, 146, 147, 152, 153 density, 185, 186
compounds, 50, 51, 52, 53, 56, 73, 75, 88 density values, 152
Index 195
Department of Agriculture, 190 environment, 174

deposition, 3, 64, 66, 71, 73, 75, 78, 88, 92 environmental change, 38
deposits, vii, 2, 44, 85 environmental conditions, ix, xi, 7, 19, 25, 45, 65,
depression, 84, 95, 174 87, 99, 173, 174, 185
deprivation, 44 environmental contamination, ix, 3, 63
desiccation, 15, 89, 91, 125, 186 environmental control, 55
destruction, 178 environmental degradation, 146
detection, 3, 33 environmental factors, 95
developing countries, 49, 191 environmental impact, 3, 5, 36, 116
diet, 51, 52, 53, 56 environmental protection, 171
diet composition, 52 environmental risks, 64, 75, 79
dietary intake, 53 equipment, 160, 162
direct action, 49 equity, 150
discharges, 117, 126 erosion, ix, 16, 32, 64, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 91, 92, 94,
distribution function, 137 95, 116, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127,
disturbances, 84, 91 162, 169, 178, 189
diversification, 53 estrogen, 45, 55
diversity, ix, 2, 10, 43, 44, 64, 81, 93, 99, 102, 103, ethnic groups, 102
104, 109, 146, 150, 151, 155, 184 eucalyptus, 177, 183
DMF, 114 Europe, 175
dominance, 151, 152, 153 European Union, 4, 35, 170
donors, 189 evaporation, 88, 101, 118, 119, 120, 123
drainage, vii, 2, 38, 96, 126, 130, 180, 189 evapotranspiration, 5, 85, 88, 89, 91
drinking water, 116, 176 evolutionary process, 189
drought, 44, 51, 54, 84, 85, 86, 98, 100, 101, 104, excretion, 57
118, 119, 183, 186 exopolysaccharides, 95
Drought, 186, 190, 191 experiences, xi, 173, 174
dry matter, 56 experimental design, 54
drying, 91, 177 expertise, 166, 180
exploitation, 130, 171
exploration, 102
E exposure, 4, 8, 11, 13, 87, 100, 138, 143, 182
external environment, 45, 55
ecological, 174, 189
extinction, x, 145, 151
ecology, 80, 85, 102, 143, 181, 190
extraction, 38, 50
economic activity, 103
economic development, 115, 189
economic goods, 174 F
economy, 146
ecosystem, x, 11, 36, 81, 83, 86, 92, 93, 95, 100, FAO, 174, 187, 190
101, 102, 104, 108, 110 farmers, xi, 42, 44, 50, 51, 56, 57, 103, 104, 116,
ecosystems, 190 159, 160, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 189
editors, 111, 112, 113, 114 farms, xi, 13, 14, 159, 166
effluent, 7, 8, 10, 14, 15, 19 FAS, 112
effluents, 2, 3, 13 February, 175
Egypt, 2, 37, 38, 44 feedstuffs, 50, 52, 54, 57
election, 55, 61, 185, 186 feldspars, 21, 22
elongation, 143 fermentation, 51, 52
embryo, 192 fertility, viii, ix, 41, 42, 43, 46, 48, 49, 55, 57, 61, 64,
embryogenesis, 36 65, 84, 85, 90, 95, 99, 103, 104, 106, 107, 110,
endangered species, 102 116
endocrine, 45, 46, 47, 48, 55, 56 fertilization, viii, 63, 64, 65, 66, 75, 76, 77, 79, 81,
endocrine system, 45, 55 106, 107, 114
entrepreneurs, xi, 173 fertilizers, 64, 65, 77, 78
196 Index
fibers, 103 glucose, 55, 56, 60, 62

field crops, 44 glycol, 50
fill material, 125, 126 glyphosate, 188
financial resources, 166, 167 goethite, 23, 24, 32
financial support, 35, 110, 189 gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), 45, 55, 58
fire, 179, 180, 183, 186 gonads, 53
fixation, viii, ix, 63, 65, 66, 71, 72, 77, 78, 79, 80, goods and services, x, xi, 100, 110, 173, 184, 189,
81, 82, 83, 86, 88, 91, 92, 94, 96, 97, 110 191
flooding, 126, 178 government, 180
flora, 101, 102, 112 grass, 81, 84, 85, 94, 125, 182
flour, 50 grasses, 54, 125
flow, 181, 185, 188 grasslands, 81
fluctuations, 44, 45, 93, 95, 188 grazing, 44, 50, 51, 53, 57, 58, 62, 90, 91, 97, 178,
follicle, 46, 53, 55, 59, 61, 62 180, 183, 185, 188, 192
follicles, 56, 59 groundwater, 5, 38, 64, 77, 89, 122, 160
food, 184, 192 growth, 178, 181, 184, 185, 188, 190
food industry, 50 growth factor, 60
food intake, 192 growth hormone, 61
food production, 104 growth rate, 56, 184, 185
forest ecosystem, 84 guidance, 116
forest management, xi, 173, 174, 189 guidelines, x, 115, 130
Forest Service, 182, 184, 190, 192
forestry, xi, 173, 174, 177, 183, 184, 186, 188, 189,
190, 191 H
forestry, 184, 190, 191, 192
HA, 183, 185
forests, xi, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178, 184, 185,
habitats, x, 100, 110
186, 187, 189
half-life, 188
formula, 51, 121, 127
hardness, 50, 51
fragments, x, 100, 145, 146, 147, 148, 150, 151, 152,
harvesting, x, 66, 104, 115, 117, 160
153, 154, 155
heat loss, 46
France, 52, 192
heavy metals, 2, 3, 8, 35
freezing, x, 131, 132, 133, 135, 137, 138, 139, 140,
Hebrew, 190, 191, 192
142, 143, 144
height, ix, x, 4, 99, 103, 116, 117, 118, 120, 121,
frequencies, 138, 139, 140
125, 126, 128, 132, 145, 148, 159, 164, 184, 188
fresh water, vii, 2, 7, 10, 13, 14, 15, 17, 19, 33, 176
height growth, 184, 188
frost, x, 131, 132, 133, 135, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141,
hematite, 22
142
herbicide, 183, 188
fruits, 51, 56, 103, 133
heterogeneity, 94, 155
fuelwood, 184, 186
historical trends, 189
functional approach, 110
homogeneity, x, 85, 145
fungi, ix, 85, 94, 99, 105, 106, 107, 109, 110, 113,
honey, 183, 185
114
honey bees, 185
hormonal control, 61
G humidity, 175, 176
hydrogen, 52
Gaza, 179 hydroxide, 19, 24
genetic diversity, 43 hyperthermia, 46
geography, 135 hypothalamus, 48, 55, 62
geology, 118, 130 hypothesis, 64, 90
Germany, 94 hypoxia, 38
GIS, 176, 178, 182, 183, 185
gland, 45, 47, 48, 55
global climate change, 84, 93
Index 197
leptin, 55, 59
I livestock, ix, 42, 46, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 57, 58, 59,
83, 86, 87, 88, 91, 116, 165, 169, 178, 185, 186,
immobilization, 64, 74, 76, 79
188, 189
impact assessment, 36
Livestock, 190
impacts, ix, 2, 3, 5, 84, 92, 99, 116, 117
low temperatures, 132, 142
implementation, 180
luteinizing hormone, 49
in utero, 43, 57, 61
incidence, 43
India, 56, 130 M
indirect effect, 144
industrial processing, 3 maintenance, 179, 180
industrial wastes, 5, 17, 20 majority, vii, xi, 2, 25, 27, 44, 146, 153, 166, 173
infrastructure, 189 Mandarin, 133
initiation, 42, 61 manganese, 38, 39
injury, 187, 188 manipulation, 52, 57, 174
inoculation, 113 mantle, 84
insulin, 55, 56, 60 marginal product, 47
integration, 34, 56, 62 marine environment, 16, 17, 19, 33, 35
interface, 19, 22, 85 maritime, 179
interference, 153, 155 markers, 2, 3
internal mechanisms, 45 marketing, 43, 168
iron, viii, 2, 19, 24, 31, 32, 33, 38, 39, 84 matrix, 22, 89, 130
irrigation, 183, 188, 190 Mauritania, 56
isolation, 3, 14, 22, 49 measurement, 183
isotope, 92 measures, 180, 181
Israel, vi, vii, xi, 94, 95, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177, meat, viii, 41, 42
184, 185, 186, 189, 190, 191, 192 medicines, 103
Italy, 190, 191 Mediterranean, vii, x, xi, 1, 2, 4, 12, 35, 36, 39, 44,
51, 52, 56, 57, 58, 61, 94, 131, 133, 134, 135,
162, 173, 174, 175, 177, 183, 185, 192
J Mediterranean climate, xi, 134, 173, 174, 175
melatonin, 47, 48, 49
Jamaica, 113
metabolic pathways, 92
Jerusalem, 190, 191, 192
metabolism, 87, 97, 192
Jordan, 41, 56, 174, 176, 192
metabolites, 51, 52, 61
metals, 2, 3, 5, 8, 32, 35, 39
K methodology, 129, 135
Mexico, 36, 39, 41, 56, 81, 191
King, 192 microbial communities, 91
microbial community, 73
microclimate, 104, 188
L Microsoft, 143
microstructure, 92
lactation, 46, 56 Middle East, 45, 190
lakes, 116 Millennium, 192
land, 174, 183, 185, 189, 190 mining, 2, 3, 13, 109
land tenure, 44 modification, viii, 41, 43
landscape, xi, 84, 96, 97, 116, 123, 146, 159, 160, moisture, ix, 65, 66, 78, 83, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90,
162, 168, 173, 175, 183, 185, 189 91, 93, 101, 119, 146, 177, 188, 190
landscapes, 94, 95, 104, 113, 116, 183, 191, 192 moisture content, 89, 90
Latin America, 100 molasses, 50
leaching, vii, 2, 3, 64, 74, 75, 81, 88, 89, 97 monitoring, 2, 37, 120, 129
legume, 73, 74, 81, 113 Morocco, 2, 45, 58, 129, 171
198 Index
morphology, 130 organic, 179, 188

mortality, 186 organic matter, 16, 33, 38, 45, 51, 64, 65, 66, 86,
mosaic, ix, 99, 101, 181 110, 114, 179
mountains, 176 ovulation, 46, 47, 49, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61,
mRNA, 60 62
oxidation, 32, 64, 94
oxide nanoparticles, 39
N oxygen, 46
nanoparticles, 32, 39
NAS, 187 P
National Academy of Sciences, 192
National Academy of Sciences (NAS), 192 P. pinea, 184, 186
native species, 104, 109, 179, 187 Pacific, 190
natural, xi, 173, 174, 177, 181, 182, 185, 189 Pakistan, 56
natural resources, 102, 110, 146 paleontology, 22
nematode, 37, 52, 57 Palestine, 174, 177, 178, 190, 191, 192
nervous system, 60 parallel, 181
Netherlands, 92, 93, 94 parasitic infection, 52
network, 181, 189 Paris, 192
neuroendocrine system, 48 pasture, xi, 146, 162, 173, 183, 184, 185, 186, 192
NIR, 65, 66, 67, 68, 73 pastures, viii, 42, 56, 104, 192
nitrate, viii, 7, 12, 63, 64, 66, 70, 74, 76, 80, 81, 89 pathways, 47, 55, 60, 92
nitrates, 76, 77 perception, 189
nitrification, 75 percolation, 125
nitrogen, vii, viii, ix, 56, 63, 65, 73, 79, 80, 81, 82, performance, 46, 52, 53, 58, 61, 62, 106, 174, 185
83, 87, 92, 94, 95, 96, 97, 104 periodicity, 47, 101
nitrogen fixation, 80, 82, 92, 94, 96 permeability, 122
nitrogen-fixing bacteria, 80 permission, iv, 4, 13, 15, 17, 18, 23, 26, 28, 29, 30,
nitrous oxide, 81 34
N-N, 5 personal communication, 179, 183
nodules, 77 Perth, 62
noise, 23 pH, vii, 1, 7, 66, 81, 106, 175
normal, 187 pharmacological treatment, 49
North Africa, 2, 42, 44, 45, 56, 58, 59, 61 phosphorus, 50, 101, 106, 107
North America, 89, 96 photographs, 14, 119, 129
Norway, 132, 144 photosynthesis, ix, 43, 83, 86, 87, 92, 96
Norway spruce, 132, 144 photosynthetic systems, 96
nutrients, vii, ix, 1, 7, 42, 50, 51, 53, 54, 62, 64, 73, physical properties, 3, 80, 111
74, 76, 83, 84, 85, 86, 88, 89, 90, 104, 113, 174, physics, 132
179, 188 physiology, 43, 45, 47, 48, 55, 62, 143
nutrition, viii, 41, 43, 48, 52, 53, 54, 55, 58, 59, 61, phytoplankton, 36, 84
62 pineal gland, 47, 48
Pinus halepensis, 179, 186, 187
pituitary gland, 45, 48, 55
O planning, 180
plants, 53, 59, 80, 90, 95, 100, 102, 103, 104, 105,
observations, 185
106, 107, 109, 110, 114, 132, 143, 190
oceans, 84
pollen, 183, 184
OCT, 17
pollution, 2, 3, 16, 33, 34, 36, 37, 38, 39
olive oil, 50
pools, 88, 104, 112, 128
oocyte, 46, 61
population growth, 146
opportunities, 84
Portugal, 1, 37, 39
opportunity costs, 50
poverty, x, 100, 110
Index 199
precipitation, vii, 18, 32, 65, 78, 87, 90, 91, 92, 93, regenerate, 110
96, 119, 120, 123, 150, 160, 161, 163, 175, 176, regeneration, x, 100, 110, 154, 174
183 rehabilitate, 179
pregnancy, 54, 56, 60 rehabilitation, 190, 192
prevention, 122, 125, 160, 180 rehydration, 98
priming, 60 relevance, 184
private, xi, 173, 180, 183, 189 reliability, 130, 132
private sector, 189 remediation, 33
probability, 130, 137, 139 replacement, 56, 183
producers, viii, ix, x, 42, 43, 63, 64, 77, 79, 96, 132, reproduction, 37, 42, 47, 50, 53, 54, 55, 58, 59, 61,
140, 142 62
production, 183, 184 reproductive organs, 132
productive capacity, 102 reserves, 44, 47, 85
productivity, 43, 44, 45, 54, 84, 93, 94, 171, 185, 189 reservoir, 176
profitability, 56, 79 residues, viii, 5, 14, 44, 50, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 73, 74,
progesterone, 45, 49, 55, 57, 61 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 188
program, 181 resilience, ix, 52, 83, 84, 85, 86, 92, 93, 186
programming, 57 resistance, 46, 52, 100, 122, 132, 133
project, 118, 170, 178, 180, 182, 184 resolution, 36
propagation, 108 resource availability, 83
property, 178 resource management, 109
proportionality, 151 resources, viii, 42, 45, 49, 50, 51, 52, 54, 57, 88, 102,
puberty, viii, 41, 42, 48, 58, 60 110, 115, 116, 146, 147, 165, 166, 167, 174, 179,
187, 189
respiration, ix, 83, 87, 91, 92, 96
Q responsiveness, 48
restoration programs, 106
quality of life, 174
risk management, 47, 60
quartz, viii, 2, 18, 21, 22, 31, 32, 33, 84
rocks, 28, 37, 127
Quercus, 179, 181, 185
Rome, 190, 191
room temperature, 22, 24
R rotations, ix, 63, 73, 78, 81
roughness, 89, 128, 129
race, vii, 1, 3, 169 runoff, x, 95, 115, 116, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123,
radiation, 84, 101, 175 126, 130, 159, 160, 162, 163, 167, 179, 181
rainfall, xi, 45, 74, 75, 76, 77, 84, 85, 87, 88, 89, 91, rural, 174
94, 95, 96, 97, 101, 102, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, rural people, 174
130, 134, 160, 162, 163, 173, 181, 186, 187
rainwater, 179, 188
S
range, 175, 176, 177, 189
rangeland, 60, 93
salinity, vii, 1, 7, 12, 13, 31, 53, 118
rare earth elements, viii, 2
sand, 177, 179
raw materials, 104
saponin, 52
reactive oxygen, 46
saturation, 90, 119, 128, 129
recognition, 178, 182
scarcity, 44, 56, 74, 76, 152, 166, 167
recommendations, iv, 182, 185
scholarship, 110
reconstruction, 182
screening, 184
recreation, 184
sea level, 136, 162, 176
recreational, xi, 173, 180, 185, 189
seasonality, 48, 55, 58, 78, 102
recurrence, 85
secretion, 46, 47, 48, 49, 53, 56, 59, 60, 61
Red Sea, 37
sediment, 3, 10, 16, 20, 22, 30, 31, 32, 33, 35, 121,
redistribution, 84, 85, 89, 90
122, 123, 181
reflection, 189
sedimentation, x, 115, 116, 119, 123
200 Index
sediments, vii, viii, 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 12, 13, 14, 16, storage, x, 50, 85, 115, 116, 118, 119, 120, 123, 124,
17, 19, 20, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 91, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 160, 161, 162, 163,
119, 120, 121, 128 177, 187, 188
seedlings, 106, 107, 114, 143, 187, 188 storms, 116
semi-arid, xi, 173, 174, 176, 177, 183, 185, 189, 191 streams, 130
seminars, 57, 58, 61, 174 stressors, 47
sensitivity, 46, 91 strontium, 18
series, 177, 183 structuring, 89, 95
services, xi, 173, 174, 184, 189, 191 subsistence, 102, 103, 109, 116
sex, 45, 55 subsistence farming, 116
sex steroid, 45, 55 substitution, 100
sexual behaviour, 46 substrates, 53, 100
shade, 186, 189 succession, 81, 152, 154
shape, 127 summer, 184
shear, 128 suprachiasmatic nucleus, 48
sheep, viii, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, surface area, 3, 91, 123, 130
53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62 surface layer, 21, 22, 27, 28, 31, 86
shelter, 44, 192 surface properties, 97
shelters, 188, 190 surplus, 175
shortage, 101, 163 survey, x, 36, 118, 145, 148, 163, 165, 177
shrubland, 94, 100, 101, 114 survivability, 184, 186
shrubs, viii, 42, 51, 52, 53, 54, 56, 102, 174, 182, survival, 44, 45, 46, 53, 54, 110, 112, 132, 143, 146,
183 184, 187, 188, 190
simulation, 91, 130 survival rate, 184, 188
sites, 185, 190, 191 susceptibility, 141
socioeconomic, 189 sustainability, x, 53, 54, 81, 84, 104, 131, 132, 146
soil, xi, 173, 174, 177, 178, 180, 181, 182, 187, 188, sustainable development, 174
189, 191 sympathetic nervous system, 60
soil erosion, 64, 84, 178 synchronization, 49, 59, 75, 76, 77, 79
soil particles, ix, 65, 83, 85, 86 synthesis, 52, 54, 57, 86, 89, 92, 96
soils, 175, 176, 177, 181, 183, 190 Syria, 58, 59, 61
solar, 175 systems, xi, 173, 174, 189, 192
solid waste, vii, 2, 3, 14
sorption, 34
South Africa, 36, 56, 97 T
Southern Africa, 94
Taiwan, 37
Spain, 1, 36, 38, 41, 52, 132, 134, 135, 143
tannins, viii, 42, 50, 52, 57
specialists, 182
technicians, 190
specialization, 169
temperature, vii, x, 1, 7, 22, 23, 24, 39, 44, 46, 56,
species richness, 150, 151, 152, 155
65, 78, 85, 87, 88, 91, 93, 98, 101, 131, 132, 133,
specific knowledge, 109
134, 135, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144,
spectrophotometry, 7
175, 188
sperm, 54, 56
temporal, 177
spermatogenesis, 46
tenure, 44
spin, 22
terminals, 55
spore, 109
terraces, 178, 179, 182
sprouting, 104, 110, 112
territory, 84
stabilization, 177
testing, 184
stabilize, 179, 181
testosterone, 45, 55, 56
sterile, 4, 34
texture, 88, 89, 92, 119, 122
steroids, 45, 55
time series, 132, 143
stimulus, 48
tissue, 144
toxic metals, 32
Index 201
toxicity, 36 velocity, 117, 128, 129

trace elements, vii, viii, 1, 2, 3, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 26, vessels, 45, 55
27, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35 volatilization, 64
traits, 43, 56, 57 vulnerability, 91
transformations, 65, 81
translocation, 89
transmission, 22 W
transport, 3, 5, 16, 17, 84, 96
waste, 3, 5, 14, 50
transportation, 50
water, 174, 175, 176, 181, 182, 188, 192
traps, 181
water quality, 44
tree plantings, 188
water resources, 115, 116, 165
trees, 174, 177, 179, 182, 183, 185, 186, 187, 188,
water supplies, 116
189, 190, 191, 192
watershed, x, xi, 115, 116, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122,
trial, 127, 189
123, 124, 127, 129, 160, 161, 163, 173, 180, 182,
triggers, 45
189
tropical forests, 100, 152
wealth, 54
twinning, 53, 54
web, 192
welfare, 62
U wells, 148
Western Europe, 192
U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), 182, 184, wetting, 91
190, 192 wildland, 97
UK, 80, 81, 83, 95 wildlife, 85, 188
UN, 97, 174, 190, 191 winter, 175, 176, 184, 187
undernutrition, 43, 61 withdrawal, 160
UNESCO, 35, 175, 192 wood, ix, 99, 102, 103, 104, 109, 110, 114, 153, 188
uniform, 16, 126 wood species, 114
urban solid wastes, vii, 2 woodland, 81, 98, 100, 101, 111
urbanization, 192 World Resources Institute, 192
urea, 50, 66, 88 World War, 177
urine, 88
Utah, 192
X
V X-ray, 39
XRD, 21, 23, 31, 32
valleys, 84, 100, 118, 138
values, 183
variations, vii, 2, 3, 16, 19, 20, 25, 27, 28, 31, 33, 44, Z
47, 48, 50, 78, 97, 100, 101, 132, 133
zinc, 36
vegetables, 133
Zone 1, 12
vegetation, vii, ix, x, 2, 4, 44, 53, 84, 85, 88, 91, 93,
Zone 2, 13, 14, 15
96, 97, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 108,
zygote, 48
109, 110, 113, 125, 145, 146, 147, 148, 150, 151,
152, 153, 154, 155, 177, 185, 188, 189
vegetative cover, 174

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ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE, ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

Additional books in this series can be found on Nova‟s website

Additional E-books in this series can be found on Nova‟s website

Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

NOTICE TO THE READER

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA

Published by Nova Science Publishers, Inc.  New York

Chapter 8 Fragments of Caatinga in the Sub-Basin of Rio Bodocongó:

THE SEMI-ARID ENVIRONMENT OF THE

M. Isabel Prudêncio1,2, Francisco Ruiz3, M. Isabel Dias1,2,

2. THE EL MELAH LAGOON AREA

Figure 2. A view of the central area of the El Melah lagoon.

Figure 3. Main anthropogenic activities in the El Melah lagoon area.

3. ENVIRONMENTAL ZONES OF THE EL MELAH LAGOON AREA

spectrophotometry. Orthophosphates were analyzed through colorimetry by the molybdate

Waters and Nutrients

i) Marine - mainly Cytheridea neapolitana, Aurila convexa, Bairdia mediterranea,

Figure 6. Sand, silt and clay fractions proportions of El Melah sediments.

Figure 7. Ostracodes species found in the El Melah lagoon area.

1) Semi-permanent waters - ostracodes are very scarce (0.2-0.3 individuals/gram), with

In the sub-recent sediment samples (15-40 cm depth) rare specimens of Heterocypris

Figure 9. Foraminifera species found in the El Melah lagoon area.

Figure 11. Microfauna main assemblages of the El Melah ecosystem.

According to microfauna (ostracodes and foraminifera) the main assemblages (Figures 11

Zonation of the Lagoon: The Environmental Scenario (2003)

Seven zones were distinguished according to the physical-chemical parameters and

Zone 3. Northeastern lagoon margin. In winter, this marginal zone presented

4. PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE OF THE EL MELAH LAGOON

Grain Size Distribution, Trace Elements Contents and Enrichment Factors

Among the correlations found between elements concentrations (marine samples

The elements normalised to Al content (elements/Al), confirmed the different

Mineralogical Composition of the Soils - Whole Sample and <2 µm Fraction

Core and Oued El Bey Sediment- Mineralogical Composition and Micro-

sample depth T IS, mm/s QS, ε, mm/s Bhf , , I

Chemical Composition of Soils

Trace and Major Elements Distribution in Soils – In-Depth Variation (S/D)

Figure 23. Continued.

Rare Earth Elements Patterns of Soils

REE Patterns of the Core and the Oued El Bey

Compositional Variability in Surface Samples of the El Melah Lagoon Area

Mosslacher, F. (2000). Sensitivity of groundwater and surface water crustaceans to chemical

Mediterranean lagoons within the Atherina lagunae species (Teleostei, Atherinidae).

LIMITING FACTORS AND STRATEGIES

BREED DIVERSITY AND FEATURES OF PRODUCTION

by development efforts. The lack of true information on the genetic characterisation of

MODULATION OF REPRODUCTIVE ACTIVITY

 evolutive and behavioral strategies built-up during decades, hundreds or thousands of

In response to seasonal patterns of photoperiod, thermoperiod, rainfall and food

ROLE OF THERMOPERIOD IN MODULATING

risk management, by considering perceived thermal challenges, assessing the potential

 a short-term activation of the hypothalamic-hypophyseal-adrenal axis with the

ROLE OF PHOTOPERIOD IN MODULATING REPRODUCTIVE FUNCTION

 biological oscillators that maintain a self-sustained circadian periodicity in the

In mammals, the circadian system is employed in the regulation of reproductive

MANAGEMENT OF PHOTOPERIOD AND

NUTRITION AS MAIN FACTOR MODULATING PRODUCTIVE YIELDS

 Energy-rich feeds from citrus pulp and molasses.

during ruminal fermentation, inhibiting methanogenesis by ruminal bacteria or by optimizing

ROLE OF NUTRITION IN MODULATING

CROP RESIDUE CONTRIBUTION TO

Noelia Casado-Murillo and Adriana Abril

Keywords: N release, N biological fixation, maize, soybean.

degree of decomposition. This fraction of the surface residue is constituted by a